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id="toc-Institutional_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ease_of_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ease_of_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ease of voting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ease_of_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voter_fatigue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voter_fatigue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Voter fatigue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voter_fatigue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voter_registration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voter_registration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Voter registration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voter_registration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compulsory_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compulsory_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Compulsory voting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compulsory_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Salience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proportionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proportionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Proportionality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proportionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measuring_turnout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_turnout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Measuring turnout </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measuring_turnout-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Measuring turnout subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Measuring_turnout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numerator_(e.g._ballots_cast)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerator_(e.g._ballots_cast)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Numerator (e.g. ballots cast) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerator_(e.g._ballots_cast)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_Metrics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_Metrics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Possible Metrics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_Metrics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denominator_(out_of_people)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denominator_(out_of_people)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Denominator (out of _ people) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denominator_(out_of_people)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_Metrics_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_Metrics_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Possible Metrics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_Metrics_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Examples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Looking_for_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Looking_for_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Looking for trends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Looking_for_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increasing_voter_turnout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_voter_turnout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Increasing voter turnout </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_voter_turnout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voter_turnout_by_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voter_turnout_by_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Voter turnout by country </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Voter_turnout_by_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Voter turnout by country subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Voter_turnout_by_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_discussed_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_discussed_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Other discussed factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_discussed_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other discussed factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_discussed_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Habit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childhood_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childhood_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Childhood influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childhood_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_between_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_between_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Differences between elections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_between_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Competitiveness_of_races" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competitiveness_of_races"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Competitiveness of races </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competitiveness_of_races-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Previous_incarceration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Previous_incarceration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Previous incarceration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Previous_incarceration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_of_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_of_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Costs of participation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_of_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge_and_Voting_advice_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_and_Voting_advice_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Knowledge and Voting advice applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_and_Voting_advice_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voter_pledges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voter_pledges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.1 Voter pledges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voter_pledges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weather_and_timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weather_and_timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Weather and timing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weather_and_timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Household_socialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Household_socialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Household socialization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Household_socialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballot_secrecy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballot_secrecy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Ballot secrecy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballot_secrecy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_not_voting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_not_voting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.11 Reasons for not voting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_not_voting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Voter turnout</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" > 29 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مشاركة انتخابية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشاركة انتخابية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%9E%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Яўка выбаршчыкаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Яўка выбаршчыкаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participaci%C3%B3_(eleccions)" title="Participació (eleccions) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Participació (eleccions)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_nifer_a_bleidleisiodd_mewn_etholiad" title="Y nifer a bleidleisiodd mewn etholiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y nifer a bleidleisiodd mewn etholiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemmeprocent" title="Stemmeprocent – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stemmeprocent" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahlbeteiligung" title="Wahlbeteiligung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wahlbeteiligung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participaci%C3%B3n_electoral" title="Participación electoral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Participación electoral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="میزان مشارکت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میزان مشارکت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participation_%C3%A9lectorale" title="Participation électorale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Participation électorale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opkomst" title="Opkomst – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Opkomst" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participaci%C3%B3n_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Participación política – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Participación política" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%88%AC%ED%91%9C%EC%9C%A8" title="투표율 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="투표율" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B8%D5%B6%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ընտրողների մասնակցություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ընտրողների մասնակցություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B6rs%C3%B3kn" title="Kjörsókn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjörsókn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partecipazione_al_voto" title="Partecipazione al voto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Partecipazione al voto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%97%D7%95%D7%96_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%94" title="אחוז הצבעה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אחוז הצבעה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peratusan_mengundi" title="Peratusan mengundi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peratusan mengundi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opkomst_(verkiezingen)" title="Opkomst (verkiezingen) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Opkomst (verkiezingen)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8%E7%8E%87" title="投票率 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="投票率" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgdeltakelse" title="Valgdeltakelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Valgdeltakelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵੋਟਰ ਮਤਦਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੋਟਰ ਮਤਦਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frekwencja_wyborcza" title="Frekwencja wyborcza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Frekwencja wyborcza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Явка избирателей – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Явка избирателей" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voter_turnout" title="Voter turnout – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Voter turnout" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84%C3%A4nestysprosentti" title="Äänestysprosentti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Äänestysprosentti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdeltagande" title="Valdeltagande – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Valdeltagande" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A7men_kat%C4%B1l%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Seçmen katılımı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Seçmen katılımı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Percentage of a country's eligible voters who actually vote within elections</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg/300px-Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg/450px-Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg/600px-Iraqi_voters_in_Baghdad2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>Voters lining up outside a <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> polling station during the <a href="/wiki/January_2005_Iraqi_parliamentary_election" title="January 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election">2005 Iraqi election</a>. Voter turnout was considered high despite widespread concerns of violence.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voter_turnout_in_elections_(in_%25)_-_Western_countries_(since_1900-1945).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png/300px-Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png/450px-Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png/600px-Voter_turnout_in_elections_%28in_%25%29_-_Western_countries_%28since_1900-1945%29.png 2x" data-file-width="6204" data-file-height="3562" /></a><figcaption>Voter turnout in Western countries elections (in %, starting 1900/1945; more details by clicking and seeing Wiki Commons description for the image).</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, voter turnout is the participation rate (often defined as those who cast a <a href="/wiki/Ballot" title="Ballot">ballot</a>) of a given election. This is typically either the percentage of <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">registered voters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">eligible voters</a>, or all <a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">voting-age</a> people. According to Stanford University political scientists Adam Bonica and <a href="/wiki/Michael_McFaul" title="Michael McFaul">Michael McFaul</a>, there is a consensus among political scientists that "democracies perform better when more people vote."<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Institutional factors drive the vast majority of differences in turnout rates.<a href="#cite_note-Samuel_Popkin_2001._P._970-2">[2]</a> For example, simpler parliamentary democracies where voters get shorter ballots, fewer elections, and a multi-party system that makes accountability easier see much higher turnout than the systems of the United States, Japan, and Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-Samuel_Popkin_2001._P._970-2">[2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Significance">edit</a>]</div> Some parts of society are more likely to vote than others. As turnout approaches 90%, significant differences between voters and nonvoters lessen, but in lower turnout elections the differences between voters and nonvoters can be dramatic.<a href="#cite_note-Franklin-3">[3]</a> More importantly than changes in specific election outcomes,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> voter turnout has seismic long-term implications on the abilities of democracies to function. For example, <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">regulatory capture</a> tends to afflict low-turnout democracies more,<a href="#cite_note-Anzia_2013-5">[5]</a> blocking popular <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratic reforms</a> like streamlining elections. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutional_factors">Institutional factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Institutional factors">edit</a>]</div> Institutional factors have the most significant impact on voter turnout. Making <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_voting" title="Compulsory voting">voting compulsory</a> has a direct and dramatic effect on turnout while adding barriers, such as a separate <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">registration</a> process or unnecessarily scheduling <a href="/wiki/Voter_fatigue" title="Voter fatigue">many elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">suppresses turnout</a>. In addition, the closer democracies are to <a href="/wiki/One_Person_One_Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="One Person One Vote">'one person, one vote'</a> increases turnout as voters see that their effort has an impact. This can be seen in the higher turnout rates of proportional parliamentary democracies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ease_of_voting">Ease of voting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ease of voting">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></div> Other methods of making voting easier to increase turnout include <a href="/wiki/Vote-by-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote-by-mail">vote-by-mail</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Absentee_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Absentee voting">absentee polling</a> and improved access to polls, such as increasing the number of possible voting locations, lowering the average time voters wait in line, or requiring companies to give workers some time off on voting day. A 2017 study found that turnout among older voters increases the earlier polling places open, while turnout among younger voters improves the longer polling places stay open.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voter_fatigue">Voter fatigue</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Voter fatigue">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Voter_fatigue" title="Voter fatigue">Voter fatigue</a></div> If there are many elections in close succession, voter turnout tends to decrease as the public tires of participating.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In low-turnout Switzerland, the average voter is invited to go to the polls an average of seven times a year; the United States has frequent elections, with two votes per year on average (e.g. local government and <a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">primaries</a>).<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Eliminating <a href="/wiki/Off-cycle_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-cycle elections">off-cycle elections</a> boosts turnout while being popular with voters.<a href="#cite_note-Anzia_2013-5">[5]</a> Another form of voter fatigue occurs when voters are asked to weigh-in on dozens of contests, as occurs in some parts of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voter_registration">Voter registration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Voter registration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">Voter registration</a></div> In the United States and most Latin American nations, voters must go through separate <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">voter registration</a> procedures before they are allowed to vote. This two-step process quite clearly <a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">decreases turnout</a>. US states with no, or easier, registration requirements have larger turnouts.