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href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#United_States_Constitution" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">Right to trial by jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Right to candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">Comprehensible rules</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">Substantive due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_process_theory_(law)" title="Political process theory (law)">Political process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">Judicial restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">Purposivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_constitutionalism" title="Common good constitutionalism">Common good constitutionalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template talk:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Free Exercise Clause</b><sup id="cite_ref-20200524LincolnUniversityFreedomofReligion_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20200524LincolnUniversityFreedomofReligion-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accompanies the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. The <i>Establishment Clause</i> and the <i>Free Exercise Clause</i> together read: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...</p></blockquote> <p>Free exercise is the liberty of persons to reach, hold, practice and change beliefs freely according to the dictates of conscience. The Free Exercise Clause prohibits government interference with religious belief and, within limits, religious practice.<sup id="cite_ref-20021226ReligiousFreedomEducationProject_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20021226ReligiousFreedomEducationProject-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To accept any creed or the practice of any form of worship cannot be compelled by laws, because, as stated by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/Braunfeld_v._Brown" title="Braunfeld v. Brown">Braunfeld v. Brown</a></i>, the freedom to hold religious beliefs and opinions is absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19610529Braunfeld-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal or state legislation cannot therefore make it a crime to hold any religious belief or opinion due to the Free Exercise Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19610529Braunfeld-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legislation by the United States or any constituent state of the United States which forces anyone to embrace any religious belief or to say or believe anything in conflict with his religious tenets is also barred by the Free Exercise Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19610529Braunfeld-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1878, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> was first called to interpret the extent of the Free Exercise Clause in <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i>, as related to the prosecution of <a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_polygamy" title="Mormonism and polygamy">polygamy</a> under federal law. The Supreme Court upheld Reynolds' conviction for <a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">bigamy</a>, deciding that to do otherwise would provide constitutional protection for a gamut of religious beliefs, including those as extreme as <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a>. The Court said: "Congress cannot pass a law for the government of the Territory which shall prohibit the free exercise of religion. The first amendment to the Constitution expressly forbids such legislation."<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of federal territorial laws, the Court said: "Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious beliefs and opinions, they may with practices."<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a> were often the target of such restriction. Several cases involving the Witnesses gave the Court the opportunity to rule on the application of the Free Exercise Clause. Subsequently, the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> adopted an expansive view of the clause, <a href="/wiki/Government_interest" title="Government interest">the "compelling interest" doctrine</a> (whereby a state must show a compelling interest in restricting religion-related activities), but later decisions have reduced the scope of this interpretation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court's</a> interpretation of the Free Exercise Clause follows a broad arc, beginning with approximately 100 years of little attention, then taking on a relatively narrow view of the governmental restrictions required under the clause, growing into a much broader view in the 1960s, and later again receding. </p><p>The first case to closely examine of the Free Exercise Clause was <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i> in 1878. A case dealing with the prosecution of a polygamist under federal law, and the defendant's claim of protection under the Free Exercise Clause, the Court sustained the law and the government's prosecution. The Court read the Free Exercise Clause as protecting religious practices, but that did not protect Reynolds' practices which were crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court went on to echo <i>Reynolds </i> in the 1890 case <i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Beason" title="Davis v. Beason">Davis v. Beason</a></i>: "However free the exercise of religion may be, it must be subordinate to the criminal laws of the country, passed with reference to actions regarded by general consent as properly the subjects of punitive legislation." The <i>Reynolds</i> case, which also revived <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s statement regarding the "<a href="/wiki/Wall_of_separation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall of separation">wall of separation</a>" between church and state, introduced the position that although religious exercise is generally protected under the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>, this does not prevent the government from passing