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.625rem;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;outline:none;box-shadow:none;border-width:1px 0 0 0}.resource-card-sub[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468]:after{content:"\2192";font-weight:400;width:0;color:#0000;transition:.1s}.resource-card-sub[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468]:hover{color:#171d29;background:rgba(237,239,242,.85)}.resource-card-sub[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468]:hover:after{margin-left:.75rem;width:auto;color:#171d29}.resource-card-status[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468]{width:100%;position:relative;height:1.75rem;font-size:.875rem;padding:.25rem;border-top:1px solid #DEE1E7;border-radius:0 0 .25rem .25rem;color:#a0a5b1;background:#F8F9FB}.resource-card-status__item[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468]{display:inline-block;margin:0 .5rem;overflow:hidden;white-space:nowrap}.resource-card--adjust[_ngcontent-ausmed-cpd-state-c1923909468] 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Chain?","activityType":"blog","min":11,"categories":["44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a","43f12e9e-a87a-4905-9460-fb1766bd811a"],"topics":["2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6","cc65571f-5cfb-465c-9caa-295aec4f804d"],"keywords":["Infectious Diseases","Infection Prevention and Control"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Registered Midwife","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-04-05T14:56:13Z","updateDate":"2025-04-03T04:38:19Z","availableDate":"2025-04-02T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["3f21aa92-e7d0-4b34-a009-d69e7730a2cc"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"ceee3657-7664-42d0-b588-a18a1f175d52","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">As a healthcare worker, it’s crucial for you to update your knowledge on the spread and containment of infectious diseases, and what \u003Cem>you\u003C/em> can do to help break the chain of infection and contain the spread.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>What is an Infectious Disease?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Infectious diseases\u003C/strong> are illnesses caused by pathogenic organisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. They may be transmitted by people, animals (zoonotic diseases) or environmental sources (e.g. water), depending on the specific pathogen (Mayo Clinic 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Infectious diseases differ from non-infectious diseases (noncommunicable diseases) such as deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases and cardiovascular diseases, because rather than being related to internal factors such as lifestyle and genetics, they are caused by organisms that are not naturally found in the body (Aakash BYJU'S 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The symptoms and severity of infectious diseases vary greatly depending on the pathogen causing them (Mayo Clinic 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Types of Pathogens\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Ch3>Bacteria\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Bacteria\u003C/strong> are small, singular cells that can survive in a variety of environments - sometimes in extreme cold or heat - without a living host. They exist in the body naturally and are mostly harmless, but they can sometimes cause infections. Bacterial infections can usually be treated with antibiotics (Tosh 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Common bacterial infections include (but are not limited to):\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Ear infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/strep-throat\" target=\"_blank\">Group A streptococcus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Urinary tract infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Whooping cough.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Viruses\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Viruses\u003C/strong> are tiny microbes, even smaller than bacteria. They comprise a segment of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein. Viruses invade and multiply within the cells of a living host and cannot survive on their own (Healthdirect 2024; Tosh 2023; NHGRI 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Viral infections include (but are not limited to):\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/barmah-forest-virus-infection\" target=\"_blank\">Barmah Forest virus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/bronchiolitis\" target=\"_blank\">Bronchiolitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Chickenpox\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/common-cold\" target=\"_blank\">Common cold\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>COVID-19\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/congenital-cytomegalovirus\" target=\"_blank\">Cytomegalovirus (CMV)\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/what-is-dengue\" target=\"_blank\">Dengue\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Ebola virus disease\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Glandular fever\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hepatitis \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hepatitis-a\" target=\"_blank\">A\u003C/a>, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hepatitis-b\" target=\"_blank\">B\u003C/a> and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hepatitis-c\" target=\"_blank\">C\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/shingles\" target=\"_blank\">Herpes zoster\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/hiv-prevention-diagnosis-and-management\" target=\"_blank\">Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/influenza\" target=\"_blank\">Influenza\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Measles\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/murray-valley-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Murray Valley encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Viral meningitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/gastroenteritis\" target=\"_blank\">Norovirus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rabies\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/ross-river-virus-infection\" target=\"_blank\">Ross River virus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Zika virus.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Queensland Government 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Fungi\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Fungi\u003C/strong> are single-celled or multicellular organisms that reproduce using spores. They include moulds, yeasts and mushrooms (Biology Dictionary 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are millions of fungi species, most of which are harmless. Only a few hundred varieties can cause illness (CDC 2024a).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Fungal infections include (but are not limited to):\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Fungal nail infections\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Ringworm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cem>Candida\u003C/em> infection (thrush).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(CDC 2024a)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Parasites\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200407_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"parasites vector mosquito\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Some parasites, such as mosquitoes and ticks, may be carriers (‘vectors’) for other disease-causing pathogens such as malaria.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Parasites\u003C/strong> are organisms that live in or on another organism and feed on them. Their sizes variy, with some parasites large enough to be visible to the naked eye (Sepsis Alliance 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Disease-causing parasites are separated into three main classes:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Protozoa\u003C/strong> are microscopic and single-celled. They are most commonly transmitted between humans through a fecal-oral route.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Helminths\u003C/strong> are parasitic worms that can generally be seen with the naked eye. They are also commonly transferred through a fecal-oral route.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Ectoparasites\u003C/strong> (e.g. mosquitoes, lice, fleas and ticks) are organisms that attach and burrow into the skin. They can cause disease by themselves, but some ectoparasites, such as mosquitoes, can transmit other, more serious pathogens.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(CDC 2024b; Ho 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Parasitic infections include (but are not limited to):\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Hookworm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/head-lice\" target=\"_blank\">Lice infestation\u003C/a> (body, hair, head, public)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/malaria\" target=\"_blank\">Malaria\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pinworm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Scabies\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Tapeworm.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(CDC 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>The Chain of Infection\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The series of events enabling infections to spread between organisms is known as the ‘\u003Cstrong>chain of infection\u003C/strong>’. There are six steps or ‘links’ in the chain that continue to repeat, and breaking any of these links will allow the chain to be dismantled (Reuter 2023).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch3>1. Infectious Agent\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The pathogen that causes the infection (Reuter 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>2. Reservoir\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The habitat where the infectious agent is living and multiplying. This can be a human, animal, object or environmental source such as water or soil (Reuter 2023; ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>3. Portal of Exit\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The means through which the infectious agent escapes from the reservoir. Examples include bodily excretions, open wounds and aerosols (Reuter 2023; ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>4. Mode of transmission\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The way in which the infectious agent spreads from one place to another (Reuter 2023). Different infections use different modes of transmission.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>These modes include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>Droplet transmission\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>The infectious agent spreads through large respiratory droplets in the air, which are then breathed in by another person. These droplets are released when an infected person coughs, sneezes or talks, travelling a short distance (about one metre) before falling to the ground. They may also contaminate nearby surfaces. If an uninfected person makes contact with these contaminated surfaces and touches their eyes, nose or mouth, this may also result in transmission (SA Health 2022; ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>Airborne transmission\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>Similarly to droplet transmission, the infectious agent spreads through respiratory droplets from an infected person. However, these droplets are much smaller in size, meaning they can stay suspended in the air for a longer period of time and be dispersed by air currents. Consequently, the air in the room of someone who has an airborne infection may be contaminated (SA Health 2022; ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch4>Direct contact\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>The infectious agent is spread through direct contact with an infected person/animal or their bodily fluids. This can include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Touching an infected person (skin-to-skin)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Coming into contact with the bodily fluids of an infected person through activities such as kissing, breastfeeding or sexual intercourse\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bodily fluids from an infected person entering the bloodstream of an uninfected person (through needles or breaks in the skin)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being bitten or scratched by an infected animal, or touching their waste.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(SA Health 2022; ACSQHC 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>Indirect contact\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>An uninfected person makes physical contact with a contaminated surface. A common example of this is faecal-oral spread, where tiny amounts of faeces from an infected person’s hands contaminate another surface. An uninfected person makes contact with this surface and then touches their mouth, allowing the particles of faeces to enter their body (SA Health 2022; ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200407_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"indirect transmission door handle\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch4>Insect transmission\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>Parasites such as mosquitoes and ticks may be carriers (‘vectors’) for other disease-causing pathogens such as malaria (SA Health 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch4>Food transmission\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>Some infectious agents can contaminate food or water, resulting in infection when it is consumed (SA Health 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>5. Portal of Entry\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The means through which the infectious agent enters the new host. Depending on the mode of transmission, this can occur via:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Open wounds or cuts\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The respiratory tract\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Mucous membranes\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Medical instruments placed into the body.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Reuter 2023; ACSQHC 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>6. Susceptible Host\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>An uninfected individual who is susceptible to developing an infection when the infectious agent enters their body. Depending on the individual and the invading pathogen, they may be able to fight off the infection. Those who are more susceptible include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Very young children\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Older adults\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/being-immunocompromised\" target=\"_blank\">Immunocompromised\u003C/a> people\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People who are ill\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People with a chronic health condition.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Reuter 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Preventing Infection Transmission (Breaking the Chain)\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200407_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"breaking the chain of infection handwashing\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Hand hygiene can help to break the chain of infection at several links.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>In order to manage and prevent the spread of infectious diseases, it’s crucial to interrupt the chain of infection at any of the six links.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The specific preventative measures used will depend on the pathogen and its mode of transmission. However, the following list offers some suggested strategies for breaking the chain of infection at each link.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Note: Infectious agents may still be present even if preventative measures are taken. However, the more measures implemented, the easier it will be to interrupt links in the chain. Prevention is most effective when a combination of measures is used.\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Cthead>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Stage of the chain\u003C/th>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>How to disrupt it\u003C/th>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/thead>\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>1. Infectious agent\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/antimicrobial-resistance\" target=\"_blank\">Diagnosing and treating infections\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/antimicrobial-resistance\" target=\"_blank\">Antimicrobial stewardship\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>2. Reservoir\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/infection-control-cleaning\" target=\"_blank\">Cleaning, disinfecting and sterilising\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Establishing infection prevention policies\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Pest control\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>3. Portal of exit\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hand-hygiene-101\" target=\"_blank\">Hand hygiene\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/donning-doffing-ppe\" target=\"_blank\">PPE\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Control of aerosols and splatter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Respiratory etiquette\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/waste-management\" target=\"_blank\">Waste disposal\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>4. Mode of transmission\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hand-hygiene-101\" target=\"_blank\">Hand hygiene\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/donning-doffing-ppe\" target=\"_blank\">PPE\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/food-handling-basics\" target=\"_blank\">Food safety\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/infection-control-cleaning\" target=\"_blank\">Cleaning, disinfecting and sterilising\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Isolating affected patients\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>5. Portal of entry\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hand-hygiene-101\" target=\"_blank\">Hand hygiene\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/donning-doffing-ppe\" target=\"_blank\">PPE\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Personal hygiene\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>First aid\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Removing invasive medical devices e.g. catheters and tubes\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>6. Susceptible host\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Immunisation\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Treating underlying conditions\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Patient education\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(APIC 2016)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200407_cover_V2.jpg"],"excerpt":"As a healthcare worker, it’s crucial for you to update your knowledge on the spread and containment of infectious diseases, and what you can do to help break the chain of infection and contain the spread.","reviewDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-04-06T14:00:00Z","guidelines":["40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","b11123e3-09ad-4f1d-9619-98b8ef1c2458","dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Aakash BYJU'S 2023, \u003Cem>Difference Between Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases\u003C/em>, BYJU'S, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://byjus.com/neet/difference-between-communicable-and-non-communicable-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">https://byjus.com/neet/difference-between-communicable-and-non-communicable-disease/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology 2016, \u003Cem>Break the Chain of Infection, Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology\u003C/em>, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://infectionpreventionandyou.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Break-the-Chain-of-Infection.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://infectionpreventionandyou.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Break-the-Chain-of-Infection.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care 2024, \u003Cem>Infection Prevention and Control Workbook\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/publications-and-resources/resource-library/infection-prevention-and-control-workbook-2024\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/publications-and-resources/resource-library/infection-prevention-and-control-workbook-2024\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Biology Dictionary 2019, \u003Cem>Fungi\u003C/em>, Biology Dictionary, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://biologydictionary.net/fungi/\" target=\"_blank\">https://biologydictionary.net/fungi/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2024a, \u003Cem>About Fungal Diseases\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/about/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/about/index.html\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2024b, \u003Cem>About Parasites\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2025, \u003Cem>A-Z Index of Parasitic Diseases\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/az/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/az/index.html\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>What is the Difference Between Bacterial and Viral Infections?\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/bacterial-vs-viral-infection\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/bacterial-vs-viral-infection\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Ho, V 2019, ‘What are Parasites and How do They Make us Sick?’, \u003Cem>The Conversation\u003C/em>, 18 November, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://theconversation.com/what-are-parasites-and-how-do-they-make-us-sick-121489\" target=\"_blank\">https://theconversation.com/what-are-parasites-and-how-do-they-make-us-sick-121489\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Tosh, PK 2023, \u003Cem>Bacterial vs. Viral Infections: How do They Differ?\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/expert-answers/infectious-disease/faq-20058098\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/expert-answers/infectious-disease/faq-20058098\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2022, \u003Cem>Infectious Diseases\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/symptoms-causes/syc-20351173\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/symptoms-causes/syc-20351173\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Human Genome Research Institute 2025, \u003Cem>Virus\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Virus\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Virus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Queensland Government 2023, \u003Cem>Viral Infections\u003C/em>, Queensland Government, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/infections-and-parasites/viral-infections\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/infections-and-parasites/viral-infections\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Reuter, MS 2023, ‘4.2 Chain of Infection’, in \u003Cem>Nursing Assistant\u003C/em>, Chippewa Valley Technical College, Wisconsin, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/nurseassist/chapter/4-2-chain-of-infection/\" target=\"_blank\">https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/nurseassist/chapter/4-2-chain-of-infection/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">SA Health 2022, \u003Cem>Ways Infectious Diseases Spread\u003C/em>, Government of South Australia, viewed 2 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/ways+infectious+diseases+spread\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/ways+infectious+diseases+spread\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Sepsis Alliance 2024, \u003Cem>Parasitic Infections\u003C/em>, Sepsis Alliance, viewed 3 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sepsis.org/sepsisand/parasitic-infections/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sepsis.org/sepsisand/parasitic-infections/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/publications-and-resources/resource-library/infection-prevention-and-control-workbook-2024\" target=\"_blank\">Infection Prevention and Control Workbook | ACSQHC\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://infectionpreventionandyou.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Break-the-Chain-of-Infection.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Break the Chain of Infection | APIC\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"80a8d4bd-8a7c-4782-a61a-3bd280259083","resourceID":"ceee3657-7664-42d0-b588-a18a1f175d52","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"ceee3657-7664-42d0-b588-a18a1f175d52"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"ceee3657-7664-42d0-b588-a18a1f175d52","resourceType":"blog","alias":"infectious-diseases","metaTitle":"Infectious Diseases: Breaking the Chain | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by pathogenic organisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. They may be transmitted by people, animals (zoonotic diseases) or environmental sources (e.g. water), depending on the specific pathogen."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4","title":"Older Adult Respiratory Assessment","activityType":"blog","min":9,"categories":["cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f","44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e","8a64678c-d17c-40a8-988c-fbeefa6e75dd"],"topics":["70e55c50-f65d-4c09-b030-906561b5077b","631049a1-3d46-4057-93b5-47b4f8be1340","78cf0a0f-ec90-4e51-bc8e-6f810c0e8ed4","2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6","3d919f5e-2961-4982-98a1-ab671f2c7975","80284182-20cf-4e8e-bd5c-19bcf62975d0","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea","28b55cca-25fc-450c-88eb-9639d4520b5e"],"keywords":["Respiratory","Ageing","Emergency","Infectious Diseases","Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)","Asthma","Clinical Assessment","Paramedicine"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Paramedic","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Abbie Blog","Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-04-02T13:34:58Z","updateDate":"2025-04-01T01:58:09Z","availableDate":"2025-03-31T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["65a8e001-6249-498a-b33e-86c1fb9a3e36"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">When presented with a critically ill patient, it is crucial to conduct a systematic assessment of that person in order to identify and respond appropriately to any potentially life-threatening conditions (Smith & Bowden 2017).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>When conducting a respiratory assessment, it is important to monitor changes in vital signs in order to recognise a deteriorating patient. You need to be familiar with what is normal so that you can distinguish what is abnormal (ACSQHC 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Although the assessment procedure for older adults is similar to the one used for younger adults, there are some physiological differences between the two age groups that should be considered.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Older Adult Respiratory and Heart Rates\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Generally, breathing and heart rates (resting) do not change much with age (MedlinePlus 2024). For a healthy, average adult, the normal rates are:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Respiration\u003C/strong>: 12 to 20 breaths per minute\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Heart rate\u003C/strong>: 60 to 100 beats per minute.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Sapra et al. 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200406_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"assessing pulse of older patient\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>How are Older Adults Different to Younger Adults?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Although vital signs do not change much with age, there is a gradual decline of lung function over time, starting from about the age of 35 (American Lung Association 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The following are some of the physical changes related to ageing that may cause lung function decline:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Alveoli may lose shape and become baggy\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The diaphragm weakens\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The ribcage bones become thinner and change shape, making it more difficult for them to expand and contract\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nerves in the airway become less sensitive to foreign particles, meaning particles may collect in the lungs and cause tissue damage.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(American Lung Association 2018)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>These changes may cause tiredness or shortness of breath. Furthermore, a weaker immune system means older adults are more susceptible to developing pneumonia (American Lung Association 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>These changes are natural over time, however, they should be gradual and subtle. \u003Cstrong>Sudden changes should be assessed by a healthcare professional\u003C/strong> (American Lung Association 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Respiratory Distress in Older Adults\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/respiratory-tract-infections/view\" target=\"_blank\">Upper respiratory infections\u003C/a> such as croup and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/influenza/view\" target=\"_blank\">influenza\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/respiratory-tract-infections/view\" target=\"_blank\">Lower respiratory infections\u003C/a> such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/pneumonia/view\" target=\"_blank\">pneumonia\u003C/a> and bronchitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>COVID-19\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Lung problems such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/asthma/view\" target=\"_blank\">asthma\u003C/a> and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/asthma-and-copd\" target=\"_blank\">COPD\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Heart problems such as cardiovascular disease and heart failure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Panic attack or \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/anxiety/view\" target=\"_blank\">anxiety\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/anaphylaxis/view\" target=\"_blank\">Allergic reaction\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pulmonary embolism\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Other lung conditions.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200406_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"respiratory distress in older adult\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Symptoms of Respiratory Distress\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Increased respiratory rate\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Colour changes (cyanosis or pallor)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Noises such as stridor, wheezing or grunting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nose flaring\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Retractions of the chest where it appears to sink in below the neck or breastbone with each breath\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sweating\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Accessory muscle use\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Changes in consciousness state\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Body position changes (e.g. leaning forward while sitting).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Johns Hopkins Medicine 2019; Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>If the older adult has a cognitive impairment such as dementia, it may be difficult for them to communicate, especially in emergency situations. Therefore, it is crucial to assess for the physical symptoms above in case the patient is not able to verbalise their needs.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessment of Respiratory Distress\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Early recognition of respiratory distress and deficit is vital to the successful management of sick patients and the prevention of further deterioration or arrest. In order to manage respiratory distress, it is important to have a systematic approach to assessment (Smith & Bowden 2017).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/abcde-assessment\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>ABCDE approach\u003C/strong>\u003C/a> - Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability and Exposure - is a simple and effective method of assessment.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the airway, you should consider the following:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Is there airway patency?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Are there any signs of airway obstruction?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Is breathing overly noisy or silent?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Is the patient breathing paradoxically or using accessory muscles?\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the breathing, you should consider the following:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Is the patient displaying any general signs of respiratory distress e.g. sweating, central cyanosis, use of accessory muscles or abdominal breathing?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>What is the respiratory rate?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Assess the depth of each breath, the respiration rhythm and whether chest expansion is equal on both sides\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Assess whether there is any chest deformity e.g. raised jugular venous pulse or abdominal distension.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Refer to \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/abcde-assessment\" target=\"_blank\">How To Assess a Deteriorating / Critically Ill Patient (ABCDE Assessment)\u003C/a> for a comprehensive explanation of the ABCDE assessment process.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Always Remember\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200406_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"respiratory assessment emergency\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>You need to be aware of what is normal before you can recognise what is abnormal. It’s helpful to establish a baseline to compare progress or deterioration. Use a systematic approach, such as the ABCDE approach.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>The goal of assessment is not to make a diagnosis but to identify a deteriorating patient and respond to the symptoms in order to prevent arrest.\u003C/strong> Consider oxygen, suction and medication depending on the assessment (Resuscitation Council UK 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Following the initial assessment (and resuscitation if required), a secondary structured assessment should be undertaken to identify any other key signs or symptoms (Resuscitation Council UK 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the airway, the life threat to identify is airway obstruction. This is a medical emergency that may result in hypoxia, damage to the brain, kidneys or heart, cardiac arrest or death. It requires prompt management so that the patient can be oxygenated (Resuscitation Council UK 2024).\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200406_cover_v2.jpg"],"excerpt":"When presented with a critically ill patient, it is crucial to conduct a systematic assessment of that person in order to identify and respond appropriately to any potentially life-threatening conditions.","reviewDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-04-05T14:00:00Z","guidelines":["40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","8461199e-7ea7-4078-8e91-6933f90a9bf3","dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Lung Association 2018, ‘Your Aging Lungs’, \u003Cem>Each Breath\u003C/em>, 24 April, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.lung.org/blog/your-aging-lungs\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.lung.org/blog/your-aging-lungs\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care 2024, \u003Cem>Detecting and Recognising Acute Deterioration, and Escalating Care\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/standards/nsqhs-standards/recognising-and-responding-acute-deterioration-standard/detecting-and-recognising-acute-deterioration-and-escalating-care\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/standards/nsqhs-standards/recognising-and-responding-acute-deterioration-standard/detecting-and-recognising-acute-deterioration-and-escalating-care\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023, \u003Cem>Shortness of Breath\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/breathing-problems\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/breathing-problems\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Johns Hopkins Medicine 2019, \u003Cem>Signs of Respiratory Distress\u003C/em>, The Johns Hopkins University, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/signs-of-respiratory-distress\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/signs-of-respiratory-distress\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">MedlinePlus 2024, \u003Cem>Aging Changes in Vital Signs\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004019.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004019.htm\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Resuscitation Council UK 2024, \u003Cem>The ABCDE Approach\u003C/em>, Resuscitation Council UK, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.resus.org.uk/library/abcde-approach\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.resus.org.uk/library/abcde-approach\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Sapra, A, Malik, A & Bhandari, P 2023, ‘Vital Sign Assessment’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553213/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553213/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Smith, D & Bowden, T 2017, ‘Using the ABCDE Approach to Assess the Deteriorating Patient’, \u003Cem>Nursing Standard\u003C/em>, vol. 32, no. 14, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://journals.rcni.com/nursing-standard/using-the-abcde-approach-to-assess-the-deteriorating-patient-ns.2017.e11030\" target=\"_blank\">https://journals.rcni.com/nursing-standard/using-the-abcde-approach-to-assess-the-deteriorating-patient-ns.2017.e11030\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ambulance.qld.gov.au/docs/clinical/cpp/CPP_Respiratory%20status.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Clinical Practice Procedures: Assessment/Respiratory Status | Queensland Ambulance Service\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.resus.org.uk/library/abcde-approach\" target=\"_blank\">The ABCDE Approach | Resuscitation Council UK\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"22a52939-f26d-41f0-bf17-3c4251df9014","resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4","educatorID":"52fb81cf-8c74-4fb1-b8d7-55674b8342d6","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"52fb81cf-8c74-4fb1-b8d7-55674b8342d6","firstName":"Abbie","lastName":"Blog","createDate":"2019-05-29T17:56:18Z","updateDate":"2019-08-13T13:58:25Z","alias":"abbie-blog","contactDetail":{"position":"","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["879d22cc-64ff-4e22-b5af-36b27a155494"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Abbie is a Nurse Practitioner currently working in a Specialist Allergy Clinic in Brisbane. She has been a paediatric nurse for over 20 years originally working in the UK before moving to Australia with her young family 8 years ago. Abbie has a diverse career working with some of the most vulnerable patients. She has worked in paediatric oncology , emergency and general paediatrics. She has worked for NGO's in the fields of child protection and parental support as well as currently working with re- settled refugees. Abbie is a passionate nursing advocate and has just started the new challenge of blogging.