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> A country with a highly efficient registration process is France. At the age of eighteen, all youth are <a href="/wiki/Automatic_voter_registration" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic voter registration">automatically registered</a>. Only new residents and citizens who have moved are responsible for bearing the costs and inconvenience of updating their registration. Similarly, in <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>, all citizens and residents are included in the official population register, which is simultaneously a tax list, voter registration, and membership in the universal health system. Residents are required by law to report any change of address to the register within a short time after moving. This is also the system in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (but without the membership in the health system). <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> has also a similar system called "Padrón Municipal de Habitantes", held by municipalities. Persons register themselves in the Padrón as local residents (every resident in Spain must be registered in any municipality). The Padrón is used for providing most local, regional, and national government services. It also serves as the electoral register. In order to avoid duplications and to gather statistics on demography, the Padrón is supervised by a national government agency, the Instituto National de Estatística (INE). La Oficina Electoral del Censo is the bureau, as part of the INE, responsible for compiling the electoral roll. Every Spanish citizen or EU resident, older than 18 years, is automatically included in the voter register. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compulsory_voting">Compulsory voting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Compulsory voting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_voting" title="Compulsory voting">Compulsory voting</a></div> A strong factor affecting voter turnout is whether voting is compulsory, as countries that enforce compulsory voting tend to have far higher voter turnout rates.<a href="#cite_note-IIDEA-12">[12]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, voter registration and attendance at a polling booth have been mandatory since the 1920s, with <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_federal_election" title="2016 Australian federal election">the 2016 federal election</a> having turnout figures of 91% for the <a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> and 91.9% for the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate" title="Australian Senate">Senate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In Singapore, turnout at the <a href="/wiki/2020_Singaporean_general_election" title="2020 Singaporean general election">2020 general election</a> was 95.81%, the highest since <a href="/wiki/1997_Singaporean_general_election" title="1997 Singaporean general election">1997</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> where it was 95.91%. This was an increase from the record low of 93.06% at the <a href="/wiki/2011_Singaporean_general_election" title="2011 Singaporean general election">2011 general election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Penalties for failing to vote are not always strictly enforced, and sanctions for non-voters are often mild.<a href="#cite_note-TNI2013-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-IIDEA-12">[12]</a> For instance, while voting is nominally compulsory in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> for adults up to 70 years of age, no one has ever been prosecuted for failing to vote,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> with voter turnout rates reaching as low as 57% in the <a href="/wiki/September_2015_Greek_legislative_election" title="September 2015 Greek legislative election">September 2015 Greek legislative election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In Australia, people who do not vote are subject to a small fine, which is easily waived if one of many acceptable excuses for failing to vote is provided.<a href="#cite_note-TNI2013-16">[16]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, however, if a voter fails to participate in an election, they may be denied withdrawal of their salary from the bank for three months.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-IIDEA-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salience">Salience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Salience">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mark_N._Franklin" title="Mark N. Franklin">Mark N. Franklin</a> argues that salience, the perceived effect that an individual vote will have on how the country is run, has a significant effect on turnout. He presents <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> as an example of a nation with low salience. The nation's administration is highly decentralized, so that the federal government has limited powers. Important decisions are also placed before the population in a <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</a>. Individual votes for the federal legislature are thus less likely to have a significant effect on the complex web of systems, which probably explains some of the low average turnouts in that more complicated democracy.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> By contrast <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, with one of the world's highest voter turnouts, has a single legislature that holds most political power. Malta has a <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">two-party system</a> in which a small swing in votes can significantly alter the executive.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Voters' perceptions of <a href="/wiki/Free_and_fair_election" title="Free and fair election">fairness</a> also have an important effect on salience, where fears of <a href="/wiki/Unfair_election" title="Unfair election">fraud and corruption</a> can suppress turnout.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Minority voters are shown to mobilize when issues pertaining to their group identity become politically salient.<a href="#cite_note-Grahn_973–996-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proportionality">Proportionality</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Proportionality">edit</a>]</div> Since most votes count in <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation systems</a>, there are fewer "<a href="/wiki/Wasted_vote" title="Wasted vote">wasted votes</a>", so voters, aware that their vote can make a difference,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> are more likely to make the effort to vote, and less likely to vote <a href="/wiki/Tactical_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical voting">tactically</a>. Compared to countries with plurality electoral systems, voter turnout improves and the population is more involved in the political process<a href="#cite_note-ideaEsd-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norris-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FairvoteCanadaWPR-27">[27]</a> in ~70% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-CoxContEffect-28">[28]</a> The exceptions to the rule can include cases where a plurality system has an unusually high number of competitive districts, for example, before it transitions to a proportional one.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_turnout">Measuring turnout</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Measuring turnout">edit</a>]</div> Differing methods of measuring voter turnout can contribute to reported differences between nations. There are difficulties in measuring both the numerator, the number of voters who cast votes, and the denominator, the number of voters eligible to vote. In Sweden, validated individual-level turnout data is available for a subset of general and European Parliament elections, taken from Swedish election registers.<a href="#cite_note-Grahn_973–996-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerator_(e.g._ballots_cast)">Numerator (e.g. ballots cast)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Numerator (e.g. ballots cast)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possible_Metrics">Possible Metrics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Possible Metrics">edit</a>]</div> From largest to smallest Signed-in: includes people who signed-in at the polls, but did not cast a ballot. Ballots Cast: Total number of ballots cast, regardless of how many were filled-out or accepted. Ballots Accepted: this subtracts <a href="/wiki/Spoilt_vote" title="Spoilt vote">spoilt votes</a> but in some places includes blank ballots that were otherwise accepted. Completed Ballots: This metric looks at ballots that were accepted and completed. This is the smallest numerator, but captures only those ballots that will impact the outcome of the election. For the numerator, it is often assumed that the number of voters who went to the polls should equal the number of ballots cast, which in turn should equal the number of votes counted, but this is not the case. Not all voters who arrive at the polls necessarily cast ballots. Some may be turned away because they are ineligible, some may be turned away improperly, and some who sign the voting register may not actually cast ballots. Furthermore, voters who do cast ballots may abstain, deliberately voting for nobody, or they may <a href="/wiki/Spoiled_ballot" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoiled ballot">spoil</a> their votes, either accidentally or as an act of protest. In the United Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_Kingdom)" title="Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)">Electoral Commission</a> distinguishes between "valid vote turnout", which excludes spoilt ballots, and "ballot box turnout", which does not. In the United States, it has been common to report turnout as the sum of votes for the top race on the ballot, because not all jurisdictions report the actual number of people who went to the polls nor the number of undervotes or overvotes.<a href="#cite_note-eac.gov-33">[33]</a> Overvote rates of around 0.3 percent are typical of well-run elections, but in Gadsden County Florida, the overvote rate was 11 percent in November 2000.