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</div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">拉塞福模型</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。43种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43种语言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_atomico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atomico de Rutherford – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Modelo atomico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B0%D8%AC_%D8%B1%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="نموذج رذرفورد للذرة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نموذج رذرفورد للذرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelu_at%C3%B3micu_de_Rutherford" title="Modelu atómicu de Rutherford – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Modelu atómicu de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruterford_atom_modeli" title="Ruterford atom modeli – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ruterford atom modeli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Планетарная мадэль атама – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Планетарная мадэль атама" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%8A%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Модел на Ръдърфорд – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Модел на Ръдърфорд" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="রাদারফোর্ড পরমাণু মডেল – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাদারফোর্ড পরমাণু মডেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_at%C3%B2mic_de_Rutherford" title="Model atòmic de Rutherford – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Model atòmic de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford%C5%AFv_model_atomu" title="Rutherfordův model atomu – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rutherfordův model atomu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordsches_Atommodell" title="Rutherfordsches Atommodell – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rutherfordsches Atommodell" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%80%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%84%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A1%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Ατομικό πρότυπο του Ράδερφορντ – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ατομικό πρότυπο του Ράδερφορντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Rutherford model" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_at%C3%B3mico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atómico de Rutherford – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Modelo atómico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherforden_eredu_atomikoa" title="Rutherforden eredu atomikoa – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rutherforden eredu atomikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="مدل اتمی رادرفورد – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدل اتمی رادرفورد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordin_atomimalli" title="Rutherfordin atomimalli – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rutherfordin atomimalli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le_atomique_de_Rutherford" title="Modèle atomique de Rutherford – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Modèle atomique de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99" title="המודל הפלנטרי – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המודל הפלנטרי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B2" title="रदरफोर्ड का परमाणु मॉडल – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रदरफोर्ड का परमाणु मॉडल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordov_model_atoma" title="Rutherfordov model atoma – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rutherfordov model atoma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford-f%C3%A9le_atommodell" title="Rutherford-féle atommodell – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rutherford-féle atommodell" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Ատոմի մոլորակային մոդել – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմի մոլորակային մոդել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_Rutherford" title="Model Rutherford – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Model Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modello_atomico_di_Rutherford" title="Modello atomico di Rutherford – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Modello atomico di Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B6%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%81%AE%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="ラザフォードの原子模型 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラザフォードの原子模型" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EB%8D%94%ED%8D%BC%EB%93%9C_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90_%EB%AA%A8%ED%98%95" title="러더퍼드 원자 모형 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러더퍼드 원자 모형" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Радерфордов модел на атомот – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Радерфордов модел на атомот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95" title="റൂഥർഫോർഡ് മാതൃക – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റൂഥർഫോർഡ് മാതൃക" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoommodel_van_Rutherford" title="Atoommodel van Rutherford – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atoommodel van Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfords_atommodell" title="Rutherfords atommodell – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rutherfords atommodell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_atomu_Rutherforda" title="Model atomu Rutherforda – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Model