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}},{"relationID":"99136d30-5167-4716-aeaa-adbb47e52246","resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"c2e4c7fd-0bbf-4530-b394-77f683368ef4","resourceType":"blog","alias":"older-adult-respiratory-assessment","metaTitle":"Older Adult Respiratory Assessment | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Although the assessment procedure for older adults is similar to the one used for younger adults, there are some physiological differences between the two age groups that should be considered."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"a64bfd43-8d49-41a9-b22b-f1f77b5b99a8","title":"Paracetamol Management and Safety","activityType":"blog","min":12,"categories":["0e5c98bb-e861-4148-9cd2-1ca0b334961d","3a3973b8-1857-4469-936b-c68abe9cb6e9","cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f","44f9a21a-0f52-4f23-8fc7-280d6d07048d"],"topics":["84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","78cf0a0f-ec90-4e51-bc8e-6f810c0e8ed4","f2e0da36-8418-4060-8c79-29897750f778","352990e1-c115-4e9f-9f85-f83bcee39f48","09a0c133-a25d-47ba-a10a-de5e88cdce4d","fd9e05d8-b7c3-4a94-8cb6-396a66fc5f2f","be01e288-5038-4dfa-a6a3-cad7f7c07dbc"],"keywords":["Critical Care","Emergency","Medications","Paediatrics","Pharmacy","Pain","Addiction and Substance Abuse"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife","Pharmacist","Pharmacy Student","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-04-04T05:32:30Z","updateDate":"2025-04-01T01:12:53Z","availableDate":"2025-03-31T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["0f948718-37ca-431e-9c81-4eb0840706c9","40db273c-39e4-433b-8ec4-3b02ca7f2744","4d0b2eb1-0e67-4579-8e6b-88d6e7b77195","5535ea72-f945-4b6d-a4b0-8d88aafaaa5d","c63eef3f-3cbd-4216-a81a-7b4de614aa90"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"a64bfd43-8d49-41a9-b22b-f1f77b5b99a8","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Paracetamol is the most commonly used analgesic medicine in Australia (Liotta 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>It’s also the \u003Cstrong>most frequently overdosed\u003C/strong> medicine, the \u003Cstrong>most common reason for calling poisons centres\u003C/strong>, the \u003Cstrong>top cause of acute liver failure\u003C/strong> in Western countries, and was \u003Cstrong>responsible for over 95,000 hospitalisations and 200 deaths\u003C/strong> in Australia between 2007-08 and 2016-17 (Cairns 2019; Cairns et al. 2019).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Every year in Australia, paracetamol overdose is responsible for about 225 liver injury hospitalisations and 50 deaths (TGA 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>While paracetamol is considered safe and effective if used as directed, taking more than the recommended dose or overdosing, can be dangerous and in severe cases, fatal (Healthdirect 2023).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>With paracetamol being such a widespread and frequently used medicine, it’s crucial for healthcare professionals to be able to understand the potential dangers of paracetamol misuse and recognise and respond to the signs of overdose safely.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is Paracetamol?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Paracetamol\u003C/strong>, also known as \u003Cstrong>acetaminophen\u003C/strong>, is an \u003Cstrong>analgesic medicine\u003C/strong> used to \u003Cstrong>reduce fever\u003C/strong> and \u003Cstrong>manage mild to moderate acute or chronic pain\u003C/strong>. It’s a \u003Cstrong>first-line treatment\u003C/strong> recommended for pain that can’t be managed using non-pharmacological methods (e.g. rest, ice or heat packs) (Healthdirect 2023; NPS MedicineWise 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol is typically preferred to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen when treating mild to moderate pain as it has less adverse effects (AMH 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol may be used to manage a variety of ailments. Examples include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Back pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Headaches\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Migraine\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Muscle strains\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Menstrual cramps\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Toothache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cold or flu symptoms.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220404_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"woman taking paracetamol\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Paracetamol is an analgesic medicine used to reduce fever and manage mild to moderate acute or chronic pain.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol comes in a variety of forms, including:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Tablets\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Capsules\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Liquid\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Suppositories\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Soluble powders.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ADF 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What’s the Recommended Dose of Paracetamol?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>According to the Therapeutic Goods Administration (2019):\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Recommended dose\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Maximum amount in one 24-hour period\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Adults and children over 12 years\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>500 mg to 1 g every four to six hours as required\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>4 g\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Children aged 1 month to 12 years\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>15 mg per kilogram of the child’s body weight, every four to six hours as required\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>Four doses\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>When administering paracetamol:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Always follow the instructions on the label, and\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Do not\u003C/strong> administer more than one medicine containing paracetamol at the same time.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(TGA 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is Paracetamol Overdose?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>According to the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mja.com.au/sites/default/files/issues/212_04/mja250428-sup-0001-Supinfo.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cem>Guidelines for the Management of Paracetamol Poisoning in Australia and New Zealand\u003C/em>\u003C/a>, paracetamol overdose in \u003Cstrong>adults\u003C/strong> is characterised by either:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>10 g (10,000 mg) or 200 mg per kilogram\u003C/strong> of the person’s body weight (whichever is less) as an \u003Cstrong>acute single ingestion\u003C/strong> (i.e. any intentional overdose, including staggered or multiple ingestions over more than two hours)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>12 g (12,000 mg) or 300 mg per kilogram\u003C/strong> of the person’s body weight (whichever is less) \u003Cstrong>within a 48-hour period\u003C/strong>, or\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Taking the \u003Cstrong>maximum daily dose per day for more than 48 hours\u003C/strong>, where the person is \u003Cstrong>also experiencing abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting\u003C/strong>.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Chiew et al. 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>The Dangers of Paracetamol Overdose\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol has potentially \u003Cstrong>hepatotoxic\u003C/strong> properties - that is, it’s capable of causing liver injury or damage (Farrell 2024). This is due to a toxic metabolite known as \u003Cstrong>N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI)\u003C/strong>, which forms after paracetamol is administered and can cause damage to liver cells. NAPQI can be detoxified by a substance called \u003Cstrong>glutathione\u003C/strong> in the liver, however, excessive amounts of paracetamol use up the glutathione stores, allowing NAPQI to accumulate and cause liver damage (Long 2020; Vincent 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>This can lead to liver failure, which is potentially fatal (Vincent 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Paracetamol Overdose and Misuse\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>Read: \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/poison/\" target=\"_blank\">Acute Management of Poisoning\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol overdose may be \u003Cstrong>intentional\u003C/strong> or \u003Cstrong>accidental\u003C/strong> (Cairns 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Intentional poisoning\u003C/strong>, wherein an individual knowingly takes an excessive amount of paracetamol as a form of self-harm, accounts for most (about three-quarters of) paracetamol overdose cases (Cairns 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Accidental overdose\u003C/strong> may occur for a variety of reasons but is often associated with children finding and ingesting paracetamol in the home (NPS MedicineWise 2019). Other causes of accidental overdose include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Assuming it’s safe to take more than the recommended dose due to being able to buy it over the counter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Taking more than the recommended dose because the desired effect has not been achieved (e.g. the person is still in pain)\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Taking several medicines that contain paracetamol at the same time\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Lack of knowledge about paracetamol and its risks\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Using adult formulations instead of paediatric formulations when treating children.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Cairns 2019; NPS MedicineWise 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220404_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"accidental paracetamol overdose child playing with medicine\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Accidental overdose may occur for a variety of reasons but is often associated with children finding and ingesting paracetamol being kept in the home.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Another contributing factor is the narrow margin between paracetamol’s maximum daily dose and the amount needed to cause overdose (Better Health Channel 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Who Can Take Paracetamol?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>As long as it’s used at the recommended dose, paracetamol is safe for:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Children\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People who are pregnant\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People who are breastfeeding.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>People who should seek advice before taking paracetamol include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Those with liver or kidney issues\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Those experiencing issues with alcohol\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Those who are very underweight.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Certain medicines may not be safe to take alongside paracetamol as there is the potential for unpredictable reactions. These medicines include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Other medicines containing paracetamol, including combination medicines\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Carbamazepine\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Colestyramine\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Imatinib and busulfan\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Ketoconazole\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Lixisenatide\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Metoclopramide\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Phenobarbital, phenytoin and primidone.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS Inform 2024; Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Note: Adults \u003Cstrong>can\u003C/strong> take paracetamol alongside other analgesics that do not contain paracetamol, including ibuprofen, aspirin and codeine (NHS 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Signs of Paracetamol Overdose\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms of paracetamol overdose often don’t appear until two to three days after the paracetamol was ingested. They might include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Drowsiness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abdominal pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nausea\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Vomiting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Seizures\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Coma.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Note: Side effects of paracetamol are different to overdose symptoms and may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Fatigue\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rash and itching\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hypoglycaemia and tremors (in children)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feeling hungry, faint or confused (in children)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Flushing and rapid heartbeat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/anaphylaxis/view\" target=\"_blank\">Allergic reaction\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Blood disorders.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ADF 2025; NHS Inform 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Treating Paracetamol Overdose\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220404_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"paracetamol overdose empty blister packs\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Paracetamol overdose is a medical emergency.\u003C/strong> If someone you are caring for is displaying signs of paracetamol overdose, \u003Cstrong>call 000 for an ambulance immediately\u003C/strong>. If someone has taken more than the recommended dose of paracetamol, \u003Cstrong>even if they appear well and are displaying no symptoms, treatment must be commenced as soon as possible\u003C/strong> (Better Health Channel 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>If in doubt, always contact the national \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/contacts/poisons-information-centre\" target=\"_blank\">Poisons Information Centre\u003C/a> on \u003Cstrong>131 126\u003C/strong>.\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>If the patient is in a critical state, they may require resuscitation, stabilisation and admission to the intensive care unit (Vincent 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Specific management of paracetamol overdose will depend on a number of factors, including:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The amount ingested\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Whether the formulation is immediate or modified-release\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Whether the ingestion was acute, staggered or repeated supratherapeutic\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The time of ingestion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The patient’s symptoms.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Long 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>As a very general rule:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Patients who present early should be administered activated charcoal to prevent the paracetamol from being absorbed\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Patients at risk of hepatotoxicity should be administered the antidote \u003Cstrong>N-Acetyl Cysteine (acetylcysteine)\u003C/strong> intravenously. If administered within eight hours of paracetamol ingestion, acetylcysteine is 100% effective at preventing liver injury.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Chiew 2019; Farrell 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>Note: This is a very basic overview of treatment for paracetamol overdose. For comprehensive information and advice, refer to the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mja.com.au/sites/default/files/issues/212_04/mja250428-sup-0001-Supinfo.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Guidelines for the Management of Paracetamol Poisoning in Australia and New Zealand\u003C/a>.\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Preventing Paracetamol Overdose\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>In order to reduce the risk of paracetamol overdose as much as possible:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Always read and follow the directions on the medicine packaging\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Ensure you use the correct formulation and strength for the patient’s age\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Always measure and take the patient’s body weight into account when administering paracetamol, if indicated (e.g. in the case of children)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Never exceed the maximum recommended dose\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>If administering paracetamol in a liquid form, always ensure you measure accurately\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Document all medicine administered\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Store medicines away from children\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Never administer paracetamol together with other paracetamol-containing medicines.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NPS MedicineWise 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Changes to Paracetamol Pack Sizes in Australia\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>As of 1 February 2025, there are new requirements in place for paracetamol pack sizes. This decision was made by the Therapeutic Goods Administration in an effort to reduce the risk of intentional paracetamol overdose. These changes require that:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Non-pharmacy retailers such as supermarkets, petrol stations and convenience stores may only sell 16-packs of paracetamol tablets or capsules (instead of 20-packs)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pharmacies may only sell 100-packs of paracetamol tablets or capsules under the supervision of a pharmacist; without pharmacy supervision, only packs of 50 can be sold (in most jurisdictions).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(TGA 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>For further information on these changes, see \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tga.gov.au/news/blog/comply-paracetamol-pack-size-changes\" target=\"_blank\">this article on the TGA’s website\u003C/a>.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Conclusion\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol is extremely useful due to its availability, efficacy and safety when used according to directions. However, while paracetamol is easy to purchase and widely accessible, it’s important not to wrongly assume that there are no risks associated with this medicine.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Paracetamol overdose has caused thousands of hospitalisations and hundreds of deaths in Australia. In order to ensure paracetamol is used safely, it’s crucial to always follow the instructions on the packaging.\u003C/p>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220404_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"With paracetamol being such a widespread and frequently used medicine, it’s crucial for healthcare professionals to be able to understand the potential dangers of paracetamol misuse and recognise and respond to the signs of overdose safely.","reviewDate":"2027-04-29T14:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-04-03T14:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","65696b81-a9df-479a-ab11-f24f51ecbed5"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Alcohol and Drug Foundation 2025, \u003Cem>Paracetamol\u003C/em>, ADF, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/paracetamol/\" target=\"_blank\">https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/paracetamol/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Medicines Handbook 2025, \u003Cem>Paracetamol\u003C/em>, AMH, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://amhonline.amh.net.au/chapters/analgesics/drugs-pain-relief/non-opioid-analgesics/paracetamol\" target=\"_blank\">https://amhonline.amh.net.au/chapters/analgesics/drugs-pain-relief/non-opioid-analgesics/paracetamol\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2023, \u003Cem>Drug Overdose\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/drug-overdose\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/drug-overdose\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cairns, R 2019, ‘Australia Has a Paracetamol Poisoning Problem’, \u003Cem>The Conversation\u003C/em>, 2 September, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://theconversation.com/australia-has-a-paracetamol-poisoning-problem-this-is-what-we-should-be-doing-to-reduce-harm-122532\" target=\"_blank\">https://theconversation.com/australia-has-a-paracetamol-poisoning-problem-this-is-what-we-should-be-doing-to-reduce-harm-122532\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cairns, R, Brown, JA, Wylie, CE et al. 2019, ‘Paracetamol Poisoning-Related Hospital Admissions and Deaths in Australia, 2004–2017’, \u003Cem>The Medical Journal of Australia\u003C/em>, vol. 211, no. 5, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2019/211/5/paracetamol-poisoning-related-hospital-admissions-and-deaths-australia-2004-2017\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2019/211/5/paracetamol-poisoning-related-hospital-admissions-and-deaths-australia-2004-2017\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Chiew, AL, Reith, DM, Pomerleau, AC et al. 2019, ‘Updated Guidelines for the Management of Paracetamol Poisoning in Australia and New Zealand - Explanation and Elaboration’, \u003Cem>The Medical Journal of Australia\u003C/em>, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mja.com.au/sites/default/files/issues/212_04/mja250428-sup-0001-Supinfo.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mja.com.au/sites/default/files/issues/212_04/mja250428-sup-0001-Supinfo.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Farrell, SE 2024, \u003Cem>Acetaminophen Toxicity\u003C/em>, Medscape, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/820200-overview\" target=\"_blank\">https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/820200-overview\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023, \u003Cem>Paracetamol\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/paracetamol\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/paracetamol\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Liotta, M 2022, ‘Considerations When Selecting First-Line Analgesics’, \u003Cem>newsGP\u003C/em>, 27 June, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www1.racgp.org.au/newsgp/clinical/considerations-when-selecting-first-line-analgesic\" target=\"_blank\">https://www1.racgp.org.au/newsgp/clinical/considerations-when-selecting-first-line-analgesic\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Long, N 2020, \u003Cem>Paracetamol Toxicity\u003C/em>, Life in the Fast Lane, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://litfl.com/paracetamol-toxicity/\" target=\"_blank\">https://litfl.com/paracetamol-toxicity/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Health Service 2022, \u003Cem>Taking Paracetamol for Adults with Other Medicines and Herbal Supplements\u003C/em>, NHS, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/paracetamol-for-adults/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/paracetamol-for-adults/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">NHS Inform 2024, Paracetamol, NHS Scotland, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhsinform.scot/tests-and-treatments/medicines-and-medical-aids/types-of-medicine/paracetamol\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhsinform.scot/tests-and-treatments/medicines-and-medical-aids/types-of-medicine/paracetamol\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">NPS MedicineWise 2019, ‘Rates of Paracetamol Overdose Continue to Rise in Australia’, \u003Cem>NPS MedicineWise News\u003C/em>, 29 October, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nps.org.au/news/paracetamol-overdoses-rise\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nps.org.au/news/paracetamol-overdoses-rise\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Therapeutic Goods Administration 2019, \u003Cem>Recommended Paracetamol Doses\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tga.gov.au/community-qa/recommended-paracetamol-doses\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.tga.gov.au/community-qa/recommended-paracetamol-doses\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Therapeutic Goods Administration 2024, ‘Comply with Paracetamol Pack Size Changes’, \u003Cem>TGA Blog\u003C/em>, 5 December, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tga.gov.au/news/blog/comply-paracetamol-pack-size-changes\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.tga.gov.au/news/blog/comply-paracetamol-pack-size-changes\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Vincent, P 2024, \u003Cem>Paracetamol Overdose\u003C/em>, Patient, viewed 1 April 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://patient.info/treatment-medication/paracetamol-overdose\" target=\"_blank\">https://patient.info/treatment-medication/paracetamol-overdose\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.mja.com.au/sites/default/files/issues/212_04/mja250428-sup-0001-Supinfo.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Guidelines for the Management of Paracetamol Poisoning in Australia and New Zealand\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/contacts/poisons-information-centre\" target=\"_blank\">Poisons Information Centre\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.tga.gov.au/news/blog/comply-paracetamol-pack-size-changes\" target=\"_blank\">Comply with Paracetamol Pack Size Changes | Therapeutic Goods Administration\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"333c1776-6e00-46f6-945f-8176d3dd361b","resourceID":"a64bfd43-8d49-41a9-b22b-f1f77b5b99a8","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"a64bfd43-8d49-41a9-b22b-f1f77b5b99a8"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"a64bfd43-8d49-41a9-b22b-f1f77b5b99a8","resourceType":"blog","alias":"paracetamol","metaTitle":"Paracetamol Management and Safety | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Paracetamol is the most commonly used analgesic medicine in Australia. It’s also the most frequently overdosed medicine, the most common reason for calling poisons centres, the top cause of acute liver failure in Western countries, and was responsible for over 95,000 hospitalisations and 200 deaths in Australia between 2007-08 and 2016-17. Every year in Australia, paracetamol overdose is responsible for about 225 liver injury hospitalisations and 50 deaths."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"04dee23e-b083-4d02-a0f3-ab711c3f7c81","title":"The Fourth Trimester","activityType":"blog","min":6,"categories":["eba3ce28-7fb9-4bed-bb57-67c03238dbc2"],"topics":["5f86f5de-c5d0-48a4-aedf-ef28698c9036","52691b34-5be2-45c4-b6da-7b4ac66381ee","807b94e9-f81a-4574-9869-88f23afe161d","aa3d2aa6-d04a-40c0-899f-2e48df71988b","266dc235-aa68-4600-839d-a7eb8352471c","05b5304d-946e-48c8-b471-496fad09795b"],"keywords":["Maternity","Midwifery","Neonatal","Obstetrics","Pregnancy","Women's Health"],"professions":["Registered Midwife"],"educatorNames":["Anne Watkins"],"createDate":"2022-03-31T00:45:25Z","updateDate":"2025-03-28T03:20:55Z","availableDate":"2025-03-27T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["5dcf1897-66a9-4ab4-ad41-f6a154311080"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"04dee23e-b083-4d02-a0f3-ab711c3f7c81","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">The first few months after birth are essential for establishing family wellbeing.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The first 12 weeks postpartum, also known as the \u003Cstrong>fourth trimester\u003C/strong>, should be seen as a \u003Cstrong>continuum of pregnancy and an important period of recovery and family adjustment\u003C/strong> (Verbiest et al. 2018).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Typically a time of great joy, the early postpartum period is also a time of significant challenge as new parents adapt to hormonal and physical changes, recover from delivery, endure sleep deprivation and adapt to shifting family responsibilities (Spelke & Werner 2018).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Given the significance of all these changes, Goldfarb (2021) asks why monitoring, support and anticipatory guidance are not offered with the same intensity as during the antenatal period, as most parents would benefit from much closer follow-up during the fourth trimester.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Postnatal Advice and Assessment\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220331_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"fourth trimester mother with newborn\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>The early postpartum period can be a time of significant challenge.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The fourth trimester can be a time of great vulnerability, especially for new parents, who tend to focus all of their attention on their newborns, often to the detriment of their personal health and wellbeing (Pregnancy, Birth and Baby 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The key considerations when assessing early postnatal health include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Bleeding\u003C/h3> \n\n\u003Cp>This should diminish in the weeks following birth, gradually changing in colour from bright red to a brown lochia before ceasing entirely. Patients should be advised to report the presence of any blood clots and reassured that afterpains might be more noticeable and bleeding heavier in the early days while breastfeeding.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Elimination\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>For those who have had a vaginal birth, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/perineal-tears/view\" target=\"_blank\">grazes or tears to the skin around the vagina\u003C/a> can cause pain when passing urine. Reassurance should be given that this is normal, and simple self-help techniques should be suggested, such as drinking plenty of water to dilute the urine and pouring lukewarm water over the perineum to reduce any stinging sensation whilst urinating. Advice should also be offered at this time to help the patient avoid constipation, especially if haemorrhoids are present.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Stitches\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Basic wound care advice should be given to those who have stitches following a caesarean birth, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/perineal-tears/view\" target=\"_blank\">perineal tear\u003C/a> or episiotomy.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch3>Breastfeeding\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Many people find the changes in their breasts in the early postnatal days to be concerning, whether they are breastfeeding or not. For those who choose to breastfeed, this is one of the most important areas where ongoing skilled support is needed.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/pelvic-floor-exercise/view\" target=\"_blank\">Pelvic Floor Exercises\u003C/a>\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220331_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"fourth trimester pelvic floor exercise\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Stress incontinence is a common problem in the immediate postnatal period. Although most people learn how to perform pelvic floor exercises in antenatal classes, encouragement should be given for regular practice in the early days following delivery.\u003C/p>\n \n\u003Ch3>Sex\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Physical recovery, exhaustion and hormonal changes can affect sexual desire after childbirth and patients often need reassurance that it’s entirely normal to ease back into a sexual relationship at their own pace. This is also an important time to discuss future methods of contraception.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Managing Expectations\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Supporting the entire family as they adapt to change and encouraging realistic expectations about the challenges of early parenthood is another vital, though often overlooked aspect of fourth-trimester care.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(RANZCOG 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Improving Fourth Trimester Care\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Spelke and Werner (2018) suggest that even though physical checks are of the utmost importance, there can be a disconnect between clinical considerations such as signs of infection, and the concerns of patients, who may experience significant distress from symptoms that are considered to be a ‘normal’ part of parenthood, such as sleep deprivation, discomfort and emotional changes.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Many researchers, including Tully et al. (2017), have been exploring this practice gap. Their suggestions for improving postpartum care include enabling more convenient, holistic care that is culturally appropriate, and which addresses the interrelated health issues that are most important to women.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Written or multimedia aids such as handouts, videos or websites can also be helpful postpartum resources after discharge. As Spelke and Werner (2018) note, this is a request that is often voiced in focus groups, reflecting the need for additional support for new parents.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The fourth trimester is also a period of healthcare transition, as patients shift from pregnancy-centred care to interpregnancy and then primary care services. However, this transition can be marked by poor coordination of care between providers, which can leave new parents feeling unsupported.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220331_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"fourth trimester pelvic floor brochures\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Written or multimedia aids such as handouts, videos or websites can be helpful postpartum resources after discharge. \u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Creating a Postnatal Plan\u003C/h2>\n \n\u003Cp>Creating a postnatal plan can be just as valuable as creating a birth plan, especially for single or first-time patients. As Goldfarb (2021) describes, there are many online resources available to help parents do this. Just as with a birth plan, actively planning for optimal postnatal care can be an efficient way of helping parents express their concerns and get the support they need.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>As Savage (2020) says, \u003Cstrong>if planning for birth is good practice, then planning for the fourth trimester is also good practice\u003C/strong>, and the more specific or detailed the plan is, the more helpful it is likely to be.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Ideally, parents should start to formalise their plan no later than the third trimester. Their plan should be meaningful, realistic, achievable, action-specific, anticipate barriers and include reinforcement. Perhaps most importantly, a fourth trimester plan should also include information on how to access additional resources such as community support groups.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Social support within the person’s local community is essential in the fourth trimester, as it can make the transition into parenthood easier, less stressful and more enjoyable. Cornish and Dobie (2018) also believe that this topic warrants further research, as there can be significant differences in the need for social support between inexperienced primiparous and experienced multiparous parents.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>As Savage (2020) says, the fourth trimester is characterised by a myriad of profound changes that affect the physical, emotional, social, and spiritual needs of the parent as they adjust to parenthood.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Perhaps, as One for Women (2019) suggests, the reason why the fourth trimester is often called the ‘silent’ trimester is that it is under-represented and poorly understood, leaving many people feeling forgotten as they embark on the most challenging transition of their life.\u003C/p>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220331_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"The fourth trimester can be a time of great vulnerability, especially for new parents, who tend to focus all of their attention on their newborns, often to the detriment of their personal health and wellbeing.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-30T13:00:00Z","references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cornish, DL & Dobie, SR 2018, 'Social Support in the “Fourth Trimester”: A Qualitative Analysis of Women at 1 Month and 3 Months Postpartum', \u003Cem>The Journal of Perinatal Education\u003C/em>, vol. 27, no. 4, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6491158/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6491158/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Goldfarb, IT 2021, 'The Fourth Trimester: What You Should Know - Harvard Health', \u003Cem>Harvard Health Blog\u003C/em>, 6 April, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-fourth-trimester-what-you-should-know-2019071617314\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-fourth-trimester-what-you-should-know-2019071617314\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">One for Women 2019, \u003Cem>A New Approach to Delivering Care in the Fourth Trimester\u003C/em>, One for Women, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302031550/https://www.oneforwomen.com.au/blog/a-new-approach-to-delivering-care-in-the-fourth-trimester/\" target=\"_blank\">https://web.archive.org/web/20200302031550/https://www.oneforwomen.com.au/blog/a-new-approach-to-delivering-care-in-the-fourth-trimester/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Pregnancy, Birth and Baby 2023, \u003Cem>What is the Fourth Trimester?