<a href="#cite_note-Human_Factors_in_Voting_Technology-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denominator_(out_of_people)">Denominator (out of _ people)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Denominator (out of _ people)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possible_Metrics_2">Possible Metrics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Possible Metrics">edit</a>]</div> From largest to smallest Total population: everyone who lives in a place, regardless of <a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage" title="Non-citizen suffrage">citizenship</a> status or other factors that affect voting eligibility. This has the advantage of being an accessible indicator of how close a place may be to <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a>. Voting-age population: everyone above the legal <a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">voting age</a> in a country regardless of <a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage" title="Non-citizen suffrage">citizenship</a> status or other factors that might affect voting eligibility. This has the advantage of being easier to measure than 'eligible voters.' Eligible voters: This measures all the voters allowed to vote under current law, which in some places includes people who have not registered or re-registered to vote. This is more difficult to measure as more categories of people are disenfranchised and can include <a href="/wiki/Non-resident_citizen_voting" title="Non-resident citizen voting">non-resident voters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Registered_voters" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered voters">Registered voters</a>: This measurement captures all who are registered to vote. This has the advantage of being easy to measure and readily accessible, though overlooks those who are unwilling or unable to register due to barriers such as a complex registration or re-registration process. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, for example, there is no accurate registry of exactly who is eligible to vote, since only about 70–75% of people choose to register themselves.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Thus, turnout has to be calculated based on population estimates. Some political scientists have argued that these measures do not properly account for the large number of <a href="/wiki/Green_card" title="Green card">legal permanent residents</a> (green card holders),<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">undocumented immigrants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Felony disenfranchisement in the United States">disenfranchised felons</a> and persons who are considered 'mentally incompetent' in the United States. Voter turnout everywhere would be higher if measured by eligibility and not voting-age population.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Even in countries with fewer restrictions on the franchise, <a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">voting age</a> population turnout data can still be impacted by large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage" title="Non-citizen suffrage">non-citizen residents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-resident_citizen_voting" title="Non-resident citizen voting">non-resident citizens voting</a>, often under-reporting turnout by as much as 10 percentage points.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Michael_P._McDonald" title="Michael P. McDonald">Michael P. McDonald</a> constructed an estimation of the turnout against the '<a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">voting eligible population</a>' (VEP), instead of the '<a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">voting age</a> population' (VAP). For the American presidential elections of 2004, turnout could then be expressed as 60.32% of voting eligible population, rather than 55.27% of <a href="/wiki/Voting_age" title="Voting age">voting age</a> population.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In New Zealand, registration is supposed to be universal. This does not eliminate uncertainty in the eligible population because this system has been shown to be unreliable, with a large number of eligible but unregistered citizens creating inflated turnout figures.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Looking_for_trends">Looking for trends</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Looking for trends">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GOTV.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/GOTV.png/220px-GOTV.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/GOTV.png/330px-GOTV.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/GOTV.png/440px-GOTV.png 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Methods of raising turnout.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Voter_turnout" title="Talk:Voter turnout">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (December 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> For some time, the Gallup Organization has utilized a metric of polls to determine who would vote. These polls would look at "intention to vote, registration status, reported frequency of past voting, awareness of where to vote, interest in politics in general, interest in the particular election, and intensity of candidate preference."<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Since around 1985, there appears to be a gradual decrease in voter turnout globally when looking at the voting-age population.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> However, a 2001 article in the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review" title="American Political Science Review">American Political Science Review</a>, Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin argued, that at least in the United States, voter turnout since 1972 has not actually declined when calculated for those eligible to vote, what they term the voting-eligible population.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage" title="Non-citizen suffrage">noncitizens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Felony disenfranchisement in the United States">ineligible felons</a> (depending on state law) constituted about 2% of the voting-age population. By 2004, ineligible voters constituted nearly 10%. Ineligible voters are not evenly distributed across the country – 20% of California's voting-age population is ineligible to vote – which confounds comparisons of states. Furthermore, they argue that an examination of the Census Bureau's Current Population Survey shows that turnout is low but not declining among the youth, when the high youth turnout of 1972 (the first year 18- to 20-year-olds were eligible to vote in most states) is removed from the trendline. Other forms of political participation have declined, such as voluntary participation in political parties and the attendance of observers at town meetings. Meanwhile, church attendance, membership in professional, fraternal, and student societies, youth groups, and parent-teacher associations has also declined.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Some argue that technological developments in society such as "automobilization," suburban living, and "an explosive proliferation of home entertainment devices" have contributed to a loss of community, which in turn has weakened participation in civic life.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">not specific enough to verify</a>] At the same time, some forms of participation have increased. People have become far more likely to participate in <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycotts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">demonstrations</a>, and to donate to political campaigns. Many causes have been proposed for what some see as a decline in voter participation though all offered in this section are heavily disputed. When asked why they do not vote, many people report that they have too little free time. However, over the last several decades, studies have consistently shown that the amount of <a href="/wiki/Free_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Free time">leisure time</a> has not decreased,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> even if the perception of less leisure time results in less participation. While wages and employment decrease voter turnout in gubernatorial elections, they appear to not affect national races.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geographic_mobility" title="Geographic mobility">Geographic mobility</a> has increased over the last few decades, bringing barriers to voting in a district where one is a recent arrival, including knowing little about the local candidates and issues. It has been argued that democratic consolidation (the stabilization of new democracies) contributes to the decline in voter turnout. A 2017 study challenges this, however.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Increasing_voter_turnout">Increasing voter turnout</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Increasing voter turnout">edit</a>]</div> Various measures have been proposed to attempt to increase voter turnout. One of these is to make election days national holidays in order to give potential voters more time and freedom to vote.<a href="#cite_note-Brookings-52">[52]</a> This has been implemented in multiple democracies of which have higher voter turnouts than the U.S., which does not make elections days national holidays.<a href="#cite_note-Brookings-52">[52]</a> Voter registration has been found to be a barrier to democratic participation.<a href="#cite_note-The_Conversation-53">[53]</a> Therefore, another measure cited to boost election turnout is to have automatic voter registration, a measure that has been implemented in various democracies around the world.<a href="#cite_note-The_Conversation-53">[53]</a> studies have shown that increased voter registration leads to greater turnout at elections.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Another proposed measure to increase voter turnout is a move to a <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a> system for countries that currently use <a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post" class="mw-redirect" title="First-past-the-post">first-past-the-post</a> in elections. Countries that use proportional representation systems have higher turnouts when compared to those that do not.