neutral laws that incidentally impact certain religious practices. </p><p>This interpretation of the Free Exercise Clause continued into the 1960s and the ascendancy of the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> under chief justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>. Applying a new standard of "<a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a>" in various areas of civil rights law, the Court began to apply this standard to the First Amendment religion clauses as well, reading the Free Exercise Clause to require accommodation of religious conduct except where a state could show a compelling interest and no less burdensome means to achieve that end. One example was <i><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a></i>, where the Court overturned the state Employment Security Commission's decision to deny <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment benefits</a> to a practicing member of the <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a> who was forced out of a job after her employer adopted a 6-day work week, which would have required her to work on Saturdays against the dictates of her religion. As Justice <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan, Jr.">William Brennan</a> stated for the majority, "to condition the availability of benefits upon this appellant's willingness to violate a cardinal principle of her religious faith effectively penalizes the free exercise of her constitutional liberties." This test was used through the years of the <a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a>, including particularly in the landmark case of <i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Yoder" title="Wisconsin v. Yoder">Wisconsin v. Yoder</a></i> (1972). </p><p>This view of the Free Exercise Clause would begin to narrow again in the 1980s, culminating in the 1990 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a></i>. Examining a state prohibition on the use of <a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>, the Supreme Court upheld the law despite the drug's use as part of a religious ritual, and without employing the strict scrutiny test. Instead, the Court again held that a "neutral law of general applicability" generally does not implicate the Free Exercise Clause. But the Court also stated that governmental discrimination in the field of religious belief and opinions is barred by the Free Exercise Clause, for the clause entails as core right the right to believe in and express any religious teaching in accordance with the personal desires. Any regulation by the government in the realm of religious belief and opinions is expressly forbidden by the First Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-19900417EmlymentDivSmith_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19900417EmlymentDivSmith-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relying on its own First Amendment case law the Supreme Court concluded in <i>Employment Division v. Smith</i>: "The government may not compel affirmation of religious belief, see <i><a href="/wiki/Torcaso_v._Watkins" title="Torcaso v. Watkins">Torcaso v. Watkins</a></i>, 367 U. S. 488 (1961), punish the expression of religious doctrines it believes to be false, <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ballard" title="United States v. Ballard">United States v. Ballard</a></i>, 322 U. S. 78, 322 U. S. 86-88 (1944), impose special disabilities on the basis of religious views or religious status, see <i><a href="/wiki/McDaniel_v._Paty" title="McDaniel v. Paty">McDaniel v. Paty</a></i>, 435 U. S. 618 (1978); <i><a href="/wiki/Fowler_v._Rhode_Island" title="Fowler v. Rhode Island">Fowler v. Rhode Island</a></i>, 345 U. S. 67, 345 U. S. 69 (1953); cf. <i>Larson v. Valente</i>, 456 U. S. 228, 456 U. S. 245 (1982), or lend its power to one or the other side in controversies over religious authority or dogma, see <i><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_v._Hull_Church" title="Presbyterian Church v. Hull Church">Presbyterian Church v. Hull Church</a></i>, 393 U. S. 440, 393 U. S. 445-452 (1969); <i>Kedroff v. St. Nicholas Cathedral</i>, 344 U. S. 94, 344 U. S. 95-119 (1952); <i><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Eastern_Orthodox_Diocese_v._Milivojevich" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese v. Milivojevich">Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese v. Milivojevich</a></i>, 426 U. S. 696, 426 U. S. 708-725 (1976)."<sup id="cite_ref-19900417EmlymentDivSmith_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19900417EmlymentDivSmith-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court's abandonment of the strict scrutiny test was followed by intense disapproval from Congress and the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">Religious Freedom Restoration Act</a> in 1993 to attempt to restore the prior test. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i>, the Supreme Court struck down the act as applied to the States, holding that it unconstitutionally attempted to usurp the Supreme Court's role in interpreting the Constitution, thus leaving the <i>Smith</i> test in place. In <i><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Lukumi_Babalu_Aye_v._City_of_Hialeah" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah">Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah</a></i> (1993), the Supreme Court stated that inquiries about whether laws discriminate based on religion don't end with the text of the laws at issue. Facial neutrality of laws (i.e. laws which are neutral in their language but may be discriminatory in enforcement or effect) is not determinative in these inquiries, because both the Free Exercise Clause and the Establishment Clause extend beyond facial discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court explained that "[o]fficial action that targets religious conduct for distinctive treatment cannot be shielded by mere compliance with the requirement of facial neutrality", and "[t]he Free Exercise Clause protects against governmental hostility which is masked as well as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/overt" class="extiw" title="wikt:overt">overt</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jehovah's_Witnesses_cases"><span id="Jehovah.27s_Witnesses_cases"></span>Jehovah's Witnesses cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Jehovah's Witnesses cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the twentieth century, many major cases involving the Free Exercise Clause were related to <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. Many communities directed laws against the Witnesses and their preaching work. From 1938 to 1955, the organization was involved in over forty cases before the Supreme Court, winning a majority of them. The first important victory came in 1938, when in <i><a href="/wiki/Lovell_v._City_of_Griffin" title="Lovell v. City of Griffin">Lovell v. City of Griffin</a></i>, the Supreme Court held that cities could not require permits for the distribution of pamphlets. In 1939, the Supreme Court decided <i><a href="/wiki/Schneider_v._Town_of_Irvington" class="mw-redirect" title="Schneider v. Town of Irvington">Schneider v. Town of Irvington</a></i>, in which it struck down anti-littering laws that were enforced only against Jehovah's Witnesses who were handing out pamphlets. In 1940, the Court considered <i><a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a></i>; the plaintiff, a Jehovah's Witness, was charged with soliciting donations without a certificate from the Public Welfare Council. The Council was to grant the certificate only if the organization requesting it was a charity or sponsored a religious cause. The Supreme Court ruled that any law granting a public body the function of determining if a cause is religious or not violates the First Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1940, the Supreme Court decided in <i><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a></i> that members of the Jehovah's Witnesses in a school could be required to salute the flag. The ruling in <i>Gobitis</i>, however, did not stand for long. In 1943, <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i>, the Supreme Court essentially reversed its previous opinion. <a href="/wiki/Justice_Frankfurter" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice Frankfurter">Justice Frankfurter</a> had, in the Gobitis case, suggested that the Witnesses attempt to reverse the School Board's policy by exercising their vote. In the Barnette case, however, Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> wrote, "the very purpose of the Bill of Rights was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities ... One's right to life, liberty, and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly, and other fundamental rights may not be submitted to vote." The Supreme Court did not rule that the Pledge was unconstitutional; rather, they held that students may not be compelled to recite it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compelling_interest">Compelling interest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Compelling interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court under <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Earl Warren</a> adopted an expansive view of the Free Exercise Clause. In <i><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a></i> (1963) the Court held that states must have a "compelling interest" to refuse to accommodate religiously motivated conduct. The case involved Adele Sherbert, who was denied unemployment benefits by <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> because she refused to work on Saturdays, something forbidden by her <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a> faith. In <i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Yoder" title="Wisconsin v. Yoder">Wisconsin v. Yoder</a></i> (1972), the Court ruled that a law that "unduly burdens the practice of religion" without a <a href="/wiki/Compelling_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Compelling interest">compelling interest</a>, even though it might be "neutral on its face," would be unconstitutional. </p><p>The "compelling interest" doctrine became much narrower in 1990, when the Supreme Court held in <i><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a></i> that, as long as a law does not target a particular religious practice, it does not violate the Free Exercise Clause. <i>Smith</i> set the <a href="/wiki/Precedent#United_States_legal_system" title="Precedent">precedent</a><sup id="cite_ref-20210617VoxMillhiser_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20210617VoxMillhiser-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "that laws affecting certain religious practices do not violate the right to free exercise of religion as long as the laws are neutral, generally applicable, and not motivated by animus to religion."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, the Supreme Court revisited the Free Exercise Clause in <i><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Lukumi_Babalu_Aye_v._City_of_Hialeah" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah">Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah</a></i>. Hialeah had passed an ordinance banning ritual slaughter, a practice central to the <a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a> religion, while providing exceptions for some practices such as the <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">kosher slaughter</a> of Judaism. Since the ordinance was not "generally applicable," the Court ruled that it was subject to the compelling interest test, which it failed to meet, and was therefore declared unconstitutional. In 2017, the Court applied this doctrine in <i><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Lutheran_Church_of_Columbia,_Inc._v._Comer" title="Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer">Trinity Lutheran v. Comer</a></i>, holding that there must be a compelling state interest for express discrimination based on religious status in government funding schemes. Also in 1993, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">Religious Freedom Restoration Act</a> (RFRA), which sought to restore the general applicability of the "compelling interest" standard present prior to <i>Employment Division v. Smith</i>. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i> (1997) the Court struck down as exceeding Congress's powers those provisions of the Act that forced state and local governments to provide protections exceeding those required by the First Amendment. Thus, state and local government actions that are facially neutral toward religion are judged by the <i>Employment Division v. Smith</i> standard rather than RFRA. According to the court's ruling in <i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._O_Centro_Esp%C3%ADrita_Beneficente_Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal">Gonzales v. UDV</a></i> (2006), RFRA remains applicable to federal statutes, which must therefore still meet the "compelling interest" standard in free exercise cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_116_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_Church_and_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Separation of Church and State">Separation of Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_religious_history" class="mw-redirect" title="United States religious history">United States religious history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20200524LincolnUniversityFreedomofReligion-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20200524LincolnUniversityFreedomofReligion_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200524013011/http://www.lincoln.edu/criminaljustice/hr/Religion.htm">"Freedom of Religion"</a>. <i>www.lincoln.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lincoln.edu/criminaljustice/hr/Religion.htm">the original</a> on May 24, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lincoln.edu&rft.atitle=Freedom+of+Religion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lincoln.edu%2Fcriminaljustice%2Fhr%2FReligion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20021226ReligiousFreedomEducationProject-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20021226ReligiousFreedomEducationProject_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_C._Haynes_(Director_Religious_Freedom_Education_Project)2002" class="citation web cs1">Charles C. Haynes (Director Religious Freedom Education Project) (December 26, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200525035716/https://www.freedomforuminstitute.org/first-amendment-center/topics/freedom-of-religion/religious-liberty-in-america-overview/history-of-religious-liberty-in-america/">"History of Religious Liberty in America. Written for <i>Civitas: A Framework for Civic Educatio</i> (1991) by the Council for the Advancement of Citizenship and the Center for Civic Education"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomforuminstitute.org/first-amendment-center/topics/freedom-of-religion/religious-liberty-in-america-overview/history-of-religious-liberty-in-america/">the original</a> on May 25, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Religious+Liberty+in+America.+Written+for+Civitas%3A+A+Framework+for+Civic+Educatio+%281991%29+by+the+Council+for+the+Advancement+of+Citizenship+and+the+Center+for+Civic+Education.&rft.date=2002-12-26&rft.au=Charles+C.+Haynes+%28Director+Religious+Freedom+Education+Project%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freedomforuminstitute.org%2Ffirst-amendment-center%2Ftopics%2Ffreedom-of-religion%2Freligious-liberty-in-america-overview%2Fhistory-of-religious-liberty-in-america%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19610529Braunfeld-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-19610529Braunfeld_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/366/599/">"Braunfeld v. Brown, 366 U.S. 599 (1961) at 603"</a>. Justia US Supreme Court Center. May 29, 1961<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Braunfeld+v.+Brown%2C+366+U.S.+599+%281961%29+at+603&rft.pub=Justia+US+Supreme+Court+Center&rft.date=1961-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F366%2F599%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reynolds-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Reynolds v. United States</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_98" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 98">98</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=98&page=145#162">145, 162</a> (1878)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/freeexercise.htm">"Free Exercise of Religion - The issue: When may the government enforce a law that burdens an individual's ability to exercise his or her religious beliefs?"</a>. <i>University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC) School of Law</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Missouri-Kansas+City+%28UMKC%29+School+of+Law&rft.atitle=Free+Exercise+of+Religion+-+The+issue%3A+When+may+the+government+enforce+a+law+that+burdens+an+individual%27s+ability+to+exercise+his+or+her+religious+beliefs%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw2.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fconlaw%2Ffreeexercise.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19900417EmlymentDivSmith-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-19900417EmlymentDivSmith_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-19900417EmlymentDivSmith_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/494/872/">"<i>Employment Div. v. Smith</i>, 494 U.S. 872 (1990), at 494"</a>. Justia US Supreme Court Center. April 17, 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Employment+Div.+v.+Smith%2C+494+U.S.+872+%281990%29%2C+at+494&rft.pub=Justia+US+Supreme+Court+Center&rft.date=1990-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F494%2F872%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/508/520/">"Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520 (1993), at 534"</a>. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 11, 1993<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Church+of+the+Lukumi+Babalu+Aye%2C+Inc.+v.+Hialeah%2C+508+U.S.+520+%281993%29%2C+at+534.&rft.pub=Justia+US+Supreme+Court+Center&rft.date=1993-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F508%2F520%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/508/520/">"Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520 (1993), at 534"</a>. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 11, 1993<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Church+of+the+Lukumi+Babalu+Aye%2C+Inc.