\u003C/em>, Healthdirect Australia, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/what-is-the-fourth-trimester\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/what-is-the-fourth-trimester\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 2024, \u003Cem>The First Few Weeks Following Birth\u003C/em>, RANZCOG, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://ranzcog.edu.au/womens-health/patient-information-resources/first-few-weeks\" target=\"_blank\">https://ranzcog.edu.au/womens-health/patient-information-resources/first-few-weeks\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Savage, JS 2020, 'A Fourth Trimester Action Plan for Wellness', \u003Cem>The Journal of Perinatal Education\u003C/em>, vol. 29, no. 2, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrjpe/29/2/103.abstract\" target=\"_blank\">https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrjpe/29/2/103.abstract\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Spelke, B & Werner, E 2018, 'The Fourth Trimester of Pregnancy: Committing to Maternal Health and Well-Being Postpartum', \u003Cem>Rhode Island Medical Journal\u003C/em>, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"http://www.rimed.org/rimedicaljournal/2018/10/2018-10-30-obgyn-spelke.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.rimed.org/rimedicaljournal/2018/10/2018-10-30-obgyn-spelke.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Tully, K, Stuebe, A & Verbiest, S 2017, 'The Fourth Trimester: A Critical Transition Period With Unmet Maternal Health Needs', \u003Cem>American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology\u003C/em>, vol. 217, no. 1, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(17)30498-2/fulltext\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(17)30498-2/fulltext\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Verbiest, S, Tully, K, Simpson, M & Stuebe, A 2018, 'Elevating Mothers’ Voices: Recommendations For Improved Patient-Centered Postpartum', \u003Cem>Journal of Behavioral Medicine\u003C/em>, vol. 41, no. 5, viewed 28 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10865-018-9961-4\" target=\"_blank\">https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10865-018-9961-4\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"39b1e7b9-a564-467c-907c-f2d0bd92323d","resourceID":"04dee23e-b083-4d02-a0f3-ab711c3f7c81","educatorID":"5221f5d7-7bcf-4ec4-9df4-1a8ad3ca63fd","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"5221f5d7-7bcf-4ec4-9df4-1a8ad3ca63fd","firstName":"Anne","lastName":"Watkins","createDate":"2019-05-29T18:05:19Z","updateDate":"2020-09-21T17:04:45Z","alias":"anne-watkins","contactDetail":{"position":"","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/uxXoqUxW6UuCoD6ybJ_x2ileK3N49Vt-L3O-NfC705YdMnWTgrBv040MNhKcWYvtpoGJYpnoUZQWgRYrHYHZm71LnQ9J9A","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["52691b34-5be2-45c4-b6da-7b4ac66381ee","84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","97e82e32-ac95-4122-acbb-2716123d315b","4a73551a-60c8-459b-a5db-128697640738","60795af1-0984-43a3-9526-476e57b4193a","e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Anne is a freelance lecturer and medical writer at Mind Body Ink. She is a former midwife and nurse teacher with over 25 years’ experience working in the fields of healthcare, stress management and medical hypnosis. Her background includes working as a hospital midwife, Critical Care nurse, lecturer in Neonatal Intensive Care, and as a Clinical Nurse Specialist for a company making life support equipment. Anne has also studied many forms of complementary medicine and has extensive experience in the field of clinical hypnosis. She has a special interest in integrating complementary medicine into conventional healthcare settings and is currently an Associate Tutor, lecturing in Health Coaching and Medical Hypnosis at Exeter University in the UK. As a former Midwife, Anne has a natural passion for writing about fertility, pregnancy, birthing and baby care. Her recent publications include The Health Factor, Coach Yourself To Better Health and Positive Thinking For Kids. You can read more about her work at www.MindBodyInk.com.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"04dee23e-b083-4d02-a0f3-ab711c3f7c81"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"04dee23e-b083-4d02-a0f3-ab711c3f7c81","resourceType":"blog","alias":"fourth-trimester","metaTitle":"The Fourth Trimester | Ausmed","metaDescription":"The first 12 weeks postpartum, also known as the fourth trimester, should be seen as a continuum of pregnancy and an important period of recovery and family adjustment."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"58797128-0dfd-4452-8497-8156905fa645","title":"Overview of the National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program","activityType":"blog","min":18,"categories":["9d2c64a9-cd8c-4ec4-8bf6-ec83b607d9ad","fdf4b1d2-47dd-43c1-a1d5-ac88751342a0"],"topics":["f524fe22-809f-4707-b9c7-1a3e5257e052","d22e32d6-1e7d-4d7d-bfa7-92602f0699cf","967f8195-b8cd-4ed8-8288-7d0fe9c7f62f","7c99ef37-12e4-4a15-a673-d0d6f03612f3","f2e0da36-8418-4060-8c79-29897750f778","6ce71b41-1d03-4872-b675-b74ed747ec8b","49674a75-4c40-4c6a-9fc0-7b634e58d60b","2bc0050d-5405-451d-9f46-7c79aad71a1d","dc0e9bf6-f5f8-4021-b317-6dd32a243a01"],"keywords":["Documentation","Residential Aged Care","Aged Care","Falls","Medications","Nutrition","Restrictive Practices","Activities of Daily Living (ADLs)","Incontinence"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2023-03-31T05:21:36Z","updateDate":"2025-03-28T01:40:22Z","availableDate":"2025-03-27T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"58797128-0dfd-4452-8497-8156905fa645","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Ch2>What is the National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The \u003Cstrong>National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program (QI Program)\u003C/strong>, which was introduced on 1 July 2019, \u003Cstrong>requires Commonwealth-subsidised residential aged care services to collect data and report on specific areas of care that older adults have identified as being most important to them\u003C/strong> (DoHaAC 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Providers must report their performance across each of these quality indicators \u003Cstrong>every three months\u003C/strong> in order to measure the quality and safety of their services and facilitate continuous improvement (DoHaAC 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>This data is made available publically to help older adults and their families assess the quality of different services and make decisions about their care (DoHaAC 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What are the Quality Indicators?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>There are 11 quality indicators that providers must submit data on. These are:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n\t\u003Cli>Pressure injuries\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Physical restraint\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Unplanned weight loss\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Falls and major injury\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Medication management\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Activities of daily living\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Incontinence care\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hospitalisation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Workforce\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Consumer experience\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Quality of life.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>1. Pressure Injuries\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_4.jpg\" alt=\"qi program pressure injury\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>A \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/pressure-injuries-and-ulcerations\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>pressure injury\u003C/strong>\u003C/a> is defined as ‘a localised injury to the skin and/or underlying tissue, usually over a bony prominence, as a result of pressure, shear, or a combination of these factors’.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires each resident to be assessed for pressure injuries using the \u003Cstrong>ICD-10-Australian Modified (AM) pressure injury classification system\u003C/strong>, which outlines six stages of pressure injury:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Col>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Stage 1 pressure injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Stage 2 pressure injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Stage 3 pressure injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Stage 4 pressure injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Unstageable pressure injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Suspected deep tissue injury.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ol>\n\n\t\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong>:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Residents who declined to give consent to undergo a pressure injury assessment for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Residents who were absent for the entire quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for pressure injuries\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they declined to give consent to undergo a pressure injury assessment for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents with one or more pressure injuries, categorised into each of the six pressure injury stages\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who acquired one or more pressure injuries outside of the service during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who acquired one or more pressure injuries outside of the service during the quarter, categorised into each of the six pressure injury stages.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Note:\u003C/strong> If a resident has more than one pressure injury, all pressure injuries must be assessed and their stage recorded.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch3>2. Physical Restraint\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_5.jpg\" alt=\"qi program physical restraint secluded resident\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\t\u003Cp>Under the QI program, the term physical restraint is used as an umbrella term for all types of restrictive practices, \u003Cstrong>except\u003C/strong> for chemical restraint. This includes:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Mechanical restraint\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/restraint\" target=\"_blank\">Physical restraint\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Environmental restraint (including restraint through the use of a secure area)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/seclusion\" target=\"_blank\">Seclusion\u003C/a>.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>Physical restraint is measured over a \u003Cstrong>single three-day assessment period\u003C/strong> each quarter, which includes a designated collection date in addition to the two days prior to the collection date. This collection date must be varied and unpredictable for staff.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong> residents who were absent for the entire three-day assessment period.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The collection date for the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents whose records were assessed for pressure injuries during the three-day assessment period\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire three-day assessment period\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who were physically restrained one or more times during the three-day assessment period\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who were physically restrained during the three-day assessment period exclusively through the use of a secure area.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch3>3. Unplanned Weight Loss\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_6.jpg\" alt=\"qi program unplanned weight loss resident standing on scales\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>Read: \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/unplanned-weight-loss\" target=\"_blank\">Unplanned Weight Loss in Aged Care\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cp>The QI program outlines two categories of \u003Cstrong>unplanned weight loss\u003C/strong>:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Col>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Significant unplanned weight loss\u003C/strong>, where a person loses greater than or equal to 5% of their body weight within three months. This is measured by weighing the resident in the last month of the quarter and comparing this with their weight from the last month of the previous quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Consecutive unplanned weight loss\u003C/strong>, where a person loses any amount of weight every month for three months in a row. This is measured by weighing the resident three times (once each month) over the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ol>\n\n\t\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed for both types of unplanned weight loss every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong>:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Residents who declined to give consent to be weighed\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Residents receiving end-of-life care\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Residents who did not have the required weights recorded.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Significant unplanned weight loss:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for significant unplanned weight loss\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they declined to give consent to be weighed on the collection date\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they are receiving end-of-life care\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they did not have the required weights recorded (the provider must give an explanation as to why this is the case)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who experienced significant unplanned weight loss.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Consecutive unplanned weight loss:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for consecutive unplanned weight loss\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they declined to give consent to be weighed on any of the collection dates\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they are receiving end-of-life care\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they did not have the required weights recorded (the provider must give an explanation as to why this is the case)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who experienced consecutive unplanned weight loss.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch3>4. Falls and Major Injury\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_8.jpg\" alt=\"qi program falls and major injury\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\t\u003Cp>The QI program defines a \u003Cstrong>fall\u003C/strong> as ‘an event that results in a person coming to rest inadvertently on the ground or floor or other lower level’.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cp>A fall resulting in major injury describes a fall that meets the above criteria and results in at least one of the following:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Bone fracture\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Joint dislocation\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Closed head injuries with an altered state of consciousness\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>Subdural haematoma.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong> residents who were absent for the entire quarter.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents whose records were assessed for falls and major injury\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who experienced one or more falls at the care service during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who experienced one or more falls at the care service that resulted in major injury during the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch3>5. Medication Management\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_7.jpg\" alt=\"qi program medication management resident taking tablet\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>Read: \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/aged-care-medication-management\" target=\"_blank\">The Aged Care Quality Indicator Program: Medication Management (Polypharmacy and Antipsychotics)\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cp>The QI program requires providers to report on both:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Col>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Polypharmacy\u003C/strong>, which is defined as the prescription of nine or more medicines to a single care recipient. This must be recorded on a single collection date each quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>The use of antipsychotics\u003C/strong>. This must be measured over a designated seven-day assessment period each quarter, which includes a designated collection date in addition to the six days prior to the collection date. This collection date must be varied and unpredictable for staff.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ol>\n\n\t\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong> residents who were in hospital during the respective collection periods.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Polypharmacy:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The collection date for the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for polypharmacy\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were in hospital on the collection date\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents prescribed nine or more medications (based on their medication charts and/or administration records).\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\t\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Antipsychotics:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The collection date for the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for antipsychotic medications\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were in hospital for the entire seven-day assessment period\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who were given an antipsychotic medication\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who were given an antipsychotic medication for diagnosed psychosis.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>6. Activities of Daily Living\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"qi program activities of daily living resident brushing teeth\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The term \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/activities-daily-living/view\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>activities of daily living (ADLs)\u003C/strong>\u003C/a> refers to an individual’s ability to perform basic life skills integral to independence and quality of life. These include \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/meal-assistance-in-aged-care\" target=\"_blank\">eating\u003C/a>, ambulating, toileting, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/dressing-and-personal-hygiene\" target=\"_blank\">dressing\u003C/a> and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/courses/showering-and-bathing\" target=\"_blank\">personal hygiene\u003C/a>.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires each resident to be assessed for ADLs using the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mdcalc.com/calc/3912/barthel-index-activities-daily-living-adl\" target=\"_blank\">Barthel Index of Activities of Daily Living\u003C/a>. This assessment should take place around roughly the same time every quarter.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong>:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents receiving end-of-life care\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who did not have an ADL score recorded last quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for ADL function\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they are receiving end-of-life care\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they did not undergo an ADL assessment in the previous quarter - this needs to include comments explaining why this data was not taken\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents with a total ADL score of zero in the last quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who have experienced a decline in ADLs (a decrease of \u003Cstrong>one or more points\u003C/strong> from their total score last quarter).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>7. Incontinence Care\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_9.jpg\" alt=\"qi program incontinence aged care worker taking resident to toilet\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Incontinence\u003C/strong> refers to loss of control over the bladder \u003Cstrong>and/or\u003C/strong> bowels. Under the QI Program, a resident is considered to be incontinent if they:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Experience bladder incontinence more than once per day, and/or bowel incontinence more than once per week, or\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Require a urinary catheter to pass urine.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires each resident to be assessed for incontinence at roughly the same time every quarter. Those who are deemed to have incontinence must then be assessed for \u003Cstrong>incontinence associated dermatitis (IAD)\u003C/strong> using the \u003Ca href=\"https://images.skintghent.be/20184916028778_globiadenglish.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ghent Global IAD Categorisation Tool\u003C/a>.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The Ghent Global IAD Categorisation Tool sorts IAD into one of four sub-categories:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>1A: Persistent redness without clinical signs of infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>1B: Persistent redness with clinical signs of infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>2A: Skin loss without clinical signs of infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>2B: Skin loss with clinical signs of infection.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>All residents with incontinence must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong> residents who were absent for the entire quarter.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for incontinence care\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were not experiencing incontinence\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents with incontinence\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents with incontience who experienced IAD\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents with incontience who experienced IAD, categorised into each of the four IAD sub-categories.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>8. Hospitalisation\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"qi program hospitalisation resident in hospital\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires providers to report on how many residents presented to the emergency department one or more times during the quarter. This should be assessed by undertaking a review of each resident’s care records for the quarter.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The QI Program defines an \u003Cstrong>emergency department presentation\u003C/strong> as a resident presenting to an emergency department or urgent care centre in person or virtually.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>A \u003Cstrong>hospitalisation\u003C/strong> is defined as a resident being admitted into a hospital inpatient speciality service for ongoing management. This includes both planned and unplanned admissions, stays of any length and hospitalisations in any location (including hospital in the home).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>All residents must be assessed every quarter, \u003Cstrong>except for\u003C/strong> residents who were absent for the entire quarter.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents assessed for hospitalisation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who presented to the emergency department one or more times during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who presented to the emergency department or were hospitalised one or more times during the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>9. Workforce\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_10.jpg\" alt=\"qi program workforce aged care worker folding linen\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires providers to report on their workforce. This should be assessed by undertaking a review of staff records every quarter.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>For definitions of each of the following staff member types, see the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/national-aged-care-mandatory-quality-indicator-program-manual-30-part-a?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program (QI Program) Manual 3.0 – Part A\u003C/a>.\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff who worked as service managers for any hours in the previous quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff who worked as nurse practitioners or registered nurses for any hours in the previous quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff who worked as enrolled nurses for any hours in the previous quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff who worked as personal care staff or assistants in nursing for any hours in the previous quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as service managers at the start of the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as nurse practitioners or registered nurses at the start of the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as enrolled nurses at the start of the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as personal care staff or assistants in nursing at the start of the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as service managers who stopped working during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as nurse practitioners or registered nurses who stopped working during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as enrolled nurses who stopped working during the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of staff employed as personal care staff or assistants in nursing who stopped working during the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Note:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Employed\u003C/strong> means the staff member worked for at least 120 hours in the previous quarter.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Staff who stopped working during the quarter\u003C/strong> are those who have not worked at the service for a period of at least 60 consecutive days during the current quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>10. Consumer Experience\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_11.jpg\" alt=\"qi program consumer experience aged care worker with resident\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires providers measure consumer experience. This should be assessed by giving every resident the opportunity to complete the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.flinders.edu.au/caring-futures-institute/quality-of-life-tool\" target=\"_blank\">Quality of Care Experience Aged Care Consumers (QCE-ACC) tool\u003C/a>, which asks residents to report on six key areas of the quality of care experience:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n\t\u003Cli>Respect and dignity\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Supported decision-making\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Skills of aged care staff\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Impact on health and wellbeing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Social relationships and community connection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Confidence in lodging complaints.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>The QCE-ACC should be given to residents at roughly the same time every quarter.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Exclusions include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who chose not to complete the QCE-ACC for the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents offered the QCE-ACC through self-completion, interviewer facilitated completion or proxy-completion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they chose not to complete the QCE-ACC for the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who completed the QCE-ACC through each completion method (self-completion, interviewer facilitated completion and proxy-completion), scored against the following five categories:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Excellent\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 22 and 24\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Good\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 19 and 21\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Moderate\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 14 and 18\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Poor\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 8 and 13\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Very poor\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 0 and 7.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\t\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>11. Quality of Life\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"qi program quality of life group of happy residents\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Quality of life is an individual’s perception of their position in life. It encompasses their environment, goals, expectations, standards and concerns, and their emotional, physical, material and social wellbeing.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>This quality indicator requires providers measure residents’ quality of life. This should be assessed by giving every resident the opportunity to complete the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.flinders.edu.au/caring-futures-institute/quality-of-life-tool\" target=\"_blank\">Quality of Life Aged Care Consumers (QOL-ACC) tool\u003C/a>, which asks residents to report on six key areas of quality of life:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n\t\u003Cli>Independence\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Mobility\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pain management\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Emotional wellbeing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Social relationships\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Leisure activities and hobbies.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>The QCE-ACC should be given to residents at roughly the same time every quarter.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Exclusions include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Residents who chose not to complete the QOL-ACC for the quarter.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Ch4>What Data Needs to be Collected?\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents offered the QOL-ACC through self-completion, interviewer facilitated completion or proxy-completion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they were absent for the entire quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents excluded because they chose not to complete the QOL-ACC for the quarter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The number of residents who completed the QCE-ACC through each completion method (self-completion, interviewer facilitated completion and proxy-completion), scored against the following five categories:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Excellent\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 22 and 24\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Good\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 19 and 21\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Moderate\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 14 and 18\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Poor\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 8 and 13\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Very poor\u003C/strong>: Those who scored between 0 and 7.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\t\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>How to Report Data\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Quality indicator data must be submitted through the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/apps-and-tools/my-aged-care-service-and-support-portal\" target=\"_blank\">My Aged Care service and support portal\u003C/a>.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The Department of Health and Aged Care has made \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/qi-program-data-recording-templates\" target=\"_blank\">QI Program data recording templates\u003C/a> available to assist in calculating and summarising data for each quality indicator.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20230331_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"The National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program (QI Program), which was introduced on 1 July 2019, requires Commonwealth-subsidised residential aged care services to collect data and report on specific areas of care that older adults have identified as being most important to them.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2023-03-30T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["22cf905c-e31d-4b7e-99eb-4fd3630f15c2","97c84c86-96f6-440e-ad30-d5ed9c1a9492","860a7699-a357-4eb2-ae3f-ef9f868175b2","dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2023, \u003Cem>National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program (QI Program) Manual 3.0 – Part A\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/national-aged-care-mandatory-quality-indicator-program-manual-30-part-a?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/national-aged-care-mandatory-quality-indicator-program-manual-30-part-a?language=en\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2025, \u003Cem>About the QI Program\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/qi-program/about\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/qi-program/about\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/apps-and-tools/my-aged-care-service-and-support-portal\" target=\"_blank\">My Aged Care Service and Support Portal\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/national-aged-care-mandatory-quality-indicator-program-manual-30-part-a?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">National Aged Care Mandatory Quality Indicator Program Manual\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/qi-program-data-recording-templates\" target=\"_blank\">QI Program Data Recording Templates\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"9cd8dad5-179d-4244-82ae-0699ad9b3138","resourceID":"58797128-0dfd-4452-8497-8156905fa645","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. 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The infection is spread through unprotected vaginal, oral or anal sex (NHS 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>A pregnant person who is infected with gonorrhoea can also spread the disease to their newborn during childbirth when the neonate makes contact with the infected cervical or urethral mucosa. This can lead to gonococcal conjunctivitis, which may cause permanent blindness in the baby (Costumbrado et al. 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Risk Factors for Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Those at increased risk of contracting gonorrhoea include:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>People who are sexually active, especially if partaking in unprotected sex\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People who inject drugs\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People travelling to areas where gonorrhoea is common\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sex workers\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>People diagnosed with sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, syphilis and chlamydia.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Symptoms of Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The likelihood of experiencing symptoms depends on the area of the body affected:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Anal and pharyngeal gonorrhoea are almost always asymptomatic\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Vaginal gonorrhoea is asymptomatic in 80% of cases\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Penile gonorrhoea is asymptomatic in 10 to 15% of cases.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASHM 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms, if they do occur, may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Penile symptoms\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Unusual, pus-like penile discharge that may appear green, yellow or white\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Pain, discomfort or a burning sensation when urinating\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Testicular swelling and pain\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Redness around the penis opening\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Vaginal/cervical symptoms\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Unusual vaginal discharge\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Pain, discomfort or a burning sensation when urinating\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Pelvic pain, particularly during sexual intercourse\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Irregular vaginal bleeding, which may occur between periods or after sexual intercourse\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Oral symptoms\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Sore, dry throat\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Anal symptoms\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Anal discharge\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Anal discomfort\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Painful defecation\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Interruptions to bowel function\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Ocular symptoms\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:16px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Conjunctivitis\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASHM 2024; Healthdirect 2024; Better Health Channel 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The incubation period is typically two to five days following infection (Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220330_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"gonorrhoea nucleic acid amplification test partient being swabbed\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The most effective method of testing for gonorrhoea is via a \u003Cstrong>nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)\u003C/strong>, which depending on the patient, involves taking an endocervical, vaginal, anorectal or pharyngeal swab, or taking a \u003Cstrong>first pass urine (FPU)\u003C/strong> sample (ASHM 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>A NAAT works by amplifying genetic sequences into millions of copies, allowing even very small amounts of \u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C/em> bacteria to be detected if they are present (Qureshi 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The test can be performed either by a practitioner or at home by the patient (ASHM 2024). It’s likely to be combined with testing for other sexually transmitted infections like chlamydia (Pathology Tests Explained 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Gonorrhoea can also be diagnosed using a gonococcal culture, which allows for antibiotic sensitivity testing. However, this method is less sensitive than a NAAT (ASHM 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Testing can be used to either diagnose active symptoms or screen sexually active individuals (Pathology Tests Explained 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Treatment of Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Gonorrhoea requires antibiotic treatment and will usually resolve within one week once the regimen has commenced (Better Health Channel 2020).