atomu Rutherforda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%88%D9%84" title="ردرفورڈ ماڈل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ردرفورڈ ماڈل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_at%C3%B4mico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atômico de Rutherford – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Modelo atômico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelul_atomic_Rutherford" title="Modelul atomic Rutherford – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Modelul atomic Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Планетарная модель атома – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Планетарная модель атома" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarni_model_atoma" title="Planetarni model atoma – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Planetarni model atoma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rutherford model" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi_sipas_Radh%C3%ABrfordit" title="Atomi sipas Radhërfordit – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomi sipas Radhërfordit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="ரூதர்போர்டு அணுமாதிரி – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ரூதர்போர்டு அணுமாதிரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94" title="แบบจำลองรัทเทอร์ฟอร์ด – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แบบจำลองรัทเทอร์ฟอร์ด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_atom_modeli" title="Rutherford atom modeli – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rutherford atom modeli" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Планетарна модель атома – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Планетарна модель атома" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" 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</div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-noteTA-ba8c9a42" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span title="本页使用了标题或全文手工转换"><img alt="本页使用了标题或全文手工转换" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/35px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/53px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/70px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">维基百科，自由的百科全书</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><div id="noteTA-ba8c9a42" class="noteTA"><div class="noteTA-title" data-noteta-code="zh-hans:卢瑟福模型;zh-hant:拉塞福模型;"></div><div class="noteTA-group"><div data-noteta-group-source="module" data-noteta-group="Physics"></div></div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/200px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/300px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/400px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>拉塞福模型示意圖</figcaption></figure> <p><b>拉塞福模型</b>（Rutherford model）是新西兰物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="歐尼斯特·拉塞福">歐尼斯特·拉塞福</a>創立的原子模型。1909年，拉塞福領導設計與完成<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84" title="拉塞福散射">拉塞福散射實驗</a>，其證實了在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a>中心部分有一個帶正電、帶質量的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>，因此<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%B1%A4%E5%A7%86%E5%AD%99" class="mw-redirect" title="约瑟夫·汤姆孙">約瑟夫·湯姆孫</a>主張的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E5%AD%90%E5%B8%83%E4%B8%81%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="梅子布丁模型">葡萄乾布丁模型</a>被推翻。拉塞福根據他的實驗結果設計出一種新模型，稱為「拉塞福模型」，其擁有幾個重要的特色：大多數的質量和正<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">電荷</a>，都集中於位於中心區域、半徑極小的原子核，而<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="電子">電子</a>則環繞在原子核的外面。拉塞福模型是一種<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子模型</a>，在拉塞福散射實驗裡，主角是原子核，而電子並不重要，因此拉塞福不能空口無憑地給出電子的排列方式，也無法用這模型對於化學結合、元素列表、原子譜線給出解釋。<sup id="cite_ref-拉塞福_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-拉塞福-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:51-53</sup><sup id="cite_ref-smirnov_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smirnov-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:14</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="模型特色"><span id=".E6.A8.A1.E5.9E.8B.E7.89.B9.E8.89.B2"></span>模型特色</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：模型特色"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>在拉塞福散射裏，原子的電子雲不會影響<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%95%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="阿尔法粒子">ɑ粒子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84" title="散射">散射</a>運動。</li> <li>原子所有的正電荷，都集中於原子中心的很小區域內，稱為「原子核」。原子核的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%AB%E4%BE%96%E4%BD%8D%E5%8B%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="庫侖位勢">庫侖位勢</a>造成了ɑ粒子的散射。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E9%87%8F" title="原子量">原子量</a>大的原子（像<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91" title="金">金</a>原子），稱為<b>重原子</b>，其質量幾乎全部都聚集於原子核。實驗結果的分析，顯示出高速度ɑ粒子的散射並沒有使原子核移動。與電子的動量相比，高速度ɑ粒子擁有很大的動量，可是比較重原子又小了很多。這事實建議大多數原子的質量都聚集於原子核。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="實驗證據"><span id=".E5.AF.A6.E9.A9.97.E8.AD.89.E6.93.9A"></span>實驗證據</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：實驗證據"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg/200px-Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg/300px-Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg/400px-Ernest_Rutherford_LOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3190" data-file-height="4279" /></a><figcaption>英國物理大師<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="歐尼斯特·拉塞福">歐尼斯特·拉塞福</a></figcaption></figure> <p>拉塞福散射實驗使用阿爾法粒子來探測原子的結構。1909年，在恩師拉塞福的指導下，<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%93%8B%E9%9D%A9" title="漢斯·蓋革">漢斯·蓋革</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%E7%99%BB" title="欧内斯特·马斯登">欧内斯特·马斯登</a>發射<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%95%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="阿尔法粒子">阿爾法粒子</a>射束於白金箔紙。<span id="noteTag-cite_ref-sup"><sup id="cite_ref-platinum_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platinum-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>註 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>在那時代，原子被認為類比於梅子布丁（物理學家湯姆森提出的），負<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">電荷</a>（梅子）分散於正電荷的圓球（布丁）。假若這<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E5%AD%90%E5%B8%83%E4%B8%81%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="梅子布丁模型">梅子布丁模型</a>是正確的，由於正電荷完全散開，而不是集中於一個原子核，庫侖位勢的變化不會很大，通過這位勢的阿爾法粒子，其移動方向應該只會有小角度偏差。<sup id="cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geiger1909-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:51-53</sup> </p><p>然而，他們得到的實驗結果非常詭異，大約每8000個阿爾法粒子，就有一個粒子的移動方向會有很大角度的偏差（超過90°）；而其它粒子都直直地衝過白金箔紙，<span id="noteTag-cite_ref-sup"><sup id="cite_ref-platinum_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platinum-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>註 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>沒有任何偏差。從這結果，拉塞福斷定，大多數的質量和正電荷，都集中於一個很小的區域（原子核）；電子則包圍在區域的外面。當一個（正價）阿爾法粒子移動到非常接近原子核，它會被很強烈的排斥，以大角度反彈。原子核的小尺寸解釋了為什麼只有少數的阿爾法粒子被這樣排斥。從純屬對稱性和審美性的觀點，這個質量與電荷集中的區域，應該處於原子中心。<sup id="cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geiger1909-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:51-53</sup> </p><p>1911年，拉塞福提出他自己的物理模型，詮釋這些突如其來的答案。原子，是由一個帶正電荷的中心區域（這就是現代的原子核，雖然拉塞福沒有想到這術語），和環繞在這區域外面的電子雲，所構成的。<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:51-53</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:51-53</sup> </p><p>從<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E5%AE%88%E6%81%86%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="能量守恆定律">能量守恆定律</a>，拉塞福推理，知道阿爾法粒子的速度，就可以知道阿爾法粒子的撞擊能夠達到與原子核的最小距離。稍加計算，他得到金原子的原子核半徑必小於<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 3.4\times 10^{-14}\ m\,\!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>3.4</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>14</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>m</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 3.4\times 10^{-14}\ m\,\!}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eaa1b220a94d2d30fbd313714fbc61964114c8d4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:14.3ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 3.4\times 10^{-14}\ m\,\!}"></span>（真實值只是這數值的五分之一）。金原子的半徑大約是<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10^{-10}\ m\,\!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>m</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10^{-10}\ m\,\!}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31d6bbd76b9f512686c56a11f49ca2e3c0ccfd88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:8.488ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10^{-10}\ m\,\!}"></span>。這是一個令人驚訝的結果，所有的正電荷都聚集於原子中心一個很小區域，其半徑小於三千分之一原子半徑！ </p><p>拉塞福模型並沒有給予電子的環繞運動任何結構。拉塞福在1911年論文裏，提到了<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%B7%E5%B2%A1%E5%8D%8A%E5%A4%AA%E9%83%8E" title="長岡半太郎">長岡半太郎</a>的<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="半太郎模型" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nagaoka model"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%8A%E5%A4%AA%E9%83%8E%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="半太郎模型（页面不存在）">半太郎模型</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaoka_model" class="extiw" title="en:Nagaoka model"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nagaoka model</span></a></span>）</span></span>。長岡半太郎建議電子的軌道就像<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%92%B0" title="土星環">土星環</a>，這是從<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E5%A3%AB%E5%A8%81" class="mw-redirect" title="詹姆斯·馬克士威">詹姆斯·馬克士威</a>的土星環穩定理論獲得的靈感。<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Compendium2009_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compendium2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:22-23</sup> </p><p>拉塞福更進一步地建議原子中間的單位電荷數目可能與其原子量成比例（大約一半）。那時，金的原子量估計為 197 amu。所以，拉塞福猜想單位電荷數目是98個<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E4%BD%8D%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="單位電荷">單位電荷</a>左右。這數子與金原子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BA%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="原子序">原子序</a>79（那個年代，在週期表的位置次序）相差甚遠，拉塞福並沒有正式地建議兩個數量可能完全一樣。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="後續模型"><span id=".E5.BE.8C.E7.BA.8C.E6.A8.A1.E5.9E.8B"></span>後續模型</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：後續模型"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>很快地，學者們發覺拉塞福模型，雖然擁有一些引人欣賞的性質，但也引起一個很嚴重的問題。由於拉塞福不能空口無憑地給出電子的排列方式，也無法用這模型對於化學結合、元素列表、原子譜線給出解釋。為了解決這問題，必須彌補拉塞福模型的不足，因此，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%88%BE%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E8%80%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="尼爾斯·波耳">尼爾斯·波耳</a>認為必須明確設計出電子的軌域運動規則，他發表了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%80%B3%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="波耳模型">波耳模型</a>。不久以後，拉塞福模型就被更為先進的波耳模型取代了。這模型引用了一些早期量子力學的實驗結果來設定電子的物理行為，限制電子的軌道為平面的圓形軌道。將<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E8%8E%AB%E5%A1%9E%E8%8E%B1" title="亨利·莫塞莱">亨利·莫塞萊</a>的研究結果加以延伸，波耳認為，原子核的單位電荷數目與<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BA%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="原子序">原子序</a>有直接的關係。<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:53-57</sup>由於波耳模型是拉塞福模型的改良，有些物理學書本將兩個模型合併，將波耳模型稱為「拉塞福-波耳模型」。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參閱"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E9.96.B1"></span>參閱</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：參閱"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="氫原子">氫原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%AB%E5%A1%9E%E8%90%8A%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="莫塞萊定律">莫塞萊定律</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註釋"><span id=".E8.A8.BB.E9.87.8B"></span>註釋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：註釋"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div id="references-NoteFoot"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-platinum-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-platinum_5-0"><sup><b>1.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-platinum_5-1"><sup><b>1.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">這個計算粒子大角度散射數量的特別實驗使用的是白金箔紙。<sup id="cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geiger1909-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考文獻"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E8.80.83.E6.96.87.E7.8D.BB"></span>參考文獻</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：參考文獻"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-拉塞福-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-拉塞福_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREF拉塞福1911" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="歐尼斯特·拉塞福">拉塞福, 歐尼斯特</a>, The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom, Philosophical Magazine, May 1911, <b>21</b>: p. 669–688, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.1080/14786440508637080</span></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.atitle=The+Scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+Particles+by+Matter+and+the+Structure+of+the+Atom&rft.aufirst=%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9&rft.aulast=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F&rft.date=1911-05&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.pages=p.+669-688&rft.volume=21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440508637080&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33"> 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh2002-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-0"><sup><b>2.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-1"><sup><b>2.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-2"><sup><b>2.2</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-3"><sup><b>2.3</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-4"><sup><b>2.4</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2002_2-5"><sup><b>2.5</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kragh, Helge. Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century Reprint. Princeton University Press. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0691095523" title="Special:网络书源/978-0691095523"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-0691095523</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.btitle=Quantum+Generations%3A+A+History+of+Physics+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0691095523&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smirnov-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-smirnov_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite id="CITEREFSmirnov2003" class="citation">Smirnov, Boris M., Physics of Atoms and Ions, Springer: 14–21, 2003, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/038795550X" title="Special:网络书源/038795550X"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 038795550X</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.aufirst=Boris+M.&rft.aulast=Smirnov&rft.btitle=Physics+of+Atoms+and+Ions&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=038795550X&rft.pages=14-21&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Geiger1909-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-0"><sup><b>4.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-1"><sup><b>4.1</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geiger1909_4-2"><sup><b>4.2</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGeigerMarsden1909" class="citation">Geiger, Hans; Marsden, Ernest, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424085231/http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/GM-1909.html">On a Diffuse Reflection of the α-Particles</a>, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1909, <b>82</b> (A): p. 495–500, （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/GM-1909.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-04-24）, <q>Three different determinations showed that of the incident α-particles about 1 in 8000 was reflected [by the platinum reflector]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.atitle=On+a+Diffuse+Reflection+of+the+%CE%B1-Particles&rft.au=Marsden%2C+Ernest&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.date=1909&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=A&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.pages=p.+495-500&rft.volume=82&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us%2Fwebdocs%2FChem-History%2FGM-1909.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33"> 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="歐尼斯特·拉塞福">拉塞福, 歐尼斯特</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786440508637080?journalCode=tphm17">The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom</a>. Philosophical Magazine. May 1911, <b>21</b>: p. 669–688.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.atitle=The+Scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+Particles+by+Matter+and+the+Structure+of+the+Atom&rft.aufirst=%E6%AD%90%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9&rft.aulast=%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F&rft.date=1911-05&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.pages=p.+669-688&rft.volume=21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14786440508637080%3FjournalCode%3Dtphm17&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33"> 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREF2006" class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Maxwell_Saturn.html">James Clerk Maxwell on the nature of Saturn's rings</a>, JOC/EFR, 2006年3月 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2008-12-20</span>]</span>, （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190525070842/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Maxwell_Saturn.html">存档</a>于2019-05-25）</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+on+the+nature+of+Saturn%27s+rings&rft.date=2006-03&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=JOC%2FEFR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2F~history%2FExtras%2FMaxwell_Saturn.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Compendium2009-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Compendium2009_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbergerHentschelWeinert2009" class="citation">Greenberger, D.; Hentschel, K.; Weinert, F. (编), Compendium of Quantum Physics: Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy 2009th Edition, Springer, 2009, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3540706229" title="Special:网络书源/978-3540706229"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-3540706229</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%9E%E7%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&rft.au=Hentschel%2C+K.&rft.au=Weinert%2C+F.&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.aulast=Greenberger&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+Quantum+Physics%3A+Concepts%2C+Experiments%2C+History+and+Philosophy&rft.date=2009&rft.edition=2009th+Edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3540706229&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33"> 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:" :"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="原子理論">單獨原子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E5%B0%94%E9%A1%BF" title="约翰·道尔顿">道爾頓模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E5%AD%90%E5%B8%83%E4%B8%81%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="梅子布丁模型">湯姆孫模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="立方形原子" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Cubical atom"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AB%8B%E6%96%B9%E5%BD%A2%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="立方形原子（页面不存在）">路易斯模型</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubical_atom" class="extiw" title="en:Cubical atom"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Cubical atom</span></a></span>）</span></span></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E9%95%B7%E5%B2%A1%E5%8D%8A%E5%A4%AA%E9%83%8E" title="長岡半太郎">長岡模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">拉塞福模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="玻尔模型">玻尔模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="舊量子論">玻尔-索末菲模型</a></span>、<span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道">薛丁格模型</a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">固體</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E9%B2%81%E5%BE%B7%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="德鲁德模型">德鲁德模型</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="自由電子模型">自由电子模型</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%BF%91%E4%BC%BC" title="近自由电子近似">近自由電子模型</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E5%B8%A6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84" title="能带结构">能带结构</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6%E6%B3%9B%E5%87%BD%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="密度泛函理論">密度泛函理論</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">液體</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E6%B0%A6" title="液氦">液態氦</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">氣體</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%80%E6%9C%89%E6%B0%94%E4%BD%93" title="稀有气体">稀有气体</a>、<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="初生氫" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nascent hydrogen"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%9D%E7%94%9F%E6%B0%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="初生氫（页面不存在）">初生氫</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nascent_hydrogen" class="extiw" title="en:Nascent hydrogen"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nascent hydrogen</span></a></span>）</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">科学家</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E5%88%A9%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%B4%9B%E8%B5%AB" title="费利克斯·布洛赫">费利克斯·布洛赫</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94" title="尼尔斯·玻尔">尼尔斯·玻尔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E5%B0%94%E9%A1%BF" title="约翰·道尔顿">约翰·道尔顿</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%B2%81%E5%BE%B7" title="保罗·德鲁德">保罗·德鲁德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%96%87%C2%B7%E6%9C%97%E7%B9%86%E7%88%BE" title="歐文·朗繆爾">歐文·朗繆爾</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E7%88%BE%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" title="吉爾伯特·路易斯">吉爾伯特·路易斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%B7%E5%B2%A1%E5%8D%8A%E5%A4%AA%E9%83%8E" title="長岡半太郎">長岡半太郎</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E7%91%9F%E7%A6%8F" title="欧内斯特·卢瑟福">欧内斯特·卢瑟福</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87%C2%B7%E8%96%9B%E4%B8%81%E6%A0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="埃爾文·薛丁格">埃爾文·薛丁格</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E6%9C%AB%E8%8F%B2" title="阿諾·索末菲">阿諾·索末菲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%B1%A4%E5%A7%86%E5%AD%99" class="mw-redirect" title="约瑟夫·汤姆孙">约瑟夫·汤姆孙</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="分类"><img alt="分类" 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