+v.+Hialeah%2C+508+U.S.+520+%281993%29%2C+at+534.&rft.pub=Justia+US+Supreme+Court+Center&rft.date=1993-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F508%2F520%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116020433/http://www.pewforum.org/Church-State-Law/A-Delicate-Balance(3).aspx">"A Delicate Balance: The Free Exercise Clause and the Supreme Court"</a>. <i>Article/analysis</i>. Church-State Law. Pew Research center. October 24, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Church-State-Law/A-Delicate-Balance%283%29.aspx">the original</a> on January 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Article%2Fanalysis&rft.atitle=A+Delicate+Balance%3A+The+Free+Exercise+Clause+and+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2007-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChurch-State-Law%2FA-Delicate-Balance%25283%2529.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20210617VoxMillhiser-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20210617VoxMillhiser_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2021" class="citation web cs1">Millhiser, Ian (June 17, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210618192557/https://www.vox.com/2021/6/17/22538645/supreme-court-fulton-philadelphia-lgbtq-catholic-social-services-foster-care-john-roberts-religion">"An epic Supreme Court showdown over religion and LGBTQ rights ends in a whimper"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Vox_(website)" title="Vox (website)">Vox</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2021/6/17/22538645/supreme-court-fulton-philadelphia-lgbtq-catholic-social-services-foster-care-john-roberts-religion">the original</a> on June 18, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 17,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=An+epic+Supreme+Court+showdown+over+religion+and+LGBTQ+rights+ends+in+a+whimper&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2021%2F6%2F17%2F22538645%2Fsupreme-court-fulton-philadelphia-lgbtq-catholic-social-services-foster-care-john-roberts-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRing2021" class="citation web cs1">Ring, Trudy (June 17, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210618164810/https://www.advocate.com/news/2021/6/17/what-supreme-court-ruling-foster-care-means-lgbtq-parents">"What the Supreme Court Ruling on Foster Care Means for LGBTQ+ Parents"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Advocate_(LGBT_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Advocate (LGBT magazine)">The Advocate</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.advocate.com/news/2021/6/17/what-supreme-court-ruling-foster-care-means-lgbtq-parents">the original</a> on June 18, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 17,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Advocate&rft.atitle=What+the+Supreme+Court+Ruling+on+Foster+Care+Means+for+LGBTQ%2B+Parents&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft.aulast=Ring&rft.aufirst=Trudy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.advocate.com%2Fnews%2F2021%2F6%2F17%2Fwhat-supreme-court-ruling-foster-care-means-lgbtq-parents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_resources">Research resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Research resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/free-exercise-clause">First Amendment Library entry on Free Exercise Clause (with links to all of the Supreme Court's Free Exercise opinions)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229123122/http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/free-exercise-clause">Archived</a> February 29, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2005" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Marci A. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godvsgavelreligi00hami"><i>God vs. the Gavel: Religion and the Rule of Law</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85304-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85304-4"><bdi>0-521-85304-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+vs.+the+Gavel%3A+Religion+and+the+Rule+of+Law&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-85304-4&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Marci+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodvsgavelreligi00hami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFree+Exercise+Clause" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U.S._Supreme_Court_Free_Exercise_Clause_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US1stAmendment_Free_Exercise_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template:US1stAmendment Free Exercise Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US1stAmendment_Free_Exercise_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template talk:US1stAmendment Free Exercise Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment_Free_Exercise_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment Free Exercise Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._Supreme_Court_Free_Exercise_Clause_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Free Exercise Clause</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exclusion of religion<br />from public benefits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Locke_v._Davey" title="Locke v. Davey">Locke v. Davey</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Lutheran_Church_of_Columbia,_Inc._v._Comer" title="Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer">Trinity Lutheran Church v. Comer</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Espinoza_v._Montana_Department_of_Revenue" title="Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue">Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carson_v._Makin" title="Carson v. Makin">Carson v. Makin</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ministerial_exception" title="Ministerial exception">Ministerial exception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hosanna-Tabor_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_%26_School_v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Hosanna-Tabor v. EEOC</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_School_v._Morrissey-Berru" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru">Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutory religious exemptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">RFRA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._O_Centro_Esp%C3%ADrita_Beneficente_Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal">Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores,_Inc." title="Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.">Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zubik_v._Burwell" title="Zubik v. Burwell">Zubik v. Burwell</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_Sisters_of_the_Poor_Saints_Peter_and_Paul_Home_v._Pennsylvania" title="Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania">Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tanzin_v._Tanvir" title="Tanzin v. Tanvir">Tanzin v. Tanvir</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_Land_Use_and_Institutionalized_Persons_Act" title="Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act">RLUIPA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sossamon_v._Texas" title="Sossamon v. Texas">Sossamon v. Texas</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holt_v._Hobbs" title="Holt v. Hobbs">Holt v. Hobbs</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramirez_v._Collier" title="Ramirez v. Collier">Ramirez v. Collier</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Beason" title="Davis v. Beason">Davis v. Beason</a></i> (1890)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jamison_v._Texas" title="Jamison v. Texas">Jamison v. Texas</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murdock_v._Pennsylvania" title="Murdock v. Pennsylvania">Murdock v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tucker_v._Texas" title="Tucker v. Texas">Tucker v. Texas</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Niemotko_v._Maryland" title="Niemotko v. Maryland">Niemotko v. Maryland</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunz_v._New_York" title="Kunz v. New York">Kunz v. New York</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fowler_v._Rhode_Island" title="Fowler v. Rhode Island">Fowler v. Rhode Island</a></i> (1953)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Braunfeld_v._Brown" title="Braunfeld v. Brown">Braunfeld v. Brown</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gallagher_v._Crown_Kosher_Super_Market_of_Massachusetts,_Inc." title="Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.">Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Torcaso_v._Watkins" title="Torcaso v. Watkins">Torcaso v. Watkins</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruz_v._Beto" title="Cruz v. Beto">Cruz v. Beto</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Yoder" title="Wisconsin v. Yoder">Wisconsin v. Yoder</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McDaniel_v._Paty" title="McDaniel v. Paty">McDaniel v. Paty</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_v._Review_Board_of_the_Indiana_Employment_Security_Division" title="Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division">Thomas v. Review Board</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lee_(1982)" title="United States v. Lee (1982)">United States v. Lee</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bob_Jones_University_v._United_States" title="Bob Jones University v. United States">Bob Jones University v. United States</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowen_v._Roy" title="Bowen v. Roy">Bowen v. Roy</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldman_v._Weinberger" title="Goldman v. Weinberger">Goldman v. Weinberger</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Lone_v._Estate_of_Shabazz" title="O'Lone v. Estate of Shabazz">O'Lone v. Estate of Shabazz</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frazee_v._Illinois_Department_of_Employment_Security&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frazee v. Illinois Department of Employment Security (page does not exist)">Frazee v. Illinois Department of Employment Security</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Lukumi_Babalu_Aye_v._City_of_Hialeah" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah">Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_of_New_York,_Inc._v._Village_of_Stratton" title="Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York, Inc. v. Village of Stratton">Watchtower Society v. Village of Stratton</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece_Cakeshop_v._Colorado_Civil_Rights_Commission" title="Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission">Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Brooklyn_v._Cuomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo">Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tandon_v._Newsom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandon v. Newsom">Tandon v. Newsom</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fulton_v._City_of_Philadelphia" title="Fulton v. City of Philadelphia">Fulton v. City of Philadelphia</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist.</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&oldid=1257267806">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_Exercise_Clause&oldid=1257267806</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Category:First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of religion in the United States">History of religion in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Category:Clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses of the United States Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_and_law_in_the_18th_century" title="Category:Christianity and law in the 18th century">Christianity and law in the 18th century</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_March_2019" title="Category:Use American English from March 2019">Use American English from March 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_March_2019" title="Category:Use mdy dates from March 2019">Use mdy dates from March 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 November 2024, at 01:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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