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The first-line treatment for gonorrhoea is \u003Cstrong>both\u003C/strong> intramuscular ceftriaxone and oral azithromycin. Due to high levels of antibiotic resistance among gonococcal strains, alternatives to this regimen are not recommended except in very specific circumstances (e.g. severe allergy to first-line antibiotics) (ASHM 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The patient should \u003Cstrong>avoid any kind of sexual contact for seven days after the antibiotics are first administered\u003C/strong> in order to prevent spreading the infection to others. They are also advised to advise their sexual partners that they have gonorrhoea and avoid sexual contact with all sexual partners from the previous two months unless those people have been tested and treated for gonorrhoea (ASHM 2024; Better Health Channel 2020).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Complications of Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>If left untreated, gonorrhoea may lead to serious complications such as:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which may scar the fallopian tubes and cause infertility\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Prostatitis, epididymitis or urethral stricture\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI), which occurs when the bacteria enter the bloodstream. This may cause septic arthritis or macular rash\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bartholin gland abscess\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Meningitis or endocarditis.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASHM 2024; Qureshi 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Preventing Gonorrhoea\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The risk of contracting gonorrhoea can be reduced by:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Practising safe sex with condoms and water-based lubricant\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Using dental dams for oral sex\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Getting a full sexual health check annually, including tests for gonorrhoea, syphilis, HIV and chlamydia.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2024; Better Health Channel 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220330_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"Alarmingly, gonorrhoea cases have doubled over the past 10 years in Australia. With cases on the rise, it’s important to familiarise yourself with the signs and symptoms of this condition.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-29T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","b11123e3-09ad-4f1d-9619-98b8ef1c2458"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine 2024, \u003Cem>Australian STI Management Guidelines: Gonorrhoea\u003C/em>, ASHM, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://sti.guidelines.org.au/sexually-transmissible-infections/gonorrhoea/\" target=\"_blank\">https://sti.guidelines.org.au/sexually-transmissible-infections/gonorrhoea/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2020, \u003Cem>Gonorrhoea\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/gonorrhoea\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/gonorrhoea\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Costumbrado, J, Ng, DK & Ghassemzadeh, S 2022, ‘Gonococcal Conjunctivitis’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459289/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459289/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Doherty Institute 2024, ‘Research from Pandemic Lockdown Offers Insights Into Gonorrhoea Transmission ’, \u003Cem>Doherty Institute News\u003C/em>, 23 October, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.doherty.edu.au/news-events/news/research-from-pandemic-lockdown-offers-insights-into-gonorrhoea\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.doherty.edu.au/news-events/news/research-from-pandemic-lockdown-offers-insights-into-gonorrhoea\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>Gonorrhoea (The Clap)\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gonorrhoea-the-clap\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gonorrhoea-the-clap\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Morris, SR 2021, \u003Cem>Gonorrhea\u003C/em>, MSD Manual, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/home/infections/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/gonorrhea\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/home/infections/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/gonorrhea\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Health Service 2024, \u003Cem>Gonorrhoea\u003C/em>, NHS, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/gonorrhoea/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/gonorrhoea/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Pathology Tests Explained 2024, \u003Cem>Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Nucleic Acid\u003C/em>, Pathology Tests Explained, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://pathologytestsexplained.org.au/ptests.php?q=Neisseria+gonorrhoeae+nucleic+acid\" target=\"_blank\">https://pathologytestsexplained.org.au/ptests.php?q=Neisseria+gonorrhoeae+nucleic+acid\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Qureshi, S 2024, \u003Cem>Gonorrhea\u003C/em>, Medscape, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/218059-overview\" target=\"_blank\">https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/218059-overview\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://sti.guidelines.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Australian STI Management Guidelines | ASHM\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gonorrhoea-the-clap\" target=\"_blank\">Gonorrhoea (the Clap) | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"62bca6c9-eedc-4669-bd43-4064d4ec18ec","resourceID":"2f603484-2970-4382-8eba-8718401a0485","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"2f603484-2970-4382-8eba-8718401a0485"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"2f603484-2970-4382-8eba-8718401a0485","resourceType":"blog","alias":"gonorrhoea","metaTitle":"Gonorrhoea: The Other Epidemic | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Gonorrhoea infection affects the mucosa of the urethra, cervix, rectum, throat and/or eyes, and rarely, the joints, skin or heart."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","title":"Paediatric Respiratory Assessment","activityType":"blog","min":11,"categories":["0e5c98bb-e861-4148-9cd2-1ca0b334961d","cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f","8a64678c-d17c-40a8-988c-fbeefa6e75dd","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0"],"topics":["70e55c50-f65d-4c09-b030-906561b5077b","352990e1-c115-4e9f-9f85-f83bcee39f48","84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6","f7a65f9d-96c1-4943-96b6-a89f59151a51","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea"],"keywords":["Respiratory","Paediatrics","Critical Care","Infectious Diseases","Anatomy and Physiology","Clinical Assessment"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Registered Midwife","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Paramedic"],"educatorNames":["Abbie Blog","Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2015-12-01T08:00:15Z","updateDate":"2025-03-27T04:50:24Z","availableDate":"2025-03-26T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["6b3f71a1-f2f3-4d97-95a8-a7f30d470438","65a8e001-6249-498a-b33e-86c1fb9a3e36"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","website":"https://www.ausmed.com/articles/paediatric-respiratory-assessment/","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">In order to recognise, manage and treat respiratory conditions in children effectively, we need to be able to confidently assess a child’s respiratory rate, effort and efficacy.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>In other words, we need to know what’s normal before we can assess what is abnormal.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Unlike adults, children breathe at different respirations per minute (rpm) according to age. It’s not uncommon for a newborn to have a respiratory rate of 60, whereas a 12-year-old can comfortably have a respiratory rate of 18 rpm.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The following table details the normal respiratory rate and heart rate for \u003Cstrong>\u003Cem>unwell \u003C/em>\u003C/strong> children of different ages.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Paediatric Respiration and Heart Rate\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>\u003Cem>Note: These are acceptable ranges for unwell children. They are not what would be expected normal ranges for healthy children.\u003C/em>\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Cthead>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Age\u003C/th>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Approximate weight (kg)\u003C/th>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Respiration: breaths/min\u003C/th>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Heart rate: beats/min\u003C/th>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/thead>\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>Term\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>3.5 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>25-60\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>120-170\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>3 months\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>6 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>25-60\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>115-170\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>6 months\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>8 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>20-55\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>110-170\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>1 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>10 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>20-45\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>105-150\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>2 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>12 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>20-40\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>95-150\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>4 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>15 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>17-30\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>80-150\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>6 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>20 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>16-30\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>75-140\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>8 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>25 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>16-30\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>70-130\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>10 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>30 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>15-25\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>60-130\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>12 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>40 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>15-25\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>65-120\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>14 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>50 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>14-25\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>60-115\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>16 yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>60 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>14-25\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>60-115\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>17+ yrs\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>65 kg\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>14-25\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>60-115\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Adapted from RCHM 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Why are Children Different to Adults?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Infants have larger heads and occiputs relative to their body size; therefore, the head is naturally flexed in the supine position. They also have large tongues in a small mouth and the trachea is shorter and more compliant. Due to these differences, a child’s airway is much easier to occlude than an adult’s (Saikia & Mahanta 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>A child’s upper and lower airways are also smaller than an adult’s and their lungs are not fully developed. They have soft, horizontally sloped ribs and poorly developed intercostals. Their chest walls are more compliant and children rely heavily on their diaphragm (Saikia & Mahanta 2019; RCHM n.d. a).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Overall, children’s smaller airways in addition to their other physiological differences mean they are more susceptible to airway obstruction, and their ability to breathe may be compromised by even minor injury or swelling (RCHM n.d. a).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Respiratory Distress in Children\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The following are some common causes of respiratory distress in children:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/respiratory-tract-infections/view\" target=\"_blank\">Upper respiratory infections\u003C/a> such as croup and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/influenza/view\" target=\"_blank\">influenza\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/respiratory-tract-infections/view\" target=\"_blank\">Lower respiratory infections\u003C/a> such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/pneumonia/view\" target=\"_blank\">pneumonia\u003C/a> and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/bronchiolitis/view\" target=\"_blank\">bronchiolitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bacterial infections such as bacterial \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/pneumonia/view\" target=\"_blank\">pneumonia\u003C/a> or tuberculosis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Allergies\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/asthma/view\" target=\"_blank\">Asthma\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Tobacco smoke (second-hand smoke)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Inhalation of foreign bodies\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Genetic conditions such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/cystic-fibrosis/view\" target=\"_blank\">cystic fibrosis\u003C/a>.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(HealthLink BC 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200401_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"paediatric respiratory distress inhalation of a foreign body\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Inhalation of a foreign body is a common cause of respiratory distress in children.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Signs of Respiratory Distress in Children\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Increased respiratory rate\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Increased heart rate\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Colour changes (cyanosis or pallor)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Noises such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/rhonchi-vs-rales-wheezing-crackles/view\" target=\"_blank\">stridor, wheezing or grunting\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nasal flaring\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Retractions of the chest where it appears to sink in below the neck or breastbone with each breath\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sweating\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Accessory muscle use\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sternocleidomastoid contraction (head bobbing)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Changes in consciousness state\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Body position changes, including tripod positioning or forward posturing.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(RCHM 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Paediatric Respiratory Assessment\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Early recognition of respiratory distress and deficit is vital to the successful management of sick children and the prevention of further deterioration or arrest. A systematic approach to assessment is crucial to managing respiratory distress (PCH 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Generally, children in respiratory distress should have minimal handling. An assessment can usually be performed without touching the patient (RCHM 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/abcde-assessment\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>ABCDE approach\u003C/strong>\u003C/a> - Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability and Exposure - is a simple and effective method of assessment (PCH 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the airway, you should consider the following:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Is there airway patency?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Are there any signs of airway obstruction?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Is the patient making noises (e.g. stridor, snoring)?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Does the patient have a hoarse voice?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Is there any neck swelling or bruising?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Is there a foreign body present?\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(PCH 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Drooling can indicate an obstruction. Patients with swelling such as epiglottitis will drool because they are unable or unwilling to swallow and may adopt the tripod position (Cathain & Gaffey 2022; Sicari & Zabbo 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the breathing, you should consider the following:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Effort\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>What is the respiratory rate?\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Is there nasal flaring, grunt, tracheal tug or subcostal/intercostal recession?\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Efficacy\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Assess air entry, chest expansion and oxygen saturation.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Effects\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Assess heart rate, skin colour and mental status.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(PCH 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2015/11/bodyimage-template1.jpg\" alt=\"respiratory assessment of baby\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Always Remember\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>You need to be aware of what is normal before you can recognise what is abnormal. Establishing a baseline to compare progress or deterioration is helpful. When assessing a patient, use a systematic approach, such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/abcde-assessment\" target=\"_blank\">ABCDE\u003C/a>.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>The goal of assessment is not to make a diagnosis but to identify a deteriorating child and respond to their symptoms to prevent arrest.\u003C/strong> Depending on the assessment findings, consider oxygen, suction and medication (PCH 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Following the initial assessment (and resuscitation if required), a secondary structured assessment should be undertaken to identify any other key signs or symptoms (PCH 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>When assessing the airway, the life threat to identify is airway obstruction. This is a medical emergency and requires prompt management so that the patient can be oxygenated (RCHM n.d. b).\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9 mb-3\">\n\t\u003Ciframe class=\"embed-responsive-item\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/ObZFU3YUqyE\">\u003C/iframe>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20151202_cover_v3.jpg","https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2015/11/cover-template1.jpg"],"excerpt":"In order to recognise, manage and treat respiratory conditions in children effectively, we need to be able to confidently assess a child’s respiratory rate, effort and efficacy. In other words, we need to know what’s normal before we can assess what is abnormal.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2015-12-01T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["8461199e-7ea7-4078-8e91-6933f90a9bf3","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cathain, EO & Gaffey, MM 2022, ‘Upper Airway Obstruction’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564399/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564399/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">HealthLink BC 2023, \u003Cem>Respiratory Problems, Age 11 and Younger\u003C/em>, HealthLink BC, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/illnesses-conditions/lung-and-respiratory-conditions/respiratory-problems-age-11-and-younger\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/illnesses-conditions/lung-and-respiratory-conditions/respiratory-problems-age-11-and-younger\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Perth Children’s Hospital 2023, \u003Cem>Serious illness\u003C/em>, Government of Western Australia, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://pch.health.wa.gov.au/For-health-professionals/Emergency-Department-Guidelines/Serious-illness\" target=\"_blank\">https://pch.health.wa.gov.au/For-health-professionals/Emergency-Department-Guidelines/Serious-illness\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne 2020, \u003Cem>Acceptable Ranges for Physiological Variables\u003C/em>, RCHM, viewed 30 March 2023, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Normal_Ranges_for_Physiological_Variables/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Normal_Ranges_for_Physiological_Variables/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne 2024, \u003Cem>Assessment of Severity of Respiratory Conditions\u003C/em>, RCHM, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Assessment_of_severity_of_respiratory_conditions/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Assessment_of_severity_of_respiratory_conditions/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne n.d. a, \u003Cem>How are Children Different\u003C/em>, RCHM, viewed 27 March 20235, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/trauma-service/manual/how-are-children-different/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.rch.org.au/trauma-service/manual/how-are-children-different/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne n.d. b, \u003Cem>Primary and Secondary Survey\u003C/em>, RCHM, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/trauma-service/manual/primary-and-secondary-survey/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.rch.org.au/trauma-service/manual/primary-and-secondary-survey/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Saikia, D & Mahanta, B 2019, ‘Cardiovascular and Respiratory Physiology in Children’, \u003Cem>Indian Journal of Anaesthesia\u003C/em>, vol. 63 no. 9, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6761775/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6761775/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Sicari, V & Zabbo, CP 2023, ‘Stridor in Children’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 27 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525995/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525995/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://pch.health.wa.gov.au/For-health-professionals/Emergency-Department-Guidelines/Serious-illness\" target=\"_blank\">Serious Illness | Perth Children’s Hospital\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Normal_Ranges_for_Physiological_Variables/\" target=\"_blank\">Acceptable Ranges for Physiological Variables | Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Assessment_of_severity_of_respiratory_conditions/\" target=\"_blank\">Assessment of Severity of Respiratory Conditions | Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/trauma-service/manual/how-are-children-different/\" target=\"_blank\">How are Children Different | Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"5a313b58-e341-4d97-ac1f-a79cfe770db8","resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}},{"relationID":"fa62b555-fbaa-4f18-aa1d-5918fe8f7b2e","resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","educatorID":"52fb81cf-8c74-4fb1-b8d7-55674b8342d6","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"52fb81cf-8c74-4fb1-b8d7-55674b8342d6","firstName":"Abbie","lastName":"Blog","createDate":"2019-05-29T17:56:18Z","updateDate":"2019-08-13T13:58:25Z","alias":"abbie-blog","contactDetail":{"position":"","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["879d22cc-64ff-4e22-b5af-36b27a155494"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Abbie is a Nurse Practitioner currently working in a Specialist Allergy Clinic in Brisbane. She has been a paediatric nurse for over 20 years originally working in the UK before moving to Australia with her young family 8 years ago. Abbie has a diverse career working with some of the most vulnerable patients. She has worked in paediatric oncology , emergency and general paediatrics. She has worked for NGO's in the fields of child protection and parental support as well as currently working with re- settled refugees. Abbie is a passionate nursing advocate and has just started the new challenge of blogging.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","videoNum":1}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"d4f9f021-2c86-44a2-b30f-5e11093d0cdc","resourceType":"blog","alias":"paediatric-respiratory-assessment","metaTitle":"Paediatric Respiratory Assessment | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Early recognition of respiratory distress and deficit is vital to the successful management of sick children and the prevention of further deterioration or arrest. A systematic approach to assessment is crucial to managing respiratory distress."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"8e31498a-3682-4297-b590-499aad24ed1e","title":"Asthma: How Does it Affect the Body?","activityType":"blog","min":8,"categories":["720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561"],"topics":["80284182-20cf-4e8e-bd5c-19bcf62975d0","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d","70e55c50-f65d-4c09-b030-906561b5077b","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea","22146b27-7f36-4806-9f46-b6080cb7b621"],"keywords":["Asthma","Chronic Illness","Respiratory","Clinical Assessment","Preventative Health"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-29T12:27:00Z","updateDate":"2025-03-26T02:19:55Z","availableDate":"2025-03-25T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["d219bb02-2844-4039-ba3b-2ad13b718bdb"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"8e31498a-3682-4297-b590-499aad24ed1e","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Ch2>What is Asthma?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Asthma\u003C/strong> is a chronic respiratory condition characterised by \u003Cstrong>both\u003C/strong>:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Excessive variation in lung function\u003C/strong> (more variation and at a greater magnitude than a healthy person would experience), \u003Cstrong>and\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Variable respiratory symptoms\u003C/strong>, which may include but are not limited to wheezing, shortness of breath, coughing and chest tightness.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(National Asthma Council Australia 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>People with asthma are hypersensitive to ‘triggers’ (external stimuli) that may set off symptoms. Triggers commonly include respiratory infections, cigarette smoke, pollen, exercise and dust mites (National Asthma Council Australia 2023).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>People with asthma may experience \u003Cstrong>flare-ups\u003C/strong> when symptoms start or worsen. These require treatment and may become serious medical events (National Asthma Council Australia 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Asthma is considered a spectrum of conditions with several recognised phenotypes that vary in severity (National Asthma Council 2022; Severe Asthma Toolkit 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Asthma is estimated to affect about 2.8 million Australians (11% of the population), with a mortality rate of approximately 1.8 per 100,000 people (AIHW 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Asthma cannot be cured, but if managed properly, most people should be able to enjoy unhindered lives (National Asthma Council Australia 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200330_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"asthma shortness of breath\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>How Does Asthma Affect the Body?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The underlying mechanism of asthma is usually a chronic inflammation of the airways, which is exacerbated by triggers (GINA 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Airway hyperresponsiveness\u003C/strong> describes the predisposition of the airways to respond to triggers in an exaggerated and reactive way. It involves an increased sensitivity to triggers as well as an excessive constriction of the airways when exposed to them (GINA 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>When exposed to triggers, the airways undergo physical changes that result in \u003Cstrong>intermittent airway narrowing\u003C/strong>. These are:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Bronchoconstriction\u003C/strong>: The smooth muscle in the wall of the airways contracts, becoming tighter and narrower. This muscle contracts more easily and strongly in people with asthma.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Inflammation and swelling\u003C/strong> of the airway walls, reducing space.\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Excessive mucus production\u003C/strong>, which blocks the inside of the airways.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Severe Asthma Toolkit 2022; National Asthma Council 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200330_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"asthma diagram\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>The underlying mechanism of asthma is usually a chronic inflammation of the airways, which is exacerbated by triggers.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Asthma\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>There is no single reliable test to diagnose asthma. Diagnosis is based on the individual’s medical history, physical examination, the consideration of other diagnoses and noting variable airflow limitation. \u003Cstrong>Spirometry\u003C/strong> is the recommended method for confirming the diagnosis, assessing severity and monitoring asthma (National Asthma Council 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What Causes Asthma?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>A combination of genetic and environmental factors is thought to be the cause of asthma (Mayo Clinic 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Risk Factors for Asthma\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Risk factors for developing asthma may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Family history of asthma\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Having another atopic condition such as allergic rhinitis (hay fever) or eczema\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being overweight\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Smoking or second-hand smoking\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being born prematurely\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Having bronchitis as a child\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being born at a low birth weight (under 2 kg)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Exposure to exhaust fumes or pollution\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Exposure to certain chemicals.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2025; Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Asthma Triggers\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Asthma triggers vary from person to person. They may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Pollen\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dust mites\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Mould spores\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pet dander\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Respiratory infections (e.g. \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/common-cold\" target=\"_blank\">common cold\u003C/a>)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Physical activity\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cold air\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Air pollutants (e.g. smoke)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Medications\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Strong emotions or stress\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cigarette smoke\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sulphites and preservatives in foods and beverages\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Gastroesophageal reflux disease.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2025, National Asthma Council 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200330_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"asthma pollen\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Pollen is a common asthma trigger.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Asthma Symptoms\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms vary from person to person. They may be constant or only occur during flare-ups (Mayo Clinic 2025). They may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Shortness of breath\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Chest tightness or pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Wheezing or whistling when exhaling\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Coughing or wheezing attacks that are exacerbated by respiratory infections\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty sleeping due to the above symptoms.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Airway Remodelling\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Airflow obstruction is usually reversible but some people with asthma may experience \u003Cstrong>airway remodelling\u003C/strong> - irreversible structural changes to the airways wherein the walls become thicker and the airways become narrower (Severe Asthma Toolkit 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Remodelling is generally thought to be associated with repeated airway tissue destruction and subsequent repair caused by chronic inflammation, but this may not always be the case (Fehrenbach et al. 2017).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Airway remodelling may be related to progressive lung function decline and has been present in cases of fatal asthma (Fehrenbach et al. 2017; Malmström et al. 2017).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>For further reading and a more detailed look at developing an asthma management plan, see Auamed’s Article on \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/recognising-and-responding-to-acute-asthma\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cem>Recognising and Responding to Acute Asthma\u003C/em>\u003C/a>.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200330_cover_v2.jpg"],"excerpt":"Asthma is estimated to affect about 2.8 million Australians (11% of the population), with a mortality rate of approximately 1.8 per 100,000 people. Asthma cannot be cured, but if managed properly, most people should be able to enjoy unhindered lives.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-29T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2024, \u003Cem>Chronic Respiratory Conditions: Asthma\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/chronic-respiratory-conditions/chronic-respiratory-conditions/contents/asthma\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/chronic-respiratory-conditions/chronic-respiratory-conditions/contents/asthma\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Fehrenbach, H, Wagner, C & Wegmann, M 2017, ‘Airway Remodeling in Asthma: What Really Matters’, \u003Cem>Cell and Tissue Research\u003C/em>, vol. 367, no. 3, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5320023/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5320023/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Global Initiative for Asthma 2024, \u003Cem>Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention\u003C/em>, GINA, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://ginasthma.org/2024-report/\" target=\"_blank\">https://ginasthma.org/2024-report/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>What Causes Asthma?\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/what-causes-asthma\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/what-causes-asthma\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Malmström, K, Lohi, J, Sajantila, A, Jahnsen, FL et al. 2017, ‘Immunohistology and Remodeling in Fatal Pediatric and Adolescent Asthma’, vol. 18, no. 94, \u003Cem>Respiratory Research\u003C/em>, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://helda.helsinki.fi//bitstream/handle/10138/190722/Immunohistology_and_remodeling.pdf?sequence=1\" target=\"_blank\">https://helda.helsinki.fi//bitstream/handle/10138/190722/Immunohistology_and_remodeling.pdf?sequence=1\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2025, \u003Cem>Asthma\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/asthma/symptoms-causes/syc-20369653\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/asthma/symptoms-causes/syc-20369653\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Asthma Council Australia 2022, \u003Cem>Australian Asthma Handbook\u003C/em>, National Asthma Council Australia, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.asthmahandbook.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.asthmahandbook.org.au/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Asthma Council Australia 2023, \u003Cem>What are Asthma Triggers?\u003C/em>, National Asthma Council Australia, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/understanding-asthma/what-are-asthma-triggers\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/understanding-asthma/what-are-asthma-triggers\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Asthma Council Australia 2024, \u003Cem>What is Asthma?\u003C/em>, National Asthma Council Australia, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/understanding-asthma/what-is-asthma\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/understanding-asthma/what-is-asthma\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Severe Asthma Toolkit 2021, \u003Cem>Asthma Phenotypes\u003C/em>, Severe Asthma Toolkit, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://toolkit.severeasthma.org.au/severe-asthma/phenotypes/\" target=\"_blank\">https://toolkit.severeasthma.org.au/severe-asthma/phenotypes/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Severe Asthma Toolkit 2022, \u003Cem>Asthma Pathophysiology\u003C/em>, Severe Asthma Toolkit, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://toolkit.severeasthma.org.au/management/asthma-pathophysiology/\" target=\"_blank\">https://toolkit.severeasthma.org.au/management/asthma-pathophysiology/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://asthma.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Asthma Australia\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.asthmahandbook.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Australian Asthma Handbook\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">National Asthma Council Australia\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://toolkit.severeasthma.