<a href="#cite_note-ERS-55">[55]</a> The reasoning that has been given for this is that voters feel they "are given a more meaningful choice at the ballot box" and that a proportional electoral system leads to greater voter representation.<a href="#cite_note-ERS-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voter_turnout_by_country">Voter turnout by country</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Voter turnout by country">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_(page_23_crop).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg/220px-Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg/330px-Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg/440px-Voters%27_pamphlet_1952_%28page_23_crop%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="2169" /></a><figcaption>Page from a 1952 United States voters' pamphlet comparing voter turnout in various countries</figcaption></figure> Voter turnout varies considerably between nations. One dataset with voter turnouts by country and election is the Election turnout indicator in <a href="/wiki/V-Dem_Democracy_indices" class="mw-redirect" title="V-Dem Democracy indices">V-Dem Democracy indices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-v-dem-56">[56]</a> It tends to be lower in North America, Asia and Latin America than in most of Europe and Oceania. Based on all parliamentary elections between 1945 and 1997, Western Europe averages a 77% turnout, and South and Central America around 54%.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The differences between nations tend to be greater than those between classes, ethnic groups, or regions within nations. Confusingly, some of the factors that cause internal differences do not seem to apply on a global level. For instance, nations with better-educated populaces do not have higher turnouts. There are two main commonly cited causes of these international differences: culture and institutions. However, there is much debate over the relative impact of the various factors. Indonesia, which before 1998 always had a high percentage of voter (more than 87%) but then dip down to low 70% in the <a href="/wiki/2014_Indonesian_presidential_election" title="2014 Indonesian presidential election">2014</a>,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> saw a record breaking voters in the <a href="/wiki/2019_Indonesian_general_election" title="2019 Indonesian general election">2019 Indonesian general election</a> with more than 158 million people cast their ballots on the same day,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and has been called "the world's most complex one-day elections".<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Wealth and literacy have some effect on turnout, but are not reliable measures. Countries such as <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> have long had high turnouts, but so have the wealthy states of Europe. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> shows some correlation between higher standards of living and higher turnout. The age of a democracy is also an important factor. Elections require considerable involvement by the population, and it takes some time to develop the cultural habit of voting, and the associated understanding of and confidence in the electoral process. This factor may explain the lower turnouts in the newer democracies of Eastern Europe and Latin America. Much of the impetus to vote comes from a sense of civic duty, which takes time and certain social conditions that can take decades to develop: <ul><li>trust in government;</li> <li>degree of partisanship among the population;</li> <li>interest in politics, and</li> <li>belief in the <a href="/wiki/Political_efficacy" title="Political efficacy">political efficacy</a> of voting.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li></ul> Demographics also have an effect. Older people tend to vote more than youths, so societies where the average age is somewhat higher, such as Europe; have higher turnouts than somewhat younger countries such as the United States. Populations that are more mobile and those that have lower marriage rates tend to have lower turnout. In countries that are highly multicultural and multilingual, it can be difficult for national election campaigns to engage all sectors of the population. The nature of elections also varies between nations. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Negative_campaigning" title="Negative campaigning">negative campaigning</a> and character attacks are more common than elsewhere, potentially suppressing turnouts. The focus placed on <a href="/wiki/Get_out_the_vote" title="Get out the vote">get out the vote</a> efforts and mass-marketing can have important effects on turnout. Partisanship is an important impetus to turnout, with the highly partisan more likely to vote. Turnout tends to be higher in nations where political allegiance is closely linked to class, ethnic, linguistic, or religious loyalties.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Countries where <a href="/wiki/Multiparty" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiparty">multiparty</a> systems have developed also tend to have higher turnouts. Nations with a party specifically geared towards the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> will tend to have higher turnouts among that class than in countries where voters have only <a href="/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">big tent</a> parties, which try to appeal to all the voters, to choose from.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> A four-wave panel study conducted during the 2010 Swedish national election campaign, show (1) clear differences in media use between age groups and (2) that both political social media use and attention to political news in traditional media increase political engagement over time.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Social media is not always used effectively and may sometimes have a negative impact on the results of the election. Barack Obama utilized Facebook to his benefit during his first run for presidency and truly jumpstarted the use of social media in political campaigns. We recently saw the utilization of social media and perhaps the negative impacts social media has on campaigns in the recent 2020 election.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Voter turnout in United States presidential elections">Voter turnout in United States presidential elections</a></div> Rosenstone and Hansen contend that there is a decline in turnout in the United States and that it is the product of a change in campaigning strategies as a result of the so-called new media. Before the introduction of television, almost all of a party's resources would be directed towards intensive local campaigning and <a href="/wiki/Get_out_the_vote" title="Get out the vote">get out the vote</a> initiatives. In the modern era, these resources have been redirected to expensive media campaigns in which the potential voter is a passive participant.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> During the same period, <a href="/wiki/Negative_campaigning" title="Negative campaigning">negative campaigning</a> has become ubiquitous in the United States and elsewhere and has been shown to impact voter turnout.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Attack_ad" title="Attack ad">Attack ads</a> and smear campaigns give voters a negative impression of the entire political process. The evidence for this is mixed: elections involving highly unpopular incumbents generally have high turnout; some studies have found that mudslinging and character attacks reduce turnout, but that substantive attacks on a party's record can increase it.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> To counter this, programs such as <a href="/wiki/MTV" title="MTV">MTV</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Rock_the_Vote" title="Rock the Vote">Rock the Vote</a>" and the "<a href="/wiki/Vote_or_Die" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote or Die">Vote or Die</a>" initiatives have been introduced to increase turnouts of those between the ages of 18 and 25. A number of governments and <a href="/wiki/Election_management_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Election management body">electoral commissions</a> have also launched efforts to boost turnout. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Elections_Canada" title="Elections Canada">Elections Canada</a> has launched mass media campaigns to encourage voting prior to elections, as have bodies in Taiwan and the United Kingdom. Structural differences between democracies, including the complexity of the system and ease of voting are more often used to explain differences in turnout between nations, with United States voters in particular suffering from a complicated maze of federalism and separation of powers that is relatively unique among democracies.<a href="#cite_note-Samuel_Popkin_2001._P._970-2">[2]</a> The Brennan Center for Justice reported that in 2016 fourteen states passed restrictive voting laws.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Examples of these laws are photo ID mandates, narrow times for early voting, and limitations on voter registration. Barbour and Wright also believe that one of the causes is restrictive voting laws but they call this system of laws regulating the electorate.<a href="#cite_note-Barbour,_Christine_2016-71">[71]</a> The Constitution gives states the power to make decisions regarding restrictive voting laws. In 2008 the Supreme Court made a crucial decision regarding Indiana's <a href="/wiki/Voter_ID_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Voter ID law">voter ID law</a> in saying that it does not violate the constitution. Since then almost half of the states have passed restrictive voting laws. These laws contribute to Barbour and Wrights idea of the rational nonvoter. This is someone who does not vote because the benefits of them not voting outweighs the cost to vote.<a href="#cite_note-Barbour,_Christine_2016-71">[71]</a> These laws add to the "cost" of voting, or reason that make it more difficult and to vote. Google extensively studied the causes behind low voter turnout in the United States, and argues that one of the key reasons behind lack of voter participation is the so-called "interested bystander".<a href="#cite_note-:0-72">[72]</a> According to Google's study, 48.9% of adult Americans can be classified as "interested bystanders", as they are politically informed but are reticent to involve themselves in the civic and political sphere. This category is not limited to any socioeconomic or demographic groups. Google theorizes that individuals in this category suffer from <a href="/wiki/Political_apathy" title="Political apathy">political apathy</a>, as they are interested in political life but believe that their individual effect would be negligible.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> These individuals often participate politically on the local level, but shy away from national elections. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_discussed_factors">Other discussed factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other discussed factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></div> The chance of any one vote determining the outcome is low. Some studies show that a single vote in a voting scheme such as the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">Electoral College</a> in the United States has an even lower chance of determining the outcome.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Other studies claim that the Electoral College actually increases voting power.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Studies using <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>, which takes into account the ability of voters to interact, have also found that the expected turnout for any large election should be zero.<a href="#cite_note-Kanazawa-76">[76]</a> The basic formula for determining whether someone will vote, on the questionable assumption that people act completely rationally, is<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PB+D>C,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>></mo> <mi>C</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PB+D>C,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2d6f57cb571676fa3c19985e60175f3d2ea48cbc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.786ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PB+D>C,}"></dd></dl> where <ul><li>P is the <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> that an individual's vote will affect the outcome of an election,</li> <li>B is the perceived benefit that would be received if that person's favored <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> or candidate were elected,</li> <li>D originally stood for democracy or <a href="/wiki/Civic_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic duty">civic duty</a>, but today represents any social or personal <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">gratification</a> an individual gets from voting, and</li> <li>C is the time, effort, and financial cost involved in voting.</li></ul> Since P is virtually zero in most elections, PB may be also near zero, and D is thus the most important element in motivating people to vote. For a person to vote, these factors must outweigh C. Experimental political science has found that even when P is likely greater than zero, this term has no effect on voter turnout. Enos and Fowler (2014) conducted a field experiment that exploits the rare opportunity of a tied election for major political office. Informing citizens that the special election to break the tie will be close (meaning a high P term) has little mobilizing effect on voter turnout.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Riker and Ordeshook developed the modern understanding of D. They listed five major forms of gratification that people receive for voting: complying with the social obligation to vote; affirming one's allegiance to the political system; affirming a partisan preference (also known as expressive voting, or voting for a candidate to express support, not to achieve any outcome); affirming one's importance to the political system; and, for those who find politics interesting and entertaining, researching and making a decision.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Other political scientists have since added other motivators and questioned some of Riker and Ordeshook's assumptions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] All of these concepts are inherently imprecise, making it difficult to discover exactly why people choose to vote. Recently, several scholars have considered the possibility that B includes not only a personal interest in the outcome, but also a concern for the welfare of others in the society (or at least other members of one's favorite group or party).<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> In particular, experiments in which subject <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> was measured using a <a href="/wiki/Dictator_game" title="Dictator game">dictator game</a> showed that concern for the well-being of others is a major factor in predicting turnout<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> and political participation.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> This motivation is distinct from D, because voters must think others benefit from the outcome of the election, not their act of voting in and of itself. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habit">Habit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Habit">edit</a>]</div> Turnout differences appear to persist over time; in fact, the strongest predictor of individual turnout is whether or not one voted in the previous election.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> As a result, many scholars think of turnout as habitual behavior that can be learned or unlearned, especially among young adults.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_influences">Childhood influences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Childhood influences">edit</a>]</div> Studies have found that improving children's social skills<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> and enrolling them in high-quality <a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">early-childhood</a> educational programs<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> increases their turnout as adults. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> Socioeconomic factors are significantly associated with whether individuals develop the habit of voting. The most important socioeconomic factor affecting voter turnout is <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. The more educated a person is, the more likely they are to vote, even controlling for other factors that are closely associated with education level, such as <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a>. Income has some effect independently: wealthier people are more likely to vote, regardless of their educational background. There is some debate over the effects of <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>. In the past, these factors unquestionably influenced turnout in many nations, but nowadays the consensus among political scientists is that these factors have little effect in Western democracies when education and income differences are taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-Sigelman-90">[90]</a> A 2018 study found that while education did not increase turnout on average, it did raise turnout among individuals from low socioeconomic status households.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Public-sector employees have higher voter turnout than private-sector employees.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> However, since different ethnic groups typically have different levels of education and income, there are important differences in turnout between such groups in many societies. Other demographic factors have an important influence: young people are far less likely to vote than the elderly.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Occupation has little effect on turnout, with the notable exception of higher voting rates among government employees in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-Sigelman-90">[90]</a> There can also be regional differences in voter turnout. One issue that arises in continent-spanning nations, such as Australia, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, the United States and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, is that of <a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">time zones</a>. Canada banned the broadcasting of election results in any region where the polls have not yet closed; this ban was upheld by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_between_elections">Differences between elections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Differences between elections">edit</a>]</div> Within countries there can be important differences in turnout between individual elections.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Elections where control of the national <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a> is not at stake generally have much lower turnouts—often half that for general elections.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Off-year_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-year elections">Off-year municipal and provincial elections</a>, and by-elections to fill casual vacancies, typically have lower turnouts, as do elections for the parliament of the supranational <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, which is separate from the executive branch of the EU's government. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Off-year_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-year elections">midterm congressional elections</a> attract far lower turnouts than Congressional elections held concurrently with Presidential ones.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Runoff_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Runoff election">Runoff elections</a> also tend to attract lower turnouts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Competitiveness_of_races">Competitiveness of races</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Competitiveness of races">edit</a>]</div> In theory, one of the factors that is most likely to increase turnout is a close race. Following the Downsian Closeness hypothesis<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and the idea of <a href="/wiki/Altruism_theory_of_voting#Expressive_versus_instrumental_voting" title="Altruism theory of voting">instrumental voting</a>, voters rationally estimate the costs and benefits of participating in an election. Benefits exceed the costs if a close outcome of the election is expected and voters believe their ballot may be decisive for the outcome. Additionally, in these elections parties increase their mobilization efforts. Although the logic of instrumental voting applies to all elections, the effects are more prominent in democracies and <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">majoritarian electoral systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> An example is the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 U.S. presidential election</a>. With an intensely polarized electorate and all polls showing a close finish between <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> challenger <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kerry" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kerry">John F. Kerry</a>, the turnout in the election was close to 60%, resulting in a record number of popular votes for both candidates (around 62 million for Bush and 59 million for Kerry). However, this race also demonstrates the influence that contentious social issues can have on voter turnout; for example, the voter turnout rate in 1860 wherein anti-<a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> candidate Abraham Lincoln won the election was the second-highest on record (81.2 percent, second only to 1876, with 81.8 percent). Nonetheless, there is evidence to support the argument that predictable election results—where one vote is not seen to be able to make a difference—have resulted in lower turnouts, such as <a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election" title="1996 United States presidential election">Bill Clinton's 1996 re-election</a> (which featured the lowest voter turnout in the United States since 1924), the <a href="/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2001 United Kingdom general election">United Kingdom general election of 2001</a>, and the 2005 <a href="/wiki/Spanish_referendum_on_the_European_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish referendum on the European Constitution">Spanish referendum on the European Constitution</a>; all of these elections produced decisive results on a low turnout. A 2020 NBER paper, examining evidence from <a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_federal_referendums" title="List of Swiss federal referendums">Swiss referendums</a>, found that an awareness by the electorate that an election would be close increased turnout.<a href="#cite_note-Closeness-98">[98]</a> Controlling for canton and vote <a href="/wiki/Fixed_effects_model" title="Fixed effects model">fixed effects</a>, the study determined "that greater <a href="/wiki/Swiss_canton" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss canton">cantonal</a> newspaper coverage of close polls significantly increases voter turnout"<a href="#cite_note-Closeness-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Previous_incarceration">Previous incarceration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Previous incarceration">edit</a>]</div> One 2017 study in the Journal of Politics found that, in the United States, incarceration had no significant impact on turnout in elections: ex-felons did not become less likely to vote after their time in prison.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Also in the United States, incarceration, probation, and a <a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement" class="mw-redirect" title="Felony disenfranchisement">felony record</a> deny 5–6 million Americans of the right to vote, with reforms gradually leading more states to allow people with felony criminal records to vote, while almost none allow incarcerated people to vote. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs_of_participation">Costs of participation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Costs of participation">edit</a>]</div> A 2017 study in Electoral Studies found that Swiss cantons that reduced the costs of postal voting for voters by prepaying the postage on return envelopes (which otherwise cost 85 Swiss Franc cents) were "associated with a statistically significant 1.8 percentage point increase in voter turnout".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> A 2016 study in the American Journal of Political Science found that preregistration – allowing young citizens to register before being eligible to vote – increased turnout by 2 to 8 percentage points.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> A 2019 study in Social Science Quarterly found that the introduction of a vote‐by‐mail system in Washington state led to an increase in turnout.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Another 2019 study in Social Science Quarterly found that online voter registration increased voter turnout, in particular for young voters.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> A 2020 study in Political Behavior found that a single postcard by election officials to unregistered eligible voters boosted registration rates by a percentage point and turnout by 0.9 percentage points, with the strongest effects on young, first-time voters.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The availability of ballot drop boxes increases turnout.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> A 2018 study in the British Journal of Political Science found that internet voting in local elections in Ontario, Canada, only had a modest impact on turnout, increasing turnout by 3.5 percentage points. The authors of the study say that the results "suggest that internet voting is unlikely to solve the low turnout crisis, and imply that cost arguments do not fully account for recent turnout declines."<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_and_Voting_advice_applications">Knowledge and Voting advice applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Knowledge and Voting advice applications">edit</a>]</div> A 2017 experimental study found that by sending registered voters between the ages of 18 and 30 a voter guide containing salient information about candidates in an upcoming election (a list of candidate endorsements and the candidates' policy positions on five issues in the campaign) increased turnout by 0.9 points.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voting_advice_application" title="Voting advice application">Voting advice applications</a> have strong evidence to increase voter turnout and vote choice and moderate evidence to increase voting knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voter_pledges">Voter pledges</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Voter pledges">edit</a>]</div> A 2018 study found that "young people who pledge to vote are more likely to turn out than those who are contacted using standard Get-Out-the-Vote materials. Overall, pledging to vote increased voter turnout by 3.7 points among all subjects and 5.6 points for people who had never voted before."<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weather_and_timing">Weather and timing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Weather and timing">edit</a>]</div> Research results are mixed as to whether bad weather affects turnout. There is research that shows that <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> can reduce turnout, though this effect is generally rather small, with most studies finding each millimeter of rainfall to reduce turnout by 0.015 to 0.1 percentage points.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kanazawa-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-116">[116]</a> At least two studies, however, found no evidence that weather disruptions reduce turnout.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> A 2011 study found "that while rain decreases turnout on average, it does not do so in competitive elections."<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Some research has also investigated the effect of temperature on turnout, with some finding increased temperatures to moderately increase turnout.<a href="#cite_note-:3-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Some other studies, however, found temperature to have no significant impact on turnout.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-123">[123]</a> These variations in turnout can also have partisan impacts; a 2017 study in the journal <a href="/wiki/American_Politics_Research" title="American Politics Research">American Politics Research</a> found that rainfall increased Republican vote shares, because it decreased turnout more among Democratic voters than Republican voters.<a href="#cite_note-:1-115">[115]</a> Studies from the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> have also found weather-related turnout decreases to benefit the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right</a>, while a <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spanish</a> study<a href="#cite_note-:2-112">[112]</a> found a reverse relationship. The season and the day of the week (although many nations hold all their elections on the same weekday) can also affect turnout. Weekend and summer elections find more of the population on holiday or uninterested in politics, and have lower turnouts. When nations set fixed election dates, these are usually midweek during the spring or autumn to maximize turnout. Variations in turnout between elections tend to be insignificant. It is extremely rare for factors such as competitiveness, weather, and time of year to cause an increase or decrease in turnout of more than five percentage points, far smaller than the differences between groups within society, and far smaller than turnout differentials between nations.<a href="#cite_note-:4-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Household_socialization">Household socialization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Household socialization">edit</a>]</div> A 2018 study in the American Political Science Review found that the parents to newly enfranchised voters "become 2.8 percentage points more likely to vote."<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> A 2018 study in the journal Political Behavior found that increasing the size of households increases a household member's propensity to vote.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> A 2018 PlosOne study found that a "partisan who is married to a co-partisan is more likely to vote. This phenomenon is especially pronounced for partisans in closed primaries, elections in which non-partisan registered spouses are ineligible to participate."<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ballot_secrecy">Ballot secrecy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ballot secrecy">edit</a>]</div> According to a 2018 study, get-out-the-vote groups in the United States who emphasize ballot secrecy along with reminders to vote increase turnout by about 1 percentage point among recently registered nonvoters.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reasons_for_not_voting">Reasons for not voting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Reasons for not voting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">Abstention</a></div> There are philosophical, moral, and practical reasons that some people cite for not voting in electoral politics,<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> typically owing to obstacles to voting, though some of the practical reasons for abstention have more to do with rare, difficult to predict situations arising from flaws in the design of the voting system that fail to efficiently capture voter preferences. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_voting" title="Paradox of voting">Paradox of voting</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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Rosenstone. 1980. Who Votes? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</li> <li>Wolfinger, R., Glass, D., Squire, P. (1990). Predictors of electoral turnout:an international comparison. Policy Studies Review, 9(3), p551–574, 24p</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHighton1997" class="citation journal cs1">Highton, B. (1997). "Easy registration and voter turnout". The Journal of Politics. 59 (2): 565–575. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022381600053585">10.1017/s0022381600053585</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154699757">154699757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Politics&rft.atitle=Easy+registration+and+voter+turnout&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=565-575&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022381600053585&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154699757%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Highton&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Voter_turnout&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Voter_turnout" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Voter turnout">Voter turnout</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Q._Choi2007" class="citation news cs1">Charles Q. Choi (November 2007). "The Genetics of Politics". <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> (Print). Scientific American, Inc. pp. 18, 21. <q>...the desire to vote or abstain from politics might largely be hardwired into our biology</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Genetics+of+Politics&rft.pages=18%2C+21&rft.date=2007-11&rft.au=Charles+Q.+Choi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Lampi2008" class="citation web cs1">Philip Lampi (2008-05-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110202214223/http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq">"A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787–1825"</a>. Digital Collections and Archives. <a href="/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq">the original</a> on 2011-02-02. Retrieved 2008-06-24. <q>A New Nation Votes is a searchable collection of election returns from the earliest years of American democracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Collections+and+Archives&rft.atitle=A+New+Nation+Votes%3A+American+Elections+Returns+1787%E2%80%931825&rft.date=2008-05-29&rft.au=Philip+Lampi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felections.lib.tufts.edu%2Faas_portal%2Findex.xq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071208214324/http://makeitanissue.org.uk/devlog/2007/01/the_power_commission_was_estab.php">"The Power Report"</a>. makeitanissue.org.uk. The Power Inquiry. 2007-01-19. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://makeitanissue.org.uk/devlog/2007/01/the_power_commission_was_estab.php">the original</a> on 2007-12-08. Retrieved 2008-06-24. <q>The Power Commission was established to discover what is happening to our democracy. It sought to establish why people were disengaging from formal democratic politics in Britain and how these trends could be reversed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=makeitanissue.org.uk&rft.atitle=The+Power+Report&rft.date=2007-01-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmakeitanissue.org.uk%2Fdevlog%2F2007%2F01%2Fthe_power_commission_was_estab.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080607092218/http://www.electionguide.org/voter-turnout.php">"Voter Turnout"</a>. ElectionGuide. <a href="/wiki/International_Foundation_for_Electoral_Systems" title="International Foundation for Electoral Systems">International Foundation for Electoral Systems</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electionguide.org/voter-turnout.php">the original</a> on 2008-06-07. Retrieved 2008-06-24. <q>...ElectionGuide is the most comprehensive and timely source of verified election information and results available online.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ElectionGuide&rft.atitle=Voter+Turnout&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electionguide.org%2Fvoter-turnout.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fairvote.org/?page=262">"Voter Turnout"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FairVote" title="FairVote">FairVote</a>. Voting and Democracy Research Center. Retrieved 2008-06-24. <q>Voter Turnout is a fundamental quality of fair elections and is generally considered to be a necessary factor for a healthy democracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FairVote&rft.atitle=Voter+Turnout&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fairvote.org%2F%3Fpage%3D262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210044527/http://www.idea.int/vt/">"Voter Turnout"</a>. International IDEA website. <a href="/wiki/International_Institute_for_Democracy_and_Electoral_Assistance" title="International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance">International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance</a>. 2008-06-16. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idea.int/vt">the original</a> on 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2008-06-23. <q>The International IDEA Voter Turnout Website contains the most comprehensive global collection of political participation statistics available.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+IDEA+website&rft.atitle=Voter+Turnout&rft.date=2008-06-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idea.int%2Fvt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_McDonald2008" class="citation web cs1">Michael McDonald (2008-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514115243/http://elections.gmu.edu/voter_turnout.htm">"Voter Turnout"</a>. United States Elections Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elections.gmu.edu/voter_turnout.htm">the original</a> on 2008-05-14. Retrieved 2008-06-24. <q>Statistics on voter turnout presented here show that the much-lamented decline in voter participation is an artifact of the way in which it is measured.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Elections+Project&rft.atitle=Voter+Turnout&rft.date=2008-04-01&rft.au=Michael+McDonald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felections.gmu.edu%2Fvoter_turnout.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhonda_Parkinson2007" class="citation web cs1">Rhonda Parkinson (2007-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/voter-turnout-canada">"Voter Turnout in Canada"</a>. Maple Leaf Web. Retrieved 2008-06-23. <q>Since the 1980s, voter turnout in federal elections has fallen sharply.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maple+Leaf+Web&rft.atitle=Voter+Turnout+in+Canada&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft.au=Rhonda+Parkinson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mapleleafweb.com%2Ffeatures%2Fvoter-turnout-canada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoter+turnout" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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