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Severe Asthma Toolkit\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"b61fdf3f-bca3-4136-910a-3573987da6e3","resourceID":"8e31498a-3682-4297-b590-499aad24ed1e","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"8e31498a-3682-4297-b590-499aad24ed1e"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"8e31498a-3682-4297-b590-499aad24ed1e","resourceType":"blog","alias":"asthma","metaTitle":"Asthma: How Does it Affect the Body? | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterised by both excessive variation in lung function (more variation and at a greater magnitude than a healthy person would experience), and variable respiratory symptoms, which may include but are not limited to wheezing, shortness of breath, coughing and chest tightness."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"413adf27-e3df-4911-9891-bcc21f283a57","title":"Goodpasture Syndrome","activityType":"blog","min":8,"categories":["7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f"],"topics":["aa7d3a25-39e9-41f1-adba-7ec16a86e96d","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea","9b29218b-583f-48fc-9f71-eee9bff3cfef","c58e6603-e42e-4c7c-a348-c8dd9548b1c4","4f0169bf-7e7b-4246-8c6c-23a03cf008b9","84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","78cf0a0f-ec90-4e51-bc8e-6f810c0e8ed4","220adde1-d8f3-4ba7-892a-0bf4c215f2fb"],"keywords":["Blood","Clinical Assessment","Dialysis","Renal","Pulmonary","Critical Care","Emergency","Autoimmune Diseases"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-03-29T03:21:55Z","updateDate":"2025-03-26T04:52:16Z","availableDate":"2025-03-25T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"413adf27-e3df-4911-9891-bcc21f283a57","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Goodpasture syndrome is a rare but potentially deadly disorder that affects about 0.5 to 1.8 people per 1 million every year (Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Recognising the symptoms of Goodpasture syndrome and escalating care immediately is crucial in preventing fatality (Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>What is Goodpasture Syndrome?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Goodpasture syndrome\u003C/strong>, which may also be referred to as \u003Cstrong>anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) disease\u003C/strong>, is a \u003Cstrong>potentially life-threatening autoimmune disorder\u003C/strong> where the body produces antibodies that attack the lining of the lungs and kidneys (Rout & DeVrieze 2024; NKF 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The disorder is characterised by:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The presence of \u003Cstrong>anti-GBM antibodies\u003C/strong>, with\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pulmonary alveolar haemorrhage\u003C/strong> (bleeding in the lungs), and/or\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Glomerulonephritis\u003C/strong> (kidney inflammation).\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(GARD 2025; NKF 2024; Lee 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Without prompt treatment, symptoms can progress rapidly, leading to life-threatening bleeding in the lungs, renal failure and potentially death (Story 2018; NKF 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220329_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"goodpasture syndrome pulmonary alveolar haemorrhage haemoptysis\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>What Causes Goodpasture Syndrome?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>It’s unknown exactly what causes anti-GBM antibodies to develop, but they’re thought to be triggered by an \u003Cstrong>environmental insult\u003C/strong> in a person with a \u003Cstrong>pre-existing genetic susceptibility\u003C/strong> (GARD 2025).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Once anti-GBM antibodies are produced, they attack the collagen present in the alveoli and capillaries in the lungs, and/or the glomerulus (filtering units in the kidneys), causing bleeding in the lungs and inflammation in the kidneys (GARD 2025).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Potential environmental triggers include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Certain medicines (e.g. alemtuzumab)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cocaine inhalation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Certain infections (e.g. influenza A2)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Smoking\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Exposure to metal dust, organic solvents or hydrocarbons\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (which is used to treat kidney stones).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Rout & DeVrieze 2024; NKF 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Those who have a genetic predisposition to the creation of anti-GBM antibodies appear to have specific human leukocyte antigen (HLA) subtypes (Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Symptoms of Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Haemoptysis (coughing up blood)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cough\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Respiratory impairment\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Anaemia\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Joint pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Arthritis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Chest pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Glomerulopathy\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Muscle pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Retention of baby teeth\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Purpura\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Renal insufficiency\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Retinal detachment\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Drug-induced vasculitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Oedema\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hypertension\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Enlarged liver and spleen\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cyanosis.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(GARD 2025; Rout & DeVrieze 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>A diagnosis is made upon the presentation of:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Bleeding in the lungs\u003C/strong>, which can be detected via chest X-ray and lung biopsy, or bronchoscopy with fluid wash out\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Urinary symptoms\u003C/strong> (e.g. blood and/or protein in the urine), which can be detected via blood and urine tests\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Circulating anti-GBM antibodies\u003C/strong>, which can be detected via kidney biopsy.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NKF 2024; Lee 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are several differential diagnoses that may need to be ruled out, including:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Granulomatosis with polyangiitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss syndrome)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Respiratory failure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rheumatoid arthritis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Systemic lupus erythematosus\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Microscopic polyangiitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rheumatoid arthritis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>IgA-mediated disorders\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/glomerulonephritis\" target=\"_blank\">Acute glomerulonephritis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Community-acquired pneumonia\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cryoglobulinaemia\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Undifferentiated connective tissue disease\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Endocarditis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Drug-induced vasculitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Alport syndrome.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Rout & DeVrieze 2024; Kathuria 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Treatment For Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220329_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"goodpasture syndrome treatment plasmapheresis\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Patients will often present critically ill and will require immediate haemodialysis, along with intubation in the case of respiratory failure. At this stage, a kidney biopsy may also be taken to confirm the diagnosis (Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The primary goals of treatment are to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Quickly remove anti-GBM antibodies\u003C/strong> via daily plasmapheresis - a procedure wherein blood cells are separated from the plasma (which contains the anti-GBM antibodies), and the plasma is replaced with another solution, or treated and returned back to the body\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Prevent the body from creating more anti-GBM antibodies\u003C/strong> by administering immunosuppressive medicines\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Remove any environmental irritants\u003C/strong> that may have triggered the production of anti-GBM antibodies, e.g. via smoking cessation, or changing jobs if the patient is occupationally exposed to hydrocarbon.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Kathuria 2023; Rout & DeVrieze 2024; Heitz 2018)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Patients may also require supportive care such as oxygen administration, mechanical ventilation and/or blood transfusion (Lee 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>If renal failure occurs, the patient will require \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/dialysis\" target=\"_blank\">dialysis\u003C/a> or a kidney transplant (NKF 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Post-discharge, the patient will need to continue treatment. Plasmapheresis is generally performed daily until anti-GBM antibodies are undetectable, and immunosuppressive therapy will continue for a further three to six months after cessation of plasmapheresis. Renal function will also be monitored long-term (Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Overall, \u003Cstrong>the five-year survival rate of Goodpasture syndrome is over 80%\u003C/strong>, however, it’s crucial that treatment is commenced immediately, as delays may lead to fatality (Kathuria 2023; Rout & DeVrieze 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220329_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"Goodpasture syndrome is a rare but potentially deadly disorder that affects about 0.5 to 1.8 people per 1 million every year. Recognising the symptoms of Goodpasture syndrome and escalating care immediately is crucial in preventing fatality.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-28T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center 2025, \u003Cem>Anti-glomerular Basement Membrane Disease\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/2551/goodpasture-syndrome\" target=\"_blank\">https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/2551/goodpasture-syndrome\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Heitz, D 2018, 'Plasmapheresis: What to Expect', \u003Cem>Healthline\u003C/em>, 3 September, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthline.com/health/plasmapheresis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthline.com/health/plasmapheresis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Kathuria, P 2023, \u003Cem>Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/em>, Medscape, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/240556-overview\" target=\"_blank\">https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/240556-overview\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Lee, J 2023, \u003Cem>Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/em>, MSD Manual, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/home/lung-and-airway-disorders/autoimmune-disorders-of-the-lungs/goodpasture-syndrome\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/home/lung-and-airway-disorders/autoimmune-disorders-of-the-lungs/goodpasture-syndrome\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Kidney Foundation 2024, \u003Cem>Goodpasture Syndrome\u003C/em>, NKF, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/goodpasture\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/goodpasture\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Kidney Foundation 2025, \u003Cem>Kidney Stone Treatment: Shock Wave Lithotripsy\u003C/em>, NKF, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/kidneystones_shockwave\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/kidneystones_shockwave\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Rout, P & DeVrieze, BW 2024, ‘Goodpasture Syndrome’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 26 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459291/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459291/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Story, CM 2018, ‘Goodpasture Syndrome, \u003Cem>Healthline\u003C/em>, 13 November, viewed 22 March 2022, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthline.com/health/goodpasture-syndrome\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthline.com/health/goodpasture-syndrome\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"ee14a1c8-d1da-4f74-82ac-8809aa2a3269","resourceID":"413adf27-e3df-4911-9891-bcc21f283a57","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"413adf27-e3df-4911-9891-bcc21f283a57"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"413adf27-e3df-4911-9891-bcc21f283a57","resourceType":"blog","alias":"goodpasture-syndrome","metaTitle":"Goodpasture Syndrome | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Goodpasture syndrome, which may also be referred to as anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) disease, is a potentially life-threatening autoimmune disorder where the body produces antibodies that attack the lining of the lungs and kidneys."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"b5fb737e-a490-4e4d-83d4-172b5bd6e7c2","title":"Japanese Encephalitis","activityType":"blog","min":9,"categories":["44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561"],"topics":["cc65571f-5cfb-465c-9caa-295aec4f804d","2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6","e06f92df-efba-4bc0-b48b-95a9593000fb","22146b27-7f36-4806-9f46-b6080cb7b621"],"keywords":["Infection Prevention and Control","Infectious Diseases","Mosquito-borne Illness","Preventative Health"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-03-25T05:14:35Z","updateDate":"2025-03-26T00:03:07Z","availableDate":"2025-03-25T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["01777908-b2fd-4601-895f-d63c1dac1cce"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"b5fb737e-a490-4e4d-83d4-172b5bd6e7c2","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size: 20px\">Prior to 2021, Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which causes inflammation of the brain, had only ever affected five people in Australia (McGuinness et al. 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>All of these cases were locally acquired in far-north Queensland in 1995 and 1998 (McGuinness et al. 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>In 2021, a sentinel case of JEV led to an unprecedented outbreak of the virus in 2022, with infections being acquired as far south as New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria - where it had never before been detected (McGuinness et al. 2023; Pendrey & Martin 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>This outbreak resulted in 45 infections and 7 deaths between January 2021 and December 2022 (DoHaAC 2023a).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>The surge in cases was believed to be associated with climate change and flooding, which encouraged waterbirds to migrate to newly formed inland waterways. The warm, wet conditions also facilitated an increase in the mosquito population (Lanese 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Most recently, six JEV cases have been notified in Australia since December 2024. These are the first new human infections since the 2021-2022 outbreak (CDC 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>While JEV is no longer considered a Communicable Disease Incident of National Significance in Australia (DoHaAC 2023a), it’s crucial for healthcare professionals to remain up-to-date with the latest information on this virus.\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>So, what exactly is Japanese encephalitis, and should there be cause for concern in the community?\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Ch2>What is Japanese Encephalitis?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220328_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"Japanese encephalitis culex mosquito bite\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Japanese encephalitis is spread to humans via Culex mosquitoes, which act as disease vectors.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Japanese encephalitis\u003C/strong> is a mosquito-borne illness caused by the \u003Cstrong>Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)\u003C/strong> (NSW Health 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Like other types of encephalitis such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/murray-valley-encephalitis/view\" target=\"_blank\">Murray Valley encephalitis\u003C/a>, Japanese encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. While 99% of cases are asymptomatic, severe cases can lead to lifelong disability or even death (Healthdirect 2024; Queensland Government 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Ch2>What Causes Japanese Encephalitis?\u003C/h2>\n\n \u003Cp>JEV is a \u003Cstrong>zoonotic virus\u003C/strong>, meaning it’s spread from animals to people. However, animals can’t spread the virus to humans directly, nor can humans spread the virus to other humans. Instead, mosquitoes that feed on infected animals acquire the virus themselves and become vectors (i.e. living organisms that transmit pathogens from infected animals to other animals, or humans). If an infected mosquito feeds on a human, the virus will be transmitted to that individual (Davey 2022; Australia Wide First Aid 2022; EFSA 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Only Culex genus mosquitoes, predominantly the \u003Cem>Culex annulirostris\u003C/em> species, can transmit the illness (Lanese 2022; Business Queensland 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>The JEV virus is predominantly found in pigs and waterbirds (particularly herons and egrets), which are \u003Cstrong>amplifying hosts\u003C/strong>. This means they facilitate the rapid multiplication of infectious agents and can reinfect new mosquitoes. Therefore, the virus is maintained in nature through mosquito-waterbird or mosquito-waterbird-pig transmission cycles (Business Queensland 2025; Biology Online 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Humans and other animals, on the other hand, are \u003Cstrong>‘dead-end’ hosts\u003C/strong> that once infected do not play any further role in transmission (VIC DoH 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Other animals that can be infected with JEV include:\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Horses\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Cattle\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Sheep\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Dogs\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Cats\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Bats\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Rodents\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Reptiles\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Amphibians\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Birds.\u003C/li>\n \u003C/ul>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Business Queensland 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Excluding pigs and horses, animals infected with JEV are usually asymptomatic. Signs of JEV in pigs typically include mummified, stillborn or weak piglets, possibly with neurological issues, and in horses, fever, jaundice, lethargy, anorexia and neurological issues (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>It’s not possible for humans to contract JEV by touching infected animals or eating animal products such as pork (NSW Health 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Ch2>Risk Factors for Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/h2>\n\n \u003Cp>Those at most risk of locally-acquired infection in Australia are people in close proximity to infected animals and mosquitoes. These include:\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Those who work at, visit or live close to piggeries or abattoirs\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Those participating in outdoor activities like camping, fishing or hiking in high-risk areas\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Those who work directly with mosquitoes (e.g. environmental health officers and entomologists)\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Diagnostic and research laboratory personnel working with mosquitoes or JEV cultures.\u003C/li>\n \u003C/ul>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NSW Health 2024; Queensland Government 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220328_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"Japanese encephalitis pigs\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Pigs, along with waterbirds, are amplifying hosts of the Japanese encephalitis virus.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n \u003Ch2>Symptoms of Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/h2>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Only around 1% of JEV infections in humans are symptomatic\u003C/strong> (Queensland Government 2025). If symptoms do occur, they typically develop 5 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. The individual might experience:\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Fever\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Headache\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Abdominal pain and vomiting.\u003C/li>\n \u003C/ul>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NSW Health 2024; Queensland Government 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>In severe cases, symptoms may include:\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>High fever\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Chills\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Severe headache\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Stiff neck\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Disorientation\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Paralysis\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Tremors\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Coma\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Seizures.\u003C/li>\n \u003C/ul>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NSW Health 2024; Queensland Government 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>One-third of severe cases will result in death, and another third will result in permanent disability (Queensland Government 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>Diagnosis is typically made via a blood test or spinal fluid sample (SA Health 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis. Mild symptoms can be managed by resting, ensuring adequate fluid intake and taking paracetamol, while more severe cases may require admission to hospital for observation and supportive care (DoHaAC 2023b).\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Ch2>Preventing Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220328_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"Japanese encephalitis prevention wetlands\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n \u003Cp>A vaccine to protect against JEV is available and is offered for free to certain priority groups in Australia. For further information on who is eligible for free vaccination, refer to each state and territory’s Department of Health.\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>See the \u003Ca href=\"https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Australian Immunisation Handbook\u003C/a> for more information on the JEV vaccine.\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cp>JEV can also be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites through strategies such as:\u003C/p>\n\n \u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Being careful outdoors during dawn, dusk and the evening, when Culex mosquitoes are most active\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Wearing light-coloured, loose-fitting, long-sleeved clothing, as well as covered shoes and socks, when outdoors\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Applying mosquito repellent that contains diethyltoluamide (DEET), picaridin or oil of lemon eucalyptus to all exposed skin (after sunscreen)\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Reapplying repellant after swimming\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Using flyscreens in the home\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Using flyscreens or mosquito nets when camping\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Using insecticide sprays, vapour dispensing units and mosquito coils to remove mosquitoes\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Removing water-holding containers around the home, as these are breeding grounds for mosquitoes.\u003C/li>\n \u003C/ul>\n\n \u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NSW Health 2024; DoH 2023b)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220328_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"While JEV is no longer considered a Communicable Disease Incident of National Significance in Australia, it’s crucial for healthcare professionals to remain up-to-date with the latest information on this virus. So, what exactly is Japanese encephalitis, and should there be cause for concern in the community?","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-27T13:00:00Z","references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Centre for Disease Control 2025, ‘Protect Yourself From Japanese Encephalitis Virus’, \u003Cem>Australian Centre for Disease Control News\u003C/em>, 28 February, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov.au/newsroom/news-and-articles/protect-yourself-japanese-encephalitis-virus\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cdc.gov.au/newsroom/news-and-articles/protect-yourself-japanese-encephalitis-virus\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australia Wide First Aid 2022, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis Virus Threat\u003C/em>, Australia Wide First Aid, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.australiawidefirstaid.com.au/resources/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.australiawidefirstaid.com.au/resources/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Biology Online 2021, \u003Cem>Amplifier Host\u003C/em>, Biology Online, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/amplifier-host\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/amplifier-host\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Business Queensland 2025, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Queensland Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/pests-diseases-disorders/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/pests-diseases-disorders/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Davey, M 2022, ‘What is Japanese Encephalitis and Why is it Spreading in Australia?', \u003Cem>The Guardian\u003C/em>, 8 March, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/08/what-is-japanese-encephalitis-and-why-is-it-spreading-in-australia\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/08/what-is-japanese-encephalitis-and-why-is-it-spreading-in-australia\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2025, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2023a, \u003Cem>Statement on the End of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Emergency Response\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/news/statement-on-the-end-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus-emergency-response\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/news/statement-on-the-end-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus-emergency-response\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2023b, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">European Food Safety Authority 2023, \u003Cem>Vector-Borne Diseases\u003C/em>, European Union, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/vector-borne-diseases\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/vector-borne-diseases\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Lanese, N 2022, ‘1st Major Outbreak of Japanese Encephalitis Hits Australia’, \u003Cem>Live Science\u003C/em>, 18 March, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.livescience.com/australia-encephalitis-outbreak-climate-change\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.livescience.com/australia-encephalitis-outbreak-climate-change\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">McGuinness, SL, Lau, CL & Leder, K 2023, ‘The Evolving Japanese Encephalitis Situation in Australia and Implications for Travel Medicine’, \u003Cem>J Travel Med.\u003C/em>, vol. 30, no. 2, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075061/\" target=\"_blank\">https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075061/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">NSW Health 2024, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis Fact Sheet\u003C/em>, New South Wales Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/japanese_encephalitis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/japanese_encephalitis.aspx\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Pendrey, C & Martin, GV 2023, ‘Japanese Encephalitis Clinical Update: Changing Diseases Under a Changing Climate’, \u003Cem>Australian Journal of General Practice\u003C/em>, vol. 52, no. 5, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update\" target=\"_blank\">https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Queensland Government 2025, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Queensland Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/infections-and-parasites/viral-infections/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/infections-and-parasites/viral-infections/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">SA Health 2024, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis - Including Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention\u003C/em>, Government of South Australia, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/japanese+encephalitis/japanese+encephalitis+-+including+symptoms%2C+treatment%2C+and+prevention\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/japanese+encephalitis/japanese+encephalitis+-+including+symptoms%2C+treatment%2C+and+prevention\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Victoria Department of Health 2025, \u003Cem>Japanese Encephalitis\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov.au/topics/JEV-infection-health-professionals\" target=\"_blank\">Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) Infection for Health Professionals | Australian Centre for Disease Control\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Japanese Encephalitis | Australian Immunisation Handbook\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/animal/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Japanese Encephalitis | Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/japanese-encephalitis\" target=\"_blank\">Japanese Encephalitis | Department of Health and Aged Care\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"5f34fdda-10ae-4687-9573-bbcea69ac939","resourceID":"b5fb737e-a490-4e4d-83d4-172b5bd6e7c2","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"b5fb737e-a490-4e4d-83d4-172b5bd6e7c2"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"b5fb737e-a490-4e4d-83d4-172b5bd6e7c2","resourceType":"blog","alias":"japanese-encephalitis","metaTitle":"Japanese Encephalitis | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Like other types of encephalitis such as Murray Valley encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. While 99% of cases are asymptomatic, severe cases can lead to lifelong disability or even death."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"3c510aa2-12c3-4a02-aecf-05ba34976386","title":"Benefits of Smoking Cessation and the Role of Health Professionals","activityType":"blog","min":10,"categories":["8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561"],"topics":["22146b27-7f36-4806-9f46-b6080cb7b621","70e55c50-f65d-4c09-b030-906561b5077b","be01e288-5038-4dfa-a6a3-cad7f7c07dbc"],"keywords":["Preventative Health","Respiratory","Addiction and Substance Abuse"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-29T16:05:12Z","updateDate":"2025-03-25T04:24:24Z","availableDate":"2025-03-24T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["ed7bb79c-2898-4152-8a40-0780cb3d45ea"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"3c510aa2-12c3-4a02-aecf-05ba34976386","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">With tobacco involved in the deaths of more than 8 million people globally every year (WHO 2023), health professionals play an essential role in supporting people with cessation.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>In Australia, tobacco smoking is a major contributor to preventable illness and death. In fact, it’s estimated to contribute to the deaths of over 24,000 Australians every year (Kalitsis et al. 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Smoking cessation - the process of quitting smoking\u003C/strong> - is imperative to the health of every individual who smokes. Regardless of age or smoking-related conditions that have already developed, there are immediate and long-term health benefits to be gained by quitting (Cancer Council 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Cessation is a difficult process due to the addictive properties of nicotine in cigarettes. Dependence is a chronic condition and those who smoke will experience withdrawal symptoms when they attempt to abstain.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>It’s important for anyone embarking on the cessation journey to remember that only a minority of initial cessation attempts are successful, with the average 40-year-old who smokes having made about 20 attempts on average (RACGP 2021). Therefore, a failed first attempt is not necessarily the end, but indeed an important first step on the road to recovery.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The most effective way to attempt cessation is through a combination of behavioural support and medication (RACGP 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200331_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"person smoking\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Why Attempt Cessation?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Tobacco smoking contributes to the risk of health issues including but not limited to heart disease, diabetes, stroke, cancer, renal disease, eye disease and respiratory conditions (ABS 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are over 7,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke, more than 70 of which are carcinogenic (capable of causing cancer) (Cancer Council 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>In 2024, smoking was attributed to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>7.6% of the total disease burden\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>36.1% of respiratory diseases\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>15.4% of cancers\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>5.1% of cardiovascular diseases\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>2.6% of infections\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>1.8% of endocrine disorders.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Kalitsis et al. 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>As well as being directly involved in numerous diseases and health problems, smoking is also a risk factor for a myriad of other conditions including \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/crohns-disease\" target=\"_blank\">Crohn’s disease\u003C/a>, back pain, Alzheimer's disease, sleep disorders, autoimmune diseases and more (Quit 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Smoking and Pregnancy\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Smoking during pregnancy can have serious adverse effects on the fetus and contribute to the risk of pregnancy complications (RACGP 2021). These potential issues include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Low birth weight\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/sga/view\" target=\"_blank\">small for gestational age\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/preventing-preterm-birth/view\" target=\"_blank\">Preterm birth\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Perinatal death\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Placental abruption\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/sudden-infant-death-syndrome/view\" target=\"_blank\">Sudden unexpected death in infancy\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/cleft-lip-and-palate/view\" target=\"_blank\">Cleft lip and/or palate\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Childhood cancers.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(RACGP 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200331_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"smoking during pregnancy\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch3>Passive Smoking\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>In addition to potential long-term consequences for the smoker, as outlined above, smoking can also cause serious harm to others who breathe in the smoke second-hand and may exacerbate other conditions they have (Better Health Channel 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Second-hand smoke increases the risk of developing lung cancer by 20 to 30%. Infants and children are particularly susceptible to suffering adverse effects from second-hand smoke (CDC 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What are the Benefits of Cessation?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Quitting smoking has immediate effects and will continue to improve the individual’s health progressively over time (DoHaAC 2023a).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After 12 hours\u003C/strong>, excess carbon monoxide is out of the system.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After 5 days\u003C/strong>, most nicotine is out of the system.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After one week\u003C/strong>, the senses of smell and taste improve.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After one month\u003C/strong>, skin appearance will likely improve.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After two months\u003C/strong>, the lungs are no longer producing extra phlegm.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After three months\u003C/strong>, lung function and circulation improves.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After one year\u003C/strong>, the risk of heart disease is halved.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After five years\u003C/strong>, the risk of stroke is significantly decreased.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After 10 years\u003C/strong>, the risk of lung cancer is halved.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>After 15 years\u003C/strong>, the risk of heart attack and stroke is the same as someone who has never smoked.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaAC 2023a)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Additionally, evidence shows that quitting may increase an individual’s life expectancy by about 3 to 10 years, depending on their smoking habits and age at cessation. \u003Cstrong>Those who quit before the age of 30 may avoid excess risk of smoking-related death entirely\u003C/strong> (Greenhalgh et al. 2020).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Cessation will also protect others from the detrimental effects of cigarette smoke.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Methods of Smoking Cessation\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>These include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>‘Going cold turkey’ (stopping smoking abruptly without any further support)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Gradually cutting down on cigarettes\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Medicines such as varenicline or bupropion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) in the form of gum, patches, nasal or oral sprays, inhalers, or lozenges and tablets\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Counselling and support services.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(DoHaC 2023b)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Barriers to Smoking Cessation\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Identified barriers to cessation include but are not limited to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Using smoking as a form of stress relief\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fear of weight gain after cessation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fear of failure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nicotine addiction\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Lack of access to support and resources for quitting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Social pressure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Socioeconomic disadvantage.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(RACGP 2021; Greenhalgh et al. 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is the Role of Healthcare Professionals in Cessation?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Healthcare professionals of all kinds play a crucial role in supporting cessation. They should identify clients who smoke and offer advice, treatment or referral for cessation at every opportunity, especially during periods where their smoking habits are particularly problematic (e.g. if they present with smoking-related diseases, if they are hospitalised or if they are pregnant) (RACGP 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>The 5As Intervention Method\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The 5As are Australian guidelines for health professionals to address and assist with smoking cessation (RACGP 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Ask\u003C/strong> all clients whether they smoke and record their smoking status.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Assess\u003C/strong>:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Whether the client has a nicotine dependence by asking questions (e.g. how long after waking does the client smoke their first cigarette?)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Whether there are any barriers to quitting, and if so, address the barriers with evidence-based strategies.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Advise\u003C/strong> the client to quit in a clear, non-confrontational manner. Continue to offer brief, positive reminders.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Offer to \u003Cstrong>assist\u003C/strong> the client with cessation and encourage them if they accept.\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Establish a quit plan, suggest strategies and address barriers.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Assistance may include advice and support, referral or a combination.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Arrange\u003C/strong> a follow-up within a week of the client’s designated quitting day to review their progress and address any issues. Monitor any medication and discuss relapse prevention.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(RACGP 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200331_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"smoking cessation support\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Healthcare professionals of all kinds play a crucial role in supporting cessation.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Pharmacotherapy\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Healthcare professionals should recommend pharmacotherapy to all clients with nicotine dependence \u003Cstrong>in addition\u003C/strong> to behavioural support. Medicines used to support cessation are proven to be effective (RACGP 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Refer to the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.racgp.org.au/clinical-resources/clinical-guidelines/key-racgp-guidelines/view-all-racgp-guidelines/supporting-smoking-cessation\" target=\"_blank\">RACGP’s guide\u003C/a> for more information on supporting a person’s smoking cessation.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200331_cover_v2.jpg"],"excerpt":"With tobacco involved in the deaths of more than 8 million people globally every year, health professionals play an essential role in supporting people with cessation. In Australia, tobacco smoking is a major contributor to preventable illness and death. In fact, it’s estimated to contribute to the deaths of over 24,000 Australians every year.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-30T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","a3ac727a-fe5d-41e4-85ce-24a2b0d97866","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Bureau of Statistics 2022, \u003Cem>Insights Into Australian Smokers\u003C/em>, 2021-22, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/insights-australian-smokers-2021-22\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/insights-australian-smokers-2021-22\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2021, \u003Cem>Passive Smoking\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/passive-smoking\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/passive-smoking\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cancer Council 2019, \u003Cem>Smoking\u003C/em>, Cancer Council, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/smoking/smoking\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/smoking/smoking\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2025, \u003Cem>Health Problems Caused by Secondhand Smoke\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/secondhand-smoke/health.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Ftobacco%2Fdata_statistics%2Ffact_sheets%2Fsecondhand_smoke%2Fhealth_effects%2Findex.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/secondhand-smoke/health.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Ftobacco%2Fdata_statistics%2Ffact_sheets%2Fsecondhand_smoke%2Fhealth_effects%2Findex.htm\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2023a, \u003Cem>Why Quit Smoking?\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/topics/smoking-and-tobacco/how-to-quit-smoking/why-quit-smoking\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/topics/smoking-and-tobacco/how-to-quit-smoking/why-quit-smoking\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Department of Health and Aged Care 2023b, \u003Cem>Quitting Methods\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.gov.au/topics/smoking-and-tobacco/how-to-quit-smoking/quitting-methods\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.gov.au/topics/smoking-and-tobacco/how-to-quit-smoking/quitting-methods\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Greenhalgh, EM, Stillman, S & Ford, C 2020, ‘7.1 Health and Other Benefits of Quitting’, in Greenhalgh, EM, Scollo, MM & Winstanley, MH (eds.), \u003Cem>Tobacco in Australia: Facts & Issues\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-7-cessation/7-1-health-and-other-benefits-of-quitting\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-7-cessation/7-1-health-and-other-benefits-of-quitting\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Greenhalgh, EM, Scollo, MM & Pearce, M 2024, ‘9.9 Are There Inequalities in Access to and Use of Treatment for Dependence on Tobacco-delivered Nicotine?’, in Greenhalgh, EM, Scollo, MM & Winstanley, MH (eds.), \u003Cem>Tobacco in Australia: Facts & Issues\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-9-disadvantage/9-9-are-there-inequalities-in-access-to-and-usage-\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-9-disadvantage/9-9-are-there-inequalities-in-access-to-and-usage-\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Kalitsis, L, Greenhalgh, EM & Winnall, W 2025, ‘3.30 Burden of Death and Disease Attributable to Tobacco Use in Australia’, in Greenhalgh, EM, Scollo, MM & Winstanley, MH (eds.), \u003Cem>Tobacco in Australia: Facts & Issues\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-3-health-effects/3-30-total-burden-of-death-and-disease-attributable-to-tobacco-by-disease-category\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-3-health-effects/3-30-total-burden-of-death-and-disease-attributable-to-tobacco-by-disease-category\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Quit 2023, \u003Cem>Deaths & Disease From Smoking\u003C/em>, Quit, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.quit.org.au/fact-sheets/deaths-and-disease-smoking\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.quit.org.au/fact-sheets/deaths-and-disease-smoking\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners 2021, \u003Cem>Supporting Smoking Cessation: A Guide for Health Professionals\u003C/em>, RACGP, viewed 25 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.racgp.org.au/clinical-resources/clinical-guidelines/key-racgp-guidelines/view-all-racgp-guidelines/supporting-smoking-cessation\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.racgp.org.au/clinical-resources/clinical-guidelines/key-racgp-guidelines/view-all-racgp-guidelines/supporting-smoking-cessation\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">World Health Organisation 2023, \u003Cem>Tobacco\u003C/em>, WHO, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.quit.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Quit\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.racgp.org.au/clinical-resources/clinical-guidelines/key-racgp-guidelines/view-all-racgp-guidelines/supporting-smoking-cessation\" target=\"_blank\">Supporting Smoking Cessation: A Guide for Health Professionals | RACGP\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Tobacco in Australia: Facts & Issues\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"6794aba1-6288-42ac-b828-1d84d712eaa0","resourceID":"3c510aa2-12c3-4a02-aecf-05ba34976386","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"3c510aa2-12c3-4a02-aecf-05ba34976386"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"3c510aa2-12c3-4a02-aecf-05ba34976386","resourceType":"blog","alias":"smoking-cessation-benefits","metaTitle":"Supporting Smoking Cessation | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Smoking cessation - the process of quitting smoking - is imperative to the health of every individual who smokes. Regardless of age or smoking-related conditions that have already developed, there are immediate and long-term health benefits to be gained by quitting."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"65ec578a-fd13-4013-a0c2-0bf28e9ead5c","title":"Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension) Signs and Symptoms","activityType":"blog","min":8,"categories":["7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","0e9c78c5-925b-4ae0-9640-870472ad9a91","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561","9d2c64a9-cd8c-4ec4-8bf6-ec83b607d9ad","cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f"],"topics":["aa7d3a25-39e9-41f1-adba-7ec16a86e96d","fc0f29da-ff5e-40de-b163-574841586fee","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea"],"keywords":["Blood","Cardiology","Clinical Assessment"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Occupational Therapist","Paramedic","Other Profession","Physiotherapist","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Lynda Lampert"],"createDate":"2017-08-04T10:45:04Z","updateDate":"2025-03-24T04:02:42Z","availableDate":"2025-03-23T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"65ec578a-fd13-4013-a0c2-0bf28e9ead5c","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","website":"https://www.ausmed.com/articles/what-is-hypotension/","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">\u003Cstrong>Hypotension\u003C/strong> (low blood pressure) occurs when the force at which the heart pumps blood through the arteries falls (NHS Inform 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Hypotension can present with various symptoms, from nausea, to dizziness, to heart palpitations (NHS Inform 2024). \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/how-to-take-blood-pressure/view\" target=\"_blank\">Checking blood pressure\u003C/a> is an important part of evaluating yourself or your patient.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Unfortunately, a problem doesn’t always announce itself with a fanfare of trumpets. Even the highest blood pressure can be entirely asymptomatic. Similarly, low blood pressure can also occur with no symptoms seemingly being present. This is particularly true if the patient is lying still in an unmonitored bed.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200323_v2_body.jpg\" alt=\"checking blood pressure\" />\n\t\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure)?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>In general, hypotension can be thought of as a \u003Cem>rate\u003C/em>, \u003Cem>pump\u003C/em> or \u003Cem>volume\u003C/em> problem. Examples of these include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Rate\u003C/strong>: Bradycardia (abnormally slow heart action) or tachycardia (rapid heart rate) can cause a decrease in blood pressure.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pump\u003C/strong> Hypotension can result from myocardial infarction (heart attack) or cardiogenic shock. Other conditions, such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hypothermia/view\" target=\"_blank\">hypothermia\u003C/a> or cardiac depressant medicines, can also affect the pump's pressure.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Volume\u003C/strong>: Hypovolaemic shock, severe dehydration, haemorrhage, septic shock, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/anaphylaxis/view\" target=\"_blank\">anaphylaxis\u003C/a>, neurogenic shock from spinal cord injury.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Sharma et al. 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Of course, the easiest way to determine whether your patient has a blood pressure problem is by simply taking their blood pressure, but in some cases, you may notice other symptoms that prompt you to check their blood pressure and find that it is low.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Low blood pressure should be evaluated and treated urgently.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Assessment of low blood pressure should include a recheck of the pressure and close monitoring. If a client has recently changed positions, they should be returned to a supine position and then rechecked in a few minutes.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Objective Signs of Hypotension\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The \u003Cstrong>best objective symptom of hypotension\u003C/strong> is taking the patient’s blood pressure and getting low numbers. It sounds obvious, but it may not occur to you to take a pressure when a patient complains of certain symptoms.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>When a patient does complain, however, it is usually recommended that you get a \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/vital-signs/view\" target=\"_blank\">complete set of vitals\u003C/a>, and this may then point to a problem with low blood pressure. How low is too low? What does low actually mean? Well, it can mean different things for different patients.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The usual metric for measuring low blood pressure is that \u003Cstrong>anything below 90/60 mmHg (millimetres of mercury) is considered low enough to treat\u003C/strong> (Healthdirect Australia 2022). Symptoms of low blood pressure can also occur when someone with hypertension comes down from very high pressures. For instance, 120/80 mmHg may be normal for everyone else, but if your patient lives at 170/95 mmHg, they are going to feel the difference. For this reason, the objective sign of a pressure must be combined with the subjective symptoms the patient reports.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Subjective Signs of Low Blood Pressure/Hypotension\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200323_v3_body.jpg\" alt=\"Symptoms of hypotension\" />\n\t\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\n\u003Cp>Subjective symptoms are those that the patient may report, though you may be able to see objective signs of these as well.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>With low blood pressure, the patient may feel faint or lose consciousness.\u003C/strong> This is due to a lack of blood flow to the brain, and laying the patient supine will usually help to raise blood pressure and reduce symptoms. A dizzy feeling and light-headedness could also accompany this (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Your patient may also report nausea and could possibly vomit from the low blood pressure. In addition, \u003Cstrong>heart palpitations\u003C/strong> are sometimes felt, and these can be easily seen with telemetry or other monitoring. \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/ecg-lead-placement/\" target=\"_blank\">EKGs/ECGs\u003C/a> may or may not show them, depending on the frequency and timing of the palpitations.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Some patients may also exhibit confusion, and this can make them seem like they are experiencing intoxication or another neurological problem. Blurred vision is usually reported with extreme cases of low blood pressure. There are many other symptoms of low blood pressure to look out for.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Orthostatic Hypotension\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Orthostasis\u003C/strong> means ‘standing upright’. \u003Cstrong>Orthostatic hypotension\u003C/strong>, or postural hypotension, is defined as a decrease in systolic blood pressure of at least \u003Cstrong>20 mmHg\u003C/strong>, or at least \u003Cstrong>10 mmHg\u003C/strong> within three minutes of the patient standing (Ringer et al. 2025). If orthostatic hypotension is present, the patient may be at risk of falls and should be closely supervised with ambulation or advised to call for assistance with activity.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>To test for orthostatic hypotension, take the patient’s blood pressure while they are supine and at rest. Then, stand the patient - they must be able to stand for three minutes before you take their blood pressure again. If the measurements meet the criteria stated previously, then orthostatic hypotension is evident. If the result is equivocal, record it and request a formal assessment. \u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20170805_cover_V2.jpg","https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2015/04/20150320-image1.jpg"],"excerpt":"Checking blood pressure is an important part of evaluating yourself or your patient. Unfortunately, a problem doesn’t always announce itself with a fanfare of trumpets. Even the highest blood pressure can be entirely asymptomatic. Similarly, low blood pressure can also occur with no symptoms seemingly being present. This is particularly true if the patient is lying still in an unmonitored bed.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2017-08-04T14:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Heart Association 2024, \u003Cem>Syncope (Fainting)\u003C/em>, AHA, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/arrhythmia/symptoms-diagnosis--monitoring-of-arrhythmia/syncope-fainting\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/arrhythmia/symptoms-diagnosis--monitoring-of-arrhythmia/syncope-fainting\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2022, \u003Cem>Fainting\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/fainting\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/fainting\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cooke, J, Carew, S, O'Connor, M, Costelloe, A, Sheehy, T & Lyons, D 2009, 'Sitting and Standing Blood Pressure Measurements are Not Accurate for the Diagnosis of Orthostatic Hypotension', \u003Cem>QJM\u003C/em>, vol. 102, no. 5, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19273552/\" target=\"_blank\">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19273552/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2022, \u003Cem>Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension)\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/low-blood-pressure-hypotension\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/low-blood-pressure-hypotension\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Hewitt, D 2018, 'What Are the Dangers of Low Blood Pressure?', \u003Cem>Heartfully\u003C/em>, 5 December, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://healthfully.com/what-are-the-dangers-of-low-blood-pressure-3201075.html\" target=\"_blank\">https://healthfully.com/what-are-the-dangers-of-low-blood-pressure-3201075.html\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">NHS Inform 2024, \u003Cem>Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension)\u003C/em>, NHS Scotland, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/heart-and-blood-vessels/conditions/low-blood-pressure-hypotension\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/heart-and-blood-vessels/conditions/low-blood-pressure-hypotension\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Ringer, M, Hashmi, MF & Lappin, SL 2025, ‘Orthostatic Hypotension’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448192/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448192/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Sharma, S, Hashmi, MF & Bhattacharya, PT 2023, ‘Hypotension’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499961/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499961/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"94938acd-d9f5-4c40-af93-57a485d999a4","resourceID":"65ec578a-fd13-4013-a0c2-0bf28e9ead5c","educatorID":"2d259b04-9049-486c-a16c-03bb80992b3c","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"2d259b04-9049-486c-a16c-03bb80992b3c","firstName":"Lynda","lastName":"Lampert","createDate":"2019-05-29T14:59:45Z","updateDate":"2020-07-22T15:34:21Z","alias":"lynda-lampert","contactDetail":{"position":"","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/sWCb41PUma3znjOA0K6zVJ020Eb6X52UkBpYf-fw4_NtQcL_RNf4_7qWxYncgQauayHQ3-lJDzTPWs779X1POxVbt3il","country":"USA","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["64cb9e92-20f8-4ea1-87da-680fef5d18f1","c58e6603-e42e-4c7c-a348-c8dd9548b1c4","bd4fb1b7-4f67-4437-8d8c-dab140aeba26","c802157f-7522-450a-baa8-cce7168f8dfe","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Lynda is a registered nurse with three years experience on a busy surgical floor in a city hospital. She graduated with an Associates degree in Nursing from Mercyhurst College Northeast in 2007 and lives in Erie, Pennsylvania in the United States. In her work, she took care of patients post operatively from open heart surgery, immediately post-operatively from gastric bypass, gastric banding surgery and post abdominal surgery. She also dealt with patient populations that experienced active chest pain, congestive heart failure, end stage renal disease, uncontrolled diabetes and a variety of other chronic, mental and surgical conditions.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"65ec578a-fd13-4013-a0c2-0bf28e9ead5c"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"65ec578a-fd13-4013-a0c2-0bf28e9ead5c","resourceType":"blog","alias":"what-is-hypotension","metaTitle":"Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension) Signs and Symptoms | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Hypotension (low blood pressure) occurs when the force at which the heart pumps blood through the arteries falls. Hypotension can present with various symptoms, from nausea, to dizziness, to heart palpitations."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"40fa5636-a5db-4628-a88d-1ddb9f00cf5b","title":"How To Assess a Deteriorating / Critically Ill Patient (ABCDE Assessment)","activityType":"blog","min":23,"categories":["cc7b0b2d-cd8b-4d7d-8554-954cf8a79d4f","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","0e9c78c5-925b-4ae0-9640-870472ad9a91","9d2c64a9-cd8c-4ec4-8bf6-ec83b607d9ad"],"topics":["c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea","54c7bab0-5487-4fa5-8c70-b2e9e8f1999b","70e55c50-f65d-4c09-b030-906561b5077b","fc0f29da-ff5e-40de-b163-574841586fee","84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","78cf0a0f-ec90-4e51-bc8e-6f810c0e8ed4","deb6d879-d2e4-4ab0-ae35-1795dfddee19","22aff703-5cc7-4d50-8462-d15f131fcf96"],"keywords":["Clinical Assessment","Cognitive Impairment","Respiratory","Cardiology","Critical Care","Emergency","Trauma","Life Support"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Occupational Therapist","Paramedic","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Lydia Nabwami"],"createDate":"2018-04-01T10:45:16Z","updateDate":"2025-03-24T05:05:10Z","availableDate":"2025-03-23T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["34bb45da-8192-4bac-8f0f-8ab458c73269","035d035a-723b-4ca9-828f-3c27722534ca","65a8e001-6249-498a-b33e-86c1fb9a3e36"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba","1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"40fa5636-a5db-4628-a88d-1ddb9f00cf5b","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","website":"https://www.ausmed.com/articles/abcde-assessment/","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">This article will discuss how to assess a deteriorating/critically ill patient using the \u003Cstrong>ABCDE (airway, breathing, circulation, disability and exposure) systematic approach\u003C/strong>.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The \u003Cstrong>ABCDE approach\u003C/strong> is intended for rapid assessment of a deteriorating/critically ill patient. It’s designed to provide initial management of life-threatening conditions in order of priority, using a structured method to keep the patient alive and to achieve the first steps to improvement rather than making a definitive diagnosis (Farrington 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>The ABCDE Assessment:\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"card bg-light\">\n\t\u003Cdiv class=\"card-body\">\n\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"display-1\" style=\"font-size:3rem;\">Airway (A)\u003C/h3>\n\t\t\u003Cp>The aim of the airway assessment is to establish the patency of the airway and assess the risk of deterioration in the patient’s ability to protect their airways.\u003C/p>\n\t\t\n\t\t\u003Cp>A quick way to identify the patency of the patient's airway is as follows:\u003C/p>\n\t\t\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>If the patient can speak, this indicates that their airway is clear and patent.\u003C/li> \n\t\t\t\u003Cli>If the air entry is diminished and often noisy, this indicates a partial obstruction to the airway.\u003C/li> \n\t\t\t\u003Cli>If there are no breath sounds at the mouth or nose, this indicates a complete obstruction of the airway.\u003C/li> \n\t\t\u003C/ul>\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024; Planas et al. 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\t\t\n\t\t\u003Cfigure>\n\t\t\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2018/04/20180402_body1.jpg\" alt=\"Airway ABCDE Assessment\"/>\n\t\t\t\u003C/center>\n\t\t\u003C/figure>\n\t\u003C/div>\n\u003C/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Airway Obstruction\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Airway obstruction could be caused by:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The patient’s tongue\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Foreign body\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Vomit, blood or secretions\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swelling of soft tissue e.g. anaphylaxis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Local mass effect (e.g. tumour)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Laryngospasm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Reduced consciousness e.g. head injury, stroke, overdose.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(AMBOSS 2024; Farrington 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing the Airway\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Observe the patient for signs of airway obstruction such as \u003Cstrong>paradoxical chest and abdominal movements\u003C/strong>. This refers to a state whereby the chest and abdomen rise and fall alternatively and vigorously to attempt to overcome the obstruction.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Look to identify whether \u003Cstrong>skin colour is blue or mottled (cyanosis)\u003C/strong>.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Listen for signs of airway obstruction. Certain sounds will assist you in localising the level of the obstruction. For example, noises such as \u003Cstrong>snoring, expiratory wheezing or gurgling\u003C/strong> may indicate a partially obstructed airway.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Listen and feel for airway obstruction: If the breath sounds are quiet, then air entry should be confirmed by placing your face or hand in front of the patient’s mouth and nose to \u003Cstrong>determine airflow\u003C/strong>, by observing the chest and abdomen for symmetrical chest expansion, or listening for breath sounds with a stethoscope.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2011, 2024; Farrington 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Airway Obstruction Management\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>According to the Resuscitation Council UK (2024), \u003Cstrong>airway obstruction should be treated as a medical emergency\u003C/strong>. Expert help should be called immediately as untreated airway obstruction can rapidly lead to cardiac arrest, hypoxia, damage to the brain, heart or kidneys, and even death.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Once airway obstruction has been identified, treat it appropriately. For example, suction if required, administer oxygen as appropriate and move the patient into a lateral position.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>If the patient is unconscious or has an altered conscious state, is not breathing normally or cannot maintain airway patency, use the head tilt/chin lift manoeuvre or jaw thrust to open their airway.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024; AMBOSS 2024; Ernstmeyer & Christman 2021; Farrington 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"card bg-light\">\n\t\u003Cdiv class=\"card-body\">\n\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"display-1\" style=\"font-size:3rem;\">Breathing (B)\u003C/h3>\n\t\t\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Breathing function should only be assessed and managed after the airway has been judged as adequate.\u003C/strong>.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\t\u003Cp>Assessment of breathing is designed to detect signs of respiratory distress or inadequate ventilation. The following steps can be used to assess breathing:\u003C/p>\n\n\t\t\u003Cfigure>\n\t\t\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2018/04/20180402_body2.jpg\" alt=\"Listening locations ABCDE Assessment - How To Assess a Critically Ill Patient | Ausmed\" />\n\t\t\t\u003C/center>\n\t\t\u003C/figure>\n\t\u003C/div>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing Breathing\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9 mb-3\">\n\t\u003Ciframe class=\"embed-responsive-item\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/ObZFU3YUqyE\" allowfullscreen>\u003C/iframe>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Look for \u003Cstrong>general signs of respiratory distress\u003C/strong>, such as sweating, increased effort to breathe, abdominal breathing and central cyanosis.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Count the patient’s respiratory rate\u003C/strong>: the normal respiratory rate in adults is between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. The respiratory rate should be measured by counting the number of breaths that a patient takes over one whole minute by observing the rise and fall of the chest. A high respiratory rate is a marker of illness or an early warning sign that the patient may be deteriorating.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Assess the \u003Cstrong>depth of each breath\u003C/strong> the patient takes, the \u003Cstrong>rhythm of breathing\u003C/strong> and whether \u003Cstrong>chest movement is equal\u003C/strong> on both sides.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Measure the patient’s peripheral oxygen saturation\u003C/strong> using a pulse oximeter applied to the end of the patient’s finger. The Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand (2022) recommends a target oxygen saturation of between 92 and 96% for most critically ill adults, or 88 to 92% for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or other conditions associated with chronic respiratory failure.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Blood gas analysis\u003C/strong>: This test provides a valuable respiratory assessment of the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood PH. It provides more in-depth information about the effectiveness of respiratory function than pulse oximetry.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Assess air entry using a stethoscope\u003C/strong> to confirm whether air is entering the lungs, whether both lungs have equal air entry and whether there are any additional abnormal breath sounds such as wheezing and crackles.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2023; Barnett et al. 2022; Farrington 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Management\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The treatment of specific respiratory disorders depends upon the cause. However, expert help should be called immediately in any case (Resuscitation Council UK 2024). If the patient’s breathing is compromised, position them appropriately (usually in an upright position) (Farrington 2025).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"card bg-light\">\n\t\u003Cdiv class=\"card-body\">\n\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"display-1\" style=\"font-size:3rem;\">Circulation (C)\u003C/h3>\n\t\t\u003Cp>Assessment of circulation should be undertaken only once the patient’s airway and breathing have been assessed and appropriately treated.\u003C/p>\n\n\t\t\u003Cp>Assessing the circulatory system aims to \u003Cstrong>determine the effectiveness of cardiac output\u003C/strong>, (i.e. the volume of blood ejected from the heart each minute).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200320_3_1.jpg\" alt=\"ABCDE Assessment - How To Assess a Critically Ill Patient | Ausmed Pulse locations\"/>\n\t\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\t\u003C/div>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Poor Circulation\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Possible causes include, but are not limited to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Shock (including distributive, cardiogenic, hypovolemic and obstructive shock)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cardiac arrhythmias\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Heart failure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hypertension\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Coronary disease\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Congenital conditions\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Myocardial ischaemia and infarction\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Genetic conditions\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Structural abnormalities\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Emboli.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(King & Lowery 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing Circulation\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9 mb-3\">\n\t\u003Ciframe class=\"embed-responsive-item\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/hpd5lhMTZew\" allowfullscreen>\u003C/iframe>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Blood pressure (BP) is an indication of the effectiveness of cardiac output. \u003Cstrong>Measure the patient’s blood pressure\u003C/strong> as soon as possible; low blood pressure (relative to the patient's normal blood pressure) is often a late sign in a deteriorating patient and can be an adverse clinical sign.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Gauge the patient’s \u003Cstrong>peripheral skin temperature\u003C/strong> by feeling their hands to determine whether they are warm or cool.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feel and measure the patient’s heart rate: \u003Cstrong>assess the patient’s heart rate\u003C/strong> relative to their normal physiological condition. Heart rate is usually felt by palpating the pulse from an artery that lies near the surface of the skin, such as the radial artery in the wrist. The pulse should be felt for presence, rate, quality and regularity. If there are any abnormalities detected such as thread pulse, then a \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/ecg-lead-placement/view\" target=\"_blank\">12 lead electrocardiogram (ECG)\u003C/a> should be undertaken.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Capillary refill time (CRT)\u003C/strong>: a simple measure of peripheral circulation. The patient’s hand should be at the level of their heart. Press the top of the patient’s finger for 5 seconds to blanch the skin, and then release. The normal value for CRT is usually \u003C 2 seconds. A prolonged CRT could indicate poor peripheral perfusion.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Look for \u003Cstrong>other signs of poor cardiac output\u003C/strong> such as a decreased level of consciousness. If the patient has a urinary catheter, check for reduced urine output (urine output of \u003C 0.5 mL kg/hr) and assess for any signs of external bleeding from wounds or drains.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024; Hagedoorn et al. 2019; NHLBI 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Management\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>The specific treatment for circulation problems depends on the cause. However, fluid replacement, restoration of tissue perfusion and haemorrhage control are usually necessary (Resuscitation Council UK 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Ensure the patient has one or more large gauge intravenous cannulas in situ so that emergency fluids and medicines can be administered more efficiently.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Remember to continuously reassess the patient’s heart rate and blood pressure, with the goal of restoring them to the patient’s normal physiological state. If this is not known, aim for > 100 mmHg systolic.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Seek help from more experienced practitioners.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"card bg-light\">\n\t\u003Cdiv class=\"card-body\">\n\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"display-1\" style=\"font-size:3rem;\">Disability (D)\u003C/h3>\n\t\t\u003Cp>This assessment involves reviewing \u003Cstrong>the patient’s neurological status\u003C/strong>, and should only be undertaken once A, B and C above have been optimised, as these parameters can all affect the patient’s neurological condition.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200320_3_2.jpg\" alt=\"AVPU Neurological assessment ABCDE Assessment - How To Assess a Critically Ill Patient | Ausmed\"/>\n\t\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\t\u003C/div>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing Neurological Function\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9 mb-3\">\n\t\u003Ciframe class=\"embed-responsive-item\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/p4P-HguQm30\" allowfullscreen>\u003C/iframe>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Level of consciousness\u003C/strong>: Conduct a rapid assessment of the patient’s level of consciousness using \u003Cstrong>the AVPU system\u003C/strong>:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Awake (A)\u003C/strong>: Observe if the patient can open their eyes, takes interest and responds normally to their environment. This would be assessed as ‘awake’.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Responding to voice (V)\u003C/strong>: If the patient has their eyes closed and only opens them when spoken to, this would be assessed as ‘voice’.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Responding to pain (P)\u003C/strong>: If a patient doesn’t respond to voice, painful stimuli should be applied. If the patient responds to painful stimuli, then the level of consciousness is assessed as ‘responds to pain’. An example of a painful stimulus is the ‘trapezius squeeze’.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Unresponsive (U)\u003C/strong>: A patient not responding to pain is ‘unresponsive’.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Romanelli & Farrell 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>If you’re concerned about the patient’s level of consciousness, then use a more in-depth assessment such as the \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/neurological-assessment-gcs/view\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)\u003C/strong>\u003C/a> and seek further help.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pupil reaction\u003C/strong>: Examine the patient’s pupils for size, shape and reaction to light.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Blood glucose levels\u003C/strong>: A blood glucose measurement should be taken to exclude hypoglycaemia using a rapid finger-prick bedside testing method. Follow local protocols for management of hypoglycaemia.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9 mb-3\">\n\t\u003Ciframe class=\"embed-responsive-item\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/_BGMQDmwRmA\" allowfullscreen>\u003C/iframe>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Ch3>Management of Altered Consciousness Level\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>The priority is to assess airway, breathing and circulation to exclude hypoxia and hypotension.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Check the patient’s medicine chart for reversible medicine-induced causes of an altered level of consciousness, and remember to call for expert help.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Unconscious patients whose airways are not protected should be nursed in the lateral position.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Resuscitation Council UK 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"card bg-light\">\n\t\u003Cdiv class=\"card-body\">\n\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"display-1\" style=\"font-size:3rem;\">Exposure (E)\u003C/h3>\n\t\t\u003Cp>By the time the assessment reaches this stage (exposure), there should be a good understanding of the patient’s problems.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\t\u003Ccenter>\n\t\t\u003Cimg src=\"https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2018/04/20180402_body5.jpg\" alt=\"ABCDE Assessment - How To Assess a Critically Ill Patient |Ausmed exposure\"/>\n\t\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\t\u003C/div>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing Exposure\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Conduct a thorough examination of the patient’s body\u003C/strong> for abnormalities, checking the skin for the presence of rashes, swelling, bleeding or any excessive losses from drains. Respect the patient’s dignity at all times and minimise heat loss.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Look at the patient’s medical notes, medicine charts, observation charts and results from investigations for any additional evidence that can inform the assessment and ongoing plan of care for the patient.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Remember to \u003Cstrong>document all the assessments, treatments and responses to treatment\u003C/strong> in the patient’s clinical notes.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Always seek help from more senior or experienced practitioners if the patient is continuing to deteriorate.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Patient’s temperature\u003C/strong>: normal temperatures range from \u003Cstrong>36.5°C to 37.5°C\u003C/strong>. If a patient has a raised temperature, it is important to understand the reason for this, as the treatment will vary depending on the cause.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Farrington 2025; Osilla et al. 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Conclusion\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>The ABCDE approach\u003C/strong> is a robust clinical tool that enables healthcare professionals to determine the seriousness of a patient’s condition and prioritise clinical interventions.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Your facility’s policies and procedures should always be followed when responding to/managing a critically ill or deteriorating patient.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20180402_cover_V2.jpg","https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2019/03/cover-template-Recovered-300x141.jpg","https://cdn.ausmed.com/ausmed-blog-images/2019/03/cover-template-Recovered.jpg"],"excerpt":"This article will discuss how to assess a deteriorating/critically ill patient using the ABCDE (airway, breathing, circulation, disability and exposure) systematic approach.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2018-04-01T14:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","8461199e-7ea7-4078-8e91-6933f90a9bf3"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">AMBOSS 2024, \u003Cem>Airway Management\u003C/em>, AMBOSS, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/airway-management\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/airway-management\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Barnett et al. 2022, ‘Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand Position Statement on Acute Oxygen Use in Adults: ‘Swimming Between the Flags’ ’, \u003Cem>Respirology\u003C/em>, vol. 27, no. 4, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/resp.14218\" target=\"_blank\">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/resp.14218\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Ernstmeyer, K & Christman, E 2021, ‘Chapter 10 Respiratory Assessment’, in \u003Cem>Nursing Skills\u003C/em>, Chippewa Valley Technical College, Eau Claire, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK593192/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK593192/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Farrington, G 2025, \u003Cem>ABCDE Assessment – OSCE Guide\u003C/em>, Geeky Medics, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://geekymedics.com/abcde-approach/\" target=\"_blank\">https://geekymedics.com/abcde-approach/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Hagedoorn, NN, Zachariasse, JM & Moll, HA 2019, ‘Association Between Hypotension and Serious Illness in the Emergency Department: An Observational Study’, \u003Cem>Arch Dis Child.\u003C/em>, vol. 105, no. 6, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7285787/\" target=\"_blank\">https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7285787/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">King, J & Lowery, DR 2023, ‘Physiology, Cardiac Output’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470455/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470455/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute 2022, \u003Cem>Arrhythmias: Diagnosis\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/arrhythmias/diagnosis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/arrhythmias/diagnosis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Osilla, EV, Marsidi, JL, Shumway, KR & Sharma, S 2023, ‘Physiology, Temperature Regulation’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Planas, JH, Waseem, M & Sigmon, DF 2023, ‘Trauma Primary Survey’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430800/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430800/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Resuscitation Council UK 2011, \u003Cem>Chapter 7 Airway Management and Ventilation\u003C/em>, Resuscitation Council UK, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://lms.resus.org.uk/modules/m65-non-technical-skills/resources/chapter_7.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://lms.resus.org.uk/modules/m65-non-technical-skills/resources/chapter_7.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Resuscitation Council UK 2024, \u003Cem>The ABCDE Approach\u003C/em>, Resuscitation Council UK, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.resus.org.uk/library/abcde-approach\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.resus.org.uk/library/abcde-approach\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Romanelli, D & Farrell, MW 2023, ‘AVPU Scale’, \u003Cem>StatPearls\u003C/em>, viewed 24 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538431/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538431/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.resus.org.uk/\" target=\"_blank\">Resuscitation Council UK\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"ec5f565c-ef03-4aa8-8d47-f2b90a4f8ca0","resourceID":"40fa5636-a5db-4628-a88d-1ddb9f00cf5b","educatorID":"8db36d75-3db6-41e8-9879-1e6c564b6939","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"8db36d75-3db6-41e8-9879-1e6c564b6939","firstName":"Lydia","lastName":"Nabwami","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:09:08Z","updateDate":"2020-06-10T18:04:41Z","alias":"lydia-nabwami","contactDetail":{"position":"","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ZcQjbj_10XXRc2d1-CTwbg9ogXYTe2Kv6gJfp1ApXickol-bq5oKwUgmEybtmMqC0HYZMrfJfbnaSeliJk2SCuJJaakI","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["66e1bae8-6764-46dc-b495-0698c7ace548","84c12e3a-b504-46c6-8f7e-83fead44fb70","44989b46-85b3-464a-b963-56e80bc4e457","9e19e4bc-197f-44eb-ba9d-d8525bdb0074"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Lydia Nabwami is registered nurse who has worked in various healthcare settings including cardiac ward, cardiac critical care unit (ITU), general ITU, A&E department, nursing homes and community nursing. She uses her experience as a RN to write well-researched content that helps to attract and motivate audiences. Lydia is also a freelance writer for hire with specialisation in health writing and has helped numerous companies with their content needs. Her work has appeared on sites such as Caring Village, Reachout, Lisa Nelson RD and more. When she isn’t writing, you can find her listening to motivational speeches, keeping active or playing with her two daughters. Contact Lydia or visit her website at Lnwritingservices.co.uk for more information on her services.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"40fa5636-a5db-4628-a88d-1ddb9f00cf5b","videoNum":1}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"40fa5636-a5db-4628-a88d-1ddb9f00cf5b","resourceType":"blog","alias":"abcde-assessment","metaTitle":"How To Assess a Deteriorating Patient (ABCDE Assessment) | Ausmed","metaDescription":"The ABCDE approach is intended for rapid assessment of a deteriorating/critically ill patient. It’s designed to provide initial management of life-threatening conditions in order of priority, using a structured method to keep the patient alive and to achieve the first steps to improvement rather than making a definitive diagnosis."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"bfcd3fb2-2894-48ac-9ceb-3e02c75861e3","title":"Common Rashes: An Overview","activityType":"blog","min":14,"categories":["0e5c98bb-e861-4148-9cd2-1ca0b334961d","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561","720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e","44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a"],"topics":["879d22cc-64ff-4e22-b5af-36b27a155494","220adde1-d8f3-4ba7-892a-0bf4c215f2fb","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d","c4c3836d-b231-4593-ab0f-6eece20f9bea","22e21a87-fc86-420b-a354-01d2b227f979","cc65571f-5cfb-465c-9caa-295aec4f804d","2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6","f4505d82-510e-476a-aed9-a02ddf6a14ba","352990e1-c115-4e9f-9f85-f83bcee39f48","c592857d-daae-4c3a-b28f-f624098b21ca"],"keywords":["Allergy","Autoimmune Diseases","Chronic Illness","Clinical Assessment","General Practice","Infection Prevention and Control","Infectious Diseases","Occupational Health and Safety","Paediatrics","Primary Health"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-03-25T00:04:08Z","updateDate":"2025-03-21T00:18:42Z","availableDate":"2025-03-20T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["2e736483-b236-463c-a9fe-7dfb0003df9d"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"bfcd3fb2-2894-48ac-9ceb-3e02c75861e3","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Rashes are an extremely common medical presentation, particularly in children (RCHM 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>In fact, skin conditions, including rashes, are \u003Cstrong>one of the most common presentations in general practice\u003C/strong>, accounting for 17% of issues encountered (RACGP 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Most rashes are temporary and not a cause for concern (HealthEngine 2017). Due to how common they are, they may simply be brushed off as ‘nothing serious’. \u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>However, rashes have a diverse range of potential causes and presentations, and in \u003Cstrong>some cases require immediate medical attention\u003C/strong> (RCHM 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Rashes can be difficult to identify, and as a healthcare professional, being able to recognise potentially dangerous rashes is critical.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>So, how can common rashes be differentiated, and when is there a cause for serious concern?\u003C/p> \n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>\u003Cmark>This Article will provide an overview of some common rashes, along with related Ausmed resources. Please note that this is not an exhaustive list.\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>What is a Rash?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>A rash is an area of skin that has undergone a change in texture or colour and may appear irritated or inflamed. It may be localised, or affect the whole body (NCI 2020).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Rashes can present in a variety of ways. The affected area skin might appear:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Discoloured (red, pink or purple)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Warm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Scaly\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Flat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bumpy\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dry\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Itchy\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swollen\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Painful\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cracked\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Blistered\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pus-filled.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NCI 2020; Soyer & Lee 2018)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Common Rashes\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Ch3>Anaphylaxis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"anaphylaxis rash\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute, potentially life-threatening reaction.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Exposure to an allergen, typically a food, medicine or insect.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Hives or welts - raised, bumpy, itchy rash that may be red or closer to the person’s normal skin colour. Swelling may be present, and the skin can feel hot or flushed.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Other signs of anaphylaxis include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficult or noisy breathing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swollen tongue\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swollen or tight throat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swollen face, lips and/or eyes\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty talking or hoarse voice\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Wheezing or persistently coughing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Persistent dizziness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Collapse\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abdominal pain and vomiting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pale appearance and floppiness (in children).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Immediate intramuscular adrenaline is required if the patient is experiencing shock, airway swelling or breathing difficulties. This should be followed by transportation to acute care where fluid and oxygen may be administered if required.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Further information:\u003C/strong> \u003Cem>\u003Cmark>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/anaphylaxis\" target=\"_blank\">Recognising and Treating Acute Anaphylaxis\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASCIA 2024a; Gartside 2024; Queensland Government 2019)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Bites and Stings\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"bites and stings rash\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Note:\u003C/strong> Specific management of bites and stings will depend on the causative insect.\u003C/em>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute reaction.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> An insect penetrating the skin and potentially leaving its saliva, faeces or venom in the body.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Often, a bite or sting will cause localised redness, with a bump or blister surrounding the puncture site. If the person experiences an allergic reaction to the bite/sting, there may be localised swelling, or in the case of a more generalised reaction, redness, swelling or hives in other areas of the body. In the case of an anaphylactic reaction, they may present with hives or welts.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Irritation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Itching\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pain or a burning sensation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Symptoms of an anaphylactic reaction (in severe cases).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Mild bites and stings will generally heal on their own within 48 hours. Techniques such as taking cool baths and showers, wearing loose clothing and applying topical lotions or creams may help to relieve itching.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Further information:\u003C/strong> \u003Cem>\u003Cmark>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/envenomation\" target=\"_blank\">Basic First-Aid for the Envenomated Person (Snakes, Spiders and Insects)\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2024a; Better Health Channel 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Contact Dermatitis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"contact dermatitis\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute reaction.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Direct contact between the skin and an inflammation-causing stimulus. Common examples include nickel, chemicals, plants, cosmetics, perfumes and ointments. The rash generally occurs one to two days after the initial contact with the trigger.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Cracked, red, blistered, thickened and dry skin, possibly with weeping.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong> Itching.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> The rash will gradually heal after the irritant is removed, within one to two weeks post-exposure. Symptoms may be treated with topical emollient moisturisers and steroid creams, or in the case of severe immune response, with oral medicines.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASCIA 2024b; Soyer & Lee 2018; Tate 2019) \u003C/small>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Note: Healthcare workers are particularly susceptible to occupational contact dermatitis due to irritation from constant handwashing and the frequent use of gloves (Skin Health Institute 2023).\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Eczema (Atopic Dermatitis)\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_4.jpg\" alt=\"eczema\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Chronic condition.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> The exact cause of eczema is not known, but it’s thought to be a combination of environmental triggers and genetic factors. People who have eczema have an overactive immune system that produces inflammation when triggered by a substance inside or outside of the body. Factors that may contribute to symptom flare-ups include:\n\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Allergens\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stress\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Heat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Certain materials and substances\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Animals or dust mites\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Infections\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Scratching\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dry skin.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Scaly, dry, red patches of skin. The affected area may form tiny blisters filled with clear fluid and weep. Commonly affected areas of the body include the cheeks, elbow creases and backs of the knees.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong> Severe itching during flare-ups, with the affected areas potentially becoming infected.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> The condition can be managed by keeping the skin moisturised and protected, avoiding known irritants, and avoiding scratching. Flare-ups are generally treated using topical corticosteroids or calcineurin inhibitors.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Further information:\u003C/strong> \u003Cem>\u003Cmark>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/eczema-overview\" target=\"_blank\">Eczema Symptoms and Management\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NEA 2025; ASCIA 2024c; Better Health Channel 2023a)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Herpes Zoster (Shingles)\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_5.jpg\" alt=\"shingles herpes zoster\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute viral infection, however, about 10% of people will experience chronic pain and tingling (post-herpetic neuralgia) for months or years after the infection.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Reactivation of the dormant varicella-zoster virus in people who have previously had chickenpox.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Red rash with fluid-filled blisters that break open and crust over. The rash is typically only on one side of the body, on the face, chest, back, abdomen or pelvis.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong> On the affected area of the body, the person will initially experience pain, a burning, tingling, itching or stabbing sensation, sensitivity to touch, and numbness, as well as other symptoms like sensitivity to light, fatigue, fever and/or headaches. Two to three days after the onset of these symptoms, a rash will appear in the affected area.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Shingles resolves on its own within two to six weeks. However, prescription antiviral medicines can be used to reduce the severity of symptoms and the risk of complications. Taking over-the-counter analgesics, keeping the rash dry and clean, avoiding scratching and wearing loose clothing may also assist in symptom management.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Further information:\u003C/strong> \u003Cem>\u003Cmark>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/shingles\" target=\"_blank\">What Causes Shingles (Herpes Zoster)?\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022; Healthdirect 2023a)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Psoriasis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_6.jpg\" alt=\"psoriasis\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Chronic inflammatory condition.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Skin cells growing too quickly. The exact cause of the condition is unknown, but it may have a genetic component. Factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, certain medicines, sun exposure, injury and certain infections (e.g. streptococcal tonsillitis) can exacerbate symptoms.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Red, dry, plaques covered with silvery scales. The plaques have clearly defined borders. The rash can appear on any part of the body, but most commonly affects the knees, elbows, lower back and scalp. Rarer types of psoriasis may cause pus-filled blisters or a red, peeling rash. Plaques that have cleared often leave brown or pale marks that gradually fade.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong> Itching is mild in most patients, but can be severe. Scratching may cause skin thickening, and the patient may also experience painful skin cracks or fissures.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Depending on the severity, symptoms may be managed using topical therapy, phototherapy, systemic therapy or targeted therapy. Symptoms can also be improved by avoiding smoking and reducing alcohol intake.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023b; Jones et al. 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Rosacea\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_7.jpg\" alt=\"rosacea\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Chronic condition.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Unknown, but is thought to be related to genetic, environmental, vascular and inflammatory factors, along with a reaction to the demodex mite that lives on the skin. Symptoms may be exacerbated by factors such as stress, alcohol, heat, exercise and spicy foods.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Persistent redness and flushing that only affects the face, accompanied by enlarged capillaries. The rash may resemble a sunburn. In some cases, there might also be pimples on the forehead, cheeks and chin.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms typically worsen with age and might include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Frequent blushing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bumps or pimples on the face that may cause a stinging or burning sensation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Red or irritated eyes, or swollen eyelids\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Mild swelling on the cheeks or nose.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Symptoms can be managed by avoiding known triggers, applying creams and gels, using diathermy to apply heat to damaged blood vessels and undergoing laser surgery to treat enlarged capillaries.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2023b; Ciconte 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Scabies\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_8.jpg\" alt=\"scabies\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute parasitic infection.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Infestation by \u003Cem>Sarcoptes scabiei\u003C/em> mites, which burrow under the skin and lay eggs. Scabies can be spread between people via direct contact.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Small red bumps that often form a line and may resemble hives, bites, knots or pimples. Sometimes the rash resembles scaly eczema patches. There may also be visible burrows in the affected areas. Commonly affected areas of the body include the wrists, fingers, armpits, elbows, buttocks and groin.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong> Intense itching that worsens at night and after hot baths and showers. Scratching may lead to infection.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> First-line treatment is generally the application of 5% permethrin cream or lotion, which is an insecticide used to kill parasites.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2023c; AAD 2025; Stewart 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Scarlet Fever\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_9.jpg\" alt=\"scarlet fever\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute bacterial infection.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Infection by group A streptococci bacteria, the same bacteria that causes strep throat, impetigo and rheumatic fever. The bacteria is spread by coughing, sneezing or making contact with an infected person or contaminated surface. It predominantly affects children between the ages of 5 and 15.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> The rash initially presents as red blotches, most commonly on the face, neck, underarms or groin. Within 24 hours, the rash spreads to the rest of the body and changes to resemble a sunburn, with a sandpaper-like texture. Three to seven days later, the rash will peel.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Red sore throat and tonsils\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swallowing difficulties\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swollen glands\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fever\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Red bumps on the tongue (‘strawberry tongue’)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Body aches.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Antibiotics must be administered to prevent the bacteria from spreading and potentially causing serious complications like rheumatic fever, kidney disease, pneumonia or arthritis. Rest, pain relief and adequate hydration may assist in symptom management.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Further information:\u003C/strong> \u003Cem>\u003Cmark>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/strep-throat\">All About Strep Throat\u003C/a>\u003C/mark>\u003C/em>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023c; Oakley 2015)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Varicella (Chickenpox)\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_body_10.jpg\" alt=\"varicella chickenpox\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Type:\u003C/strong> Acute viral infection.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Cause:\u003C/strong> Infection with the varicella-zoster virus, which is spread by inhaling the particles dispersed when an infected person coughs or sneezes, or through touching the fluid from an infected person’s chickenpox blisters.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Rash appearance:\u003C/strong> Red rash that turns into fluid-filled blisters, which may then burst and crust over.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Symptoms:\u003C/strong>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Itching\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fever\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sore throat.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Treatment:\u003C/strong> Chickenpox is generally mild and will resolve on its own. Symptoms can be managed by resting, avoiding scratching, taking lukewarm baths with oatmeal, taking paracetamol and using creams or lotions to decrease itching.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023d; Better Health Channel 2023d) \u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Skin Rash Red Flags\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>While some rashes are mild and don’t have any cause for concern, the following signs may indicate a serious illness and should be escalated immediately:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Breathing difficulties, tight throat and swollen tongue, which indicate a severe allergic reaction\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Non-blanching rash, which might indicate severe illnesses such as \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/sepsis\" target=\"_blank\">sepsis\u003C/a> or meningitis \n\t\u003Cli>Fever\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hypotension\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Severe pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The patient has recently started taking a new medicine\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The patient is \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/being-immunocompromised\" target=\"_blank\">immunosuppressed\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rapid spreading of the rash\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sudden onset of the rash\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Signs of infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The rash is affecting the entire body\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abnormal bleeding or bruising under the rash\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Red streaks.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Barrell & Bard 2021; HealthONE 2020; AAD 2024; Donaldson 2024; HealthEngine 2017)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220325_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"Rashes can be difficult to identify, and as a healthcare professional, being able to recognise potentially dangerous rashes is critical. So, how can common rashes be differentiated, and when is there a cause for serious concern?","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-24T13:00:00Z","references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Academy of Dermatology Association 2024, \u003Cem>Rash 101 in Adults: When to Seek Medical Treatment\u003C/em>, AAD, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/itchy-skin/rash/rash-101\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/itchy-skin/rash/rash-101\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Academy of Dermatology Association 2025, \u003Cem>Scabies: Signs and Symptoms\u003C/em>, AAD, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/a-z/scabies-symptoms\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/a-z/scabies-symptoms\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy 2024a, \u003Cem>Anaphylaxis\u003C/em>, ASCIA, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/about-allergy/anaphylaxis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/about-allergy/anaphylaxis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy 2024b, \u003Cem>Contact Dermatitis\u003C/em>, ASCIA, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/contact-dermatitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/contact-dermatitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy 2024c, \u003Cem>Eczema (Atopic Dermatitis) Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\u003C/em>, ASCIA, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/eczema\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/eczema\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Barrell, A & Bard, S 2021, ‘Causes for a Non-Blanching Rash in Adults and Children’, \u003Cem>MedicalNewsToday\u003C/em>, 27 January, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/non-blanching-rash\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/non-blanching-rash\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2022, \u003Cem>Allergies to Bites and Stings\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/allergies-to-bites-and-stings\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/allergies-to-bites-and-stings\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2023a, \u003Cem>Eczema (Atopic Dermatitis)\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/eczema-atopic-dermatitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/eczema-atopic-dermatitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2023b, \u003Cem>Rosacea\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/rosacea\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/rosacea\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2023c, \u003Cem>Scabies\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/scabies\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/scabies\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2023d, \u003Cem>Chickenpox\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/chickenpox\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/chickenpox\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Ciconte, A 2024, \u003Cem>Rosacea\u003C/em>, Australasian College of Dermatologists, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/atoz/rosacea/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/atoz/rosacea/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Donaldson, R 2024, \u003Cem>General Approach to Rashes\u003C/em>, WikEM, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://wikem.org/wiki/General_approach_to_rashes\" target=\"_blank\">https://wikem.org/wiki/General_approach_to_rashes\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023a, \u003Cem>Shingles\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/shingles\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/shingles\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023b, \u003Cem>Psoriasis\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/psoriasis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/psoriasis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023c, \u003Cem>Scarlet Fever\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/scarlet-fever\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/scarlet-fever\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023d, \u003Cem>Chickenpox (Varicella)\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chickenpox\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chickenpox\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024a, \u003Cem>Insect Bites and Stings\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/insect-bites-and-stings\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/insect-bites-and-stings\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">HealthEngine 2017, \u003Cem>When Should you See a Doctor About a Rash?\u003C/em>, HealthEngine, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/when-should-you-see-a-doctor-about-a-rash\" target=\"_blank\">https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/when-should-you-see-a-doctor-about-a-rash\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">HealthONE 2020, ‘When to Go to the ER For a Rash’, \u003Cem>HealthONE Blog\u003C/em>, 20 November, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://healthonecares.com/blog/entry/when-to-go-to-the-er-for-a-rash\" target=\"_blank\">https://healthonecares.com/blog/entry/when-to-go-to-the-er-for-a-rash\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2022, \u003Cem>Shingles\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/shingles/symptoms-causes/syc-20353054\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/shingles/symptoms-causes/syc-20353054\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Cancer Institute 2020, \u003Cem>Rash\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/rash\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/rash\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Eczema Association 2025, \u003Cem>What is Eczema?\u003C/em>, NEA, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://nationaleczema.org/eczema/\" target=\"_blank\">https://nationaleczema.org/eczema/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Gartside, J 2024, \u003Cem>Anaphylaxis\u003C/em>, DermNet, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://dermnetnz.org/topics/anaphylaxis\" target=\"_blank\">https://dermnetnz.org/topics/anaphylaxis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Jones, C, Gupta, M, Uddin, S & Oakley, A 2023, \u003Cem>Psoriasis\u003C/em>, DermNet, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://dermnetnz.org/topics/psoriasis\" target=\"_blank\">https://dermnetnz.org/topics/psoriasis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Oakley, A 2015, \u003Cem>Scarlet Fever\u003C/em>, DermNet, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://dermnetnz.org/topics/scarlet-fever\" target=\"_blank\">https://dermnetnz.org/topics/scarlet-fever\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Queensland Government 2019, \u003Cem>Anaphylaxis\u003C/em>, Queensland Government, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/accidents-injuries-and-poisonings/allergic-reactions/anaphylaxis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.qld.gov.au/health/condition/accidents-injuries-and-poisonings/allergic-reactions/anaphylaxis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners 2016, ‘Dermatological Presentations’, \u003Cem>2022 RACGP Curriculum and Syllabus for Australian General Practice\u003C/em>, 6th edn, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.racgp.org.au/education/education-providers/curriculum/curriculum-and-syllabus/units/dermatological-presentations\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.racgp.org.au/education/education-providers/curriculum/curriculum-and-syllabus/units/dermatological-presentations\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne 2018, \u003Cem>Rashes\u003C/em>, RCHM, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/Rashes/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/Rashes/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Skin Health Institute 2023, \u003Cem>Occupational Contact Dermatitis\u003C/em>, Skin Health Institute, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.skinhealthinstitute.org.au/page/96/occupational-dermatitis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.skinhealthinstitute.org.au/page/96/occupational-dermatitis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Soyer, P & Lee, K 2018, ‘Common Skin Rashes and What to do About Them’, \u003Cem>The Conversation\u003C/em>, 21 March, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://theconversation.com/common-skin-rashes-and-what-to-do-about-them-91518\" target=\"_blank\">https://theconversation.com/common-skin-rashes-and-what-to-do-about-them-91518\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Stewart, M 2024, \u003Cem>Permethrin Cream\u003C/em>, Patient, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://patient.info/medicine/permethrin-cream-lyclear\" target=\"_blank\">https://patient.info/medicine/permethrin-cream-lyclear\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Tate, B 2019, \u003Cem>Irritant Contact Dermatitis (ICD)\u003C/em>, Australasian College of Dermatologists, viewed 21 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/atoz/irritant-contact-dermatitis-icd/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/atoz/irritant-contact-dermatitis-icd/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.dermcoll.edu.au/a-to-z-of-skin/\" target=\"_blank\">The Australian College of Dermatologists | A-Z of Skin\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://dermnetnz.org/\" target=\"_blank\">DermNet\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chickenpox\" target=\"_blank\">Chickenpox (Varicella) | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/insect-bites-and-stings\" target=\"_blank\">Insect Bites and Stings | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/psoriasis\" target=\"_blank\">Psoriasis | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/scarlet-fever\" target=\"_blank\">Scarlet Fever | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/shingles\" target=\"_blank\">Shingles | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"82aa7c71-621c-4b1b-9298-43b3416dcf06","resourceID":"bfcd3fb2-2894-48ac-9ceb-3e02c75861e3","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"bfcd3fb2-2894-48ac-9ceb-3e02c75861e3"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"bfcd3fb2-2894-48ac-9ceb-3e02c75861e3","resourceType":"blog","alias":"rashes","metaTitle":"Common Rashes: An Overview | Ausmed","metaDescription":"A rash is an area of skin that has undergone a change in texture or colour and may appear irritated or inflamed. It may be localised, or affect the whole body."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"a748eca8-bc28-4f7e-bee9-b239371ce565","title":"Dialysis Basics","activityType":"blog","min":11,"categories":["1b4f2b10-eb60-479e-bdda-7fef1fecd353","720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e","7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0"],"topics":["f7a65f9d-96c1-4943-96b6-a89f59151a51","c58e6603-e42e-4c7c-a348-c8dd9548b1c4","9b29218b-583f-48fc-9f71-eee9bff3cfef","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d","86d97ba2-362b-4bc0-b137-4c6b73f585f2","6bfbfb16-2c5e-4c57-a284-10fa6746c3f9","aa7d3a25-39e9-41f1-adba-7ec16a86e96d"],"keywords":["Anatomy and Physiology","Renal","Dialysis","Chronic Illness","Catheter","Wound Care","Blood"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Student Nurse or Midwife"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-03-24T04:44:41Z","updateDate":"2025-03-20T06:02:18Z","availableDate":"2025-03-19T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["0e03f5e7-c0f7-4fc9-996b-282636efec40"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba","ec442063-3982-4d27-9d56-a95774577e6b"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"a748eca8-bc28-4f7e-bee9-b239371ce565","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">The kidneys are responsible for filtering waste from the blood and excreting it via urine. However, when the kidneys become damaged, such as in the case of renal failure, they are unable to filter waste properly, causing it to accumulate in the blood (Healthdirect 2024). This is a potentially life-threatening complication (NHS 2021).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>What is Dialysis?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Dialysis\u003C/strong> is a treatment used to artificially filter waste from the blood if the kidneys are no longer able to do so on their own (Healthdirect 2024). While dialysis isn’t a cure for renal failure, it’s a type of supportive care that can sustain the patient until they can receive a kidney transplant, or for the rest of their life if a transplant is contraindicated (NHS 2021).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>In the case of acute renal failure, dialysis can be used until the kidneys recover (NHS 2021).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Specifically, the role of dialysis is to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Remove waste, salt and excess water from the blood\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Maintain a safe level of electrolytes such as potassium, sodium and bicarbonate in the blood\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Regulate blood pressure.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NKF 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Dialysis is typically required once a patient enters \u003Cstrong>end-stage renal failure\u003C/strong>, which occurs when 85 to 90% of kidney function has been lost and their glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is under 15 (NKF 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Types of Dialysis\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>There are two types of dialysis:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Haemodialysis\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Peritoneal dialysis\u003C/strong>.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Haemodialysis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220324_body_1.png\" alt=\"haemodialysis diagram\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Haemodialysis\u003C/strong>, which is the most common type of dialysis, involves filtering blood through an external device known as a \u003Cstrong>dialyser\u003C/strong> (NHS 2021; Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The procedure involves gaining vascular access to the patient’s arm or leg (either via a fistula, graft or catheter) and drawing blood into a tube connected to the dialyser. The blood is then filtered through the dialyser before being circuited back into the patient’s bloodstream. Only a small amount of blood is outside of the patient’s body at one time (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The process takes \u003Cstrong>four to five hours\u003C/strong> and should be performed \u003Cstrong>at least three times per week\u003C/strong> (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Haemodialysis can be performed at a haemodialysis unit or satellite centre or in the patient’s home, provided the appropriate equipment is available (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Home haemodialysis is generally preferred as it allows the patient to tailor their treatment schedule to their needs (e.g. while they are sleeping) and receive dialysis more frequently, which will improve their health (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Peritoneal Dialysis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220324_body_2.png\" alt=\"peritoneal dialysis diagram\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Rather than employing an external device, \u003Cstrong>peritoneal dialysis\u003C/strong> involves using the \u003Cstrong>peritoneal membrane\u003C/strong> - the lining of the abdominal cavity - as an internal filter (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>In order to perform peritoneal dialysis, a catheter needs to be inserted into the peritoneal cavity, where it will stay in situ as long as the patient requires dialysis (Better Health Channel 2022).\u003C/p>\n \n\u003Cp>A cleansing solution (dialysate) is pumped into the body via the catheter, where it absorbs the waste products filtered out of the blood by the peritoneal membrane. The dialysate, now containing the waste, is then drained back out of the body into a bag and replaced with fresh dialysate (Mayo Clinic 2023; NHS 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Each cycle of filling, draining and replacing the peritoneal membrane with dialysate is known as an \u003Cstrong>exchange\u003C/strong>. There are two different schedules of exchange that may be used:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD)\u003C/strong>, where four manual exchanges are performed each day. Each exchange takes about 30 minutes. The process uses gravity - placing the drainage back on the floor drains the fluid out of the body, and raising it above the shoulder allows the new dialysate to flow into the body.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Automated peritoneal dialysis (APD)\u003C/strong> involves a machine known as a cycler performing several exchanges overnight while the patient is asleep. The entire process takes 8 to 10 hours, and dialysate is typically left inside the body during the day to continue the dialysis.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Which Type of Dialysis is Better?\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>In most cases, \u003Cstrong>both types of dialysis are equally effective\u003C/strong> and the chosen method will depend on the patient’s preference and lifestyle (NHS 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>However, there are certain circumstances where a particular type of dialysis might be preferred:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Cthead>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth style=\"width:50%\">Haemodialysis may be preferred for:\u003C/th>\n\t\t\t\u003Cth>Peritoneal dialysis may be preferred for:\u003C/th>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/thead>\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Patients who would be unable to perform peritoneal dialysis independently due to factors such as vision impairment, dementia or poor health\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Children under two\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Patients who still have limited kidney function\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Patients without comorbidities (e.g. heart disease, cancer)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are also a variety of pros and cons to consider for each type of dialysis:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Haemodialysis\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Peritoneal dialysis\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Pros\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>The patient is able to have up to four days per week without treatment\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>If performed at home, the patient has flexibility to work around their routine\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>If performed in a dialysis unit:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>The procedure is performed by trained staff\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>The patient may develop friendship and camaraderie with others undergoing treatment at the same time\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\t\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Dialysis can be performed at home\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Fewer dietary and fluid restrictions are required\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>More flexibility\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Continuous dialysis will improve the patient’s wellbeing\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>It’s easier for the patient to travel\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>No injections are required\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Takes less time overall than attending a dialysis unit\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\t\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Cons\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>The patient will need to plan their life around treatment sessions if receiving dialysis in a unit\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Diet and fluids requirements (e.g. reduced sodium, increased protein)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Less privacy if receiving treatment at a dialysis unit\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\t\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Needs to be performed every day, which may be disruptive to the patient’s daily life\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>The patient needs to have a permanent abdominal catheter in situ, which may be distressing or adversely affect body image\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Greater risk of peritonitis infection\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Potential for peritoneum scarring\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Dialysate may reduce protein levels, leading to reduced energy or malnutrition\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Potential for weight gain\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cli>Swimming and bathing may be limited\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\t\u003C/ul>\t\n\t\t\t\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2021; NKF 2025; NIDDK 2018)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Side Effects of Dialysis\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Both types of dialysis can cause side effects. These may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Haemodialysis Side Effects\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Fatigue\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hypotension caused by decreased fluid levels during dialysis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nausea or dizziness due to hypotension\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Infection of the vascular access site\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Poor perfusion or obstruction at the vascular access site caused by a blood clot or scar\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Increased risk of sepsis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Muscle cramps, often in the lower leg - this is believed to be caused by the muscle reaction to fluid loss\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Itchy skin caused by an accumulation of minerals in the body between sessions\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Chest or back pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Restless legs syndrome\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sleeping difficulties\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bone and joint pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Reduced libido\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Erectile dysfunction\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dry mouth\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Anxiety.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Ch3>Peritoneal Dialysis Side Effects\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Fatigue\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Risk of peritonitis (bacterial infection of the peritoneal membrane), which can occur if the equipment used during dialysis isn’t clean\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Increased risk of hernia\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Weight gain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Skin infection around the catheter\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abdominal bloating or discomfort during exchanges.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2021; Cleveland Clinic 2021; NIDDK 2018)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Caring For Patients Undergoing Dialysis\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Ch3>Haemodialysis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220324_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"haemodialysis site care\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>The haemodialysis vascular access site should also be monitored and cared for in order to prevent complications.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>Patients undergoing haemodialysis should undergo blood testing once per month to ensure that any required adjustments to their dialysis prescription can be made. Furthermore, they should be weighed before and after each treatment and monitor their own weight at home to ensure there is no accumulation of fluid between dialysis sessions (Berns 2025).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The vascular access site should also be monitored and cared for in order to prevent complications. Site care should include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Washing the site with warm water and soap every day and before dialysis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Checking for signs of infection daily (e.g. warmth, redness)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Checking for perfusion on the site daily\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Discouraging the patient from wearing tight clothes or jewellery, carrying heavy items or sleeping on the affected arm, in order to prevent site trauma\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Avoiding taking blood pressure on the affected arm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rotating needle sites on the area and applying gentle pressure to manage any bleeding after injection.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Berns 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Peritoneal Dialysis\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Infection is one of the most serious potential complications of peritoneal dialysis. It’s crucial to know when to escalate care. Signs to look out for include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Catheter site infection signs\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Redness, firmness, or tenderness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pus-like drainage\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Peritonitis signs\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Mild to severe abdominal pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Used dialysate fluid with a cloudy appearance\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fever\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nausea or diarrhoea.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Burkart 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220324_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"The kidneys are responsible for filtering waste from the blood and excreting it via urine. However, when the kidneys become damaged, such as in the case of renal failure, they are unable to filter waste properly, causing it to accumulate in the blood. This is a potentially life-threatening complication","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-23T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Berns, JS 2025, \u003Cem>Patient Education: Hemodialysis (Beyond the Basics)\u003C/em>, UpToDate, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.uptodate.com/contents/hemodialysis-beyond-the-basics\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.uptodate.com/contents/hemodialysis-beyond-the-basics\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Burkart, JM 2021, \u003Cem>Patient Education: Peritoneal Dialysis (Beyond the Basics)\u003C/em>, UpToDate, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.uptodate.com/contents/peritoneal-dialysis-beyond-the-basics\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.uptodate.com/contents/peritoneal-dialysis-beyond-the-basics\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2022, \u003Cem>Kidneys - Dialysis and Transplant\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/kidneys-dialysis-and-transplant\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/kidneys-dialysis-and-transplant\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Cleveland Clinic 2021, \u003Cem>Dialysis\u003C/em>, Cleveland Clinic, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/14618-dialysis\" target=\"_blank\">https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/14618-dialysis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>Dialysis\u003C/em>, Healthdirect, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dialysis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dialysis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2023, \u003Cem>Peritoneal Dialysis\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/peritoneal-dialysis/about/pac-20384725\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/peritoneal-dialysis/about/pac-20384725\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Health Service 2021, \u003Cem>Dialysis\u003C/em>, NHS, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dialysis/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dialysis/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases 2018, \u003Cem>Hemodialysis\u003C/em>, National Institutes of Health, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/kidney-failure/hemodialysis\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/kidney-failure/hemodialysis\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Kidney Foundation 2023, \u003Cem>Dialysis\u003C/em>, NKF, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/dialysisinfo\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/dialysisinfo\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Kidney Foundation 2025, \u003Cem>Choosing Dialysis: Which Type is Right For Me?\u003C/em>, NKF, viewed 20 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/choosing-dialysis-which-type-right-me\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/choosing-dialysis-which-type-right-me\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dialysis\" target=\"_blank\">Dialysis | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://kidney.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Kidney Health Australia\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"62631309-3bc9-413b-8d04-f6102ed0ba3b","resourceID":"a748eca8-bc28-4f7e-bee9-b239371ce565","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"a748eca8-bc28-4f7e-bee9-b239371ce565"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"a748eca8-bc28-4f7e-bee9-b239371ce565","resourceType":"blog","alias":"dialysis","metaTitle":"Dialysis Basics | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Dialysis is a treatment used to artificially filter waste from the blood if the kidneys are no longer able to do so on their own. While dialysis isn’t a cure for renal failure, it’s a type of supportive care that can sustain the patient until they can receive a kidney transplant, or for the rest of their life if a transplant is contraindicated."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"6cbfdf35-50c7-4598-821e-81eddabd784e","title":"What is Anxiety? A Summary","activityType":"blog","min":9,"categories":["295f012a-1e87-4d05-b1e1-90f5a2958ef7"],"topics":["a3a3149d-c332-4f70-bb7d-a1e9a1cea329","d5a27797-ac58-4820-94e7-9e615c4f6dfe"],"keywords":["Mental Health","Psychology"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Registered Midwife","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Psychologist"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-19T14:19:19Z","updateDate":"2025-03-19T01:42:05Z","availableDate":"2025-03-18T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["6b7c8f67-8f3b-4a97-9bfb-c7ca8d6a0a50"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"6cbfdf35-50c7-4598-821e-81eddabd784e","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Anxiety refers to a group of disorders that are collectively the most common mental health condition in Australia (Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is Anxiety?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Anxiety is an evolutionary safety mechanism that protects us from harm or danger by triggering the ‘fight or flight’ response\u003C/strong> (Black Dog Institute 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>It activates in response to a stressor, causing psychological and physical changes within the body so that the individual can confront the situation (Harvard Health Publishing 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Every person experiences anxiety during their life - it’s normal and often helpful. However, in some cases, anxiety is unnecessarily constant and overwhelming, interfering with a person’s ability to go about their daily lives. This could indicate an anxiety disorder (Smith et al. 2025; Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Anxiety disorders may disrupt several aspects of a person’s life, including their ability to concentrate, sleep or perform daily tasks. It may also cause an individual to avoid certain situations or leaving the house. In some cases, it can cause physical symptoms such as shortness of breath, a pounding heart or trembling hands (Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Types of Anxiety Disorders\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>As per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR), anxiety is separated into two categories:\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-responsive\">\n\u003Ctable class=\"table\">\n\t\u003Ctbody>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\">\u003Ccenter>\u003Cstrong>Anxiety Disorders\u003C/strong>\u003C/center>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Generalised anxiety disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>An intense and constant worry that interferes with daily activities.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Panic disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A person experiences frequent panic attacks (sudden feelings of overwhelming and intense fear and distress).\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Specific phobia\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>An intense and irrational fear towards a specific object or situation.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Agoraphobia\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A fear of being in a situation where the individual is not able to easily escape if they experience a panic attack.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Social anxiety disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>Severe anxiety and fear relating to social situations.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Separation anxiety disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A persistent and inappropriate fear of being separated from people the individual is attached to.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Selective mutism\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A disorder where a person who is capable of speaking does not do so in certain social situations. It typically affects children.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd colspan=\"2\">\u003Ccenter>\u003Cstrong>Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders\u003C/strong>\u003C/center>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Obsessive-compulsive disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A person experiences recurring obsessions (thoughts or images that cause anxiety) and feels an overwhelming need to perform compulsions (rituals or behaviours) in order to alleviate the obsessions.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Body dysmorphic disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A preoccupation with perceived flaws related to physical appearance, causing an individual to perform repetitive behaviours and thinking.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Hoarding disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A persistent difficulty with getting rid of possessions due to a perceived need to keep them. Throwing items out can cause significant distress for the person.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Trichotillomania\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A disorder where an individual pulls out their own hair, usually from the scalp, eyebrows and eyelids.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Excoriation disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A disorder where an individual repeatedly picks at their own skin to the extent that it causes lesions.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\t\u003Ctr>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>\u003Cstrong>Olfactory reference disorder\u003C/strong>\u003C/td>\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd>A disorder where an individual incorrectly believes they are emitting a foul body odour.\u003C/td>\n\t\t\u003C/tr>\n\t\u003C/tbody>\n\t\u003C/table>\n\u003C/div>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(APA 2023, 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>How Common is Anxiety?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The most recent National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023) found that almost 17% of Australians had experienced an anxiety disorder in the past 12 months.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Anxiety is more common in women, with 21% of women experiencing an anxiety disorder during the past 12 months compared to 12.4% of men (ABS 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Causes of Anxiety\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>It’s believed that anxiety disorders are caused by a combination of factors\u003C/strong>, including genetics, brain chemistry, personality and stressful life events such as:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Unpredictable new situations (e.g. changing schools or jobs, or travelling)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Pregnancy and childbirth\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Relationship issues\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Bereavement\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Financial or work problems\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Abuse\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Excessive use of drugs or alcohol\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Physical health problems.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(SANE 2024; Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Signs and Symptoms of Anxiety\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200323_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"anxiety woman thinking\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The symptoms of each specific anxiety disorder are set out in the DSM-5-TR, each with individual diagnostic criteria that should be met.\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>In a more general sense, there are some common symptoms that will often apply to anxiety disorders:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Psychological Symptoms\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>An individual may:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Have excessive feelings of worry and fear about the past, present or future\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feel apprehensive or powerless\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feel as if something bad or dangerous is about to happen\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Have difficulty thinking about anything other than anxious thoughts\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Be tense and on edge\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feel nervous or scared\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Panic\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Be irritable or agitated\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Worry that they are ‘going crazy’\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feel detached from their body.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Black Dog Institute 2022; Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Psychical Symptoms\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Physical symptoms are responses to fight or flight mode that would occur in the case of real danger (SANE 2024). They include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Pounding heart\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Shortness of breath\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dizziness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Trembling or twitching\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Sweating\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nausea\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>Abdominal pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>‘Pins and needles’\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty concentrating\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty sleeping\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Excessive thirst.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Black Dog Institute 2022; Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Behavioural Symptoms\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Avoidance of certain situations that may cause anxiety, which can impact the person’s everyday life.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Anxiety\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Refer to the \u003Cstrong>DSM-5-TR\u003C/strong> for the full list of diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Anxiety Treatment and Management\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200323_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"anxiety patient talking to psychologist\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>There is a range of effective treatments for anxiety. Treatment generally falls within three categories:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Psychological treatments\u003C/strong>, including cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), exposure therapy, mindfulness therapy, counselling etc.\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Medication\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Self-help and alternative therapies\u003C/strong> such as exercise, meditation, relaxation techniques, yoga and acupuncture.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Black Dog Institute 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Treatment may differ depending on the kind of anxiety disorder a person is experiencing and may involve a combination of the above strategies. \u003Cstrong>Treatment should be individualised\u003C/strong> (Black Dog Institute 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Anxiety is treatable and can be managed so that its impact on a person’s life lessens significantly. In some cases, it can be eliminated entirely\u003C/strong> (SANE 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cmark>If you’re in crisis and need support, call Lifeline on \u003Cstrong>13 11 14\u003C/strong>. Lifeline is open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.\u003C/mark>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200323_cover_v3.jpg"],"excerpt":"Every person experiences anxiety during their life - it’s normal and often helpful. However, in some cases, anxiety is unnecessarily constant and overwhelming, and interferes with a person’s ability to go about their daily lives. This could indicate an anxiety disorder.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-22T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["a3ac727a-fe5d-41e4-85ce-24a2b0d97866","dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Psychiatric Association 2023, \u003Cem>What are Anxiety Disorders?\u003C/em>, APA, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/anxiety-disorders/what-are-anxiety-disorders\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/anxiety-disorders/what-are-anxiety-disorders\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">American Psychiatric Association 2024, \u003Cem>What is are Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders?\u003C/em>, APA, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ocd/what-is-obsessive-compulsive-disorder\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ocd/what-is-obsessive-compulsive-disorder\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Bureau of Statistics 2023, \u003Cem>National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/latest-release\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/national-study-mental-health-and-wellbeing/latest-release\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Black Dog Institute 2022, \u003Cem>Signs & Symptoms of Anxiety\u003C/em>, Black Dog Institute, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Signs-and-Symptoms-of-Anxiety-fact-sheet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Signs-and-Symptoms-of-Anxiety-fact-sheet.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Black Dog Institute 2023, \u003Cem>Anxiety Treatment\u003C/em>, Black Dog Institute, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/resources-support/anxiety/treatment/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/resources-support/anxiety/treatment/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Harvard Health Publishing 2024, \u003Cem>Understanding the Stress Response\u003C/em>, Harvard Medical School, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>Anxiety\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/anxiety\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/anxiety\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">SANE 2024, \u003Cem>Anxiety Disorders\u003C/em>, SANE, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sane.org/information-and-resources/facts-and-guides/anxiety-disorder\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sane.org/information-and-resources/facts-and-guides/anxiety-disorder\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Smith, M, Robinson, L, Segal, J & Reid, S 2025, \u003Cem>Anxiety Disorders and Anxiety Attacks\u003C/em>, HelpGuide, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/anxiety/anxiety-disorders-and-anxiety-attacks\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/anxiety/anxiety-disorders-and-anxiety-attacks\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://psychology.org.au/find-a-psychologist\" target=\"_blank\">Find a Psychologist | Australian Psychological Society\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.beyondblue.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Beyond Blue\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.beyondblue.org.au/get-support/find-a-mental-health-professional\" target=\"_blank\">Find a Mental Health Professional | Beyond Blue\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Black Dog Institute\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.sane.org/\" target=\"_blank\">SANE\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"fa7d9826-bc97-45d2-9fc7-4f25b0d27e45","resourceID":"6cbfdf35-50c7-4598-821e-81eddabd784e","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"6cbfdf35-50c7-4598-821e-81eddabd784e"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"6cbfdf35-50c7-4598-821e-81eddabd784e","resourceType":"blog","alias":"anxiety","metaTitle":"A Summary of Anxiety | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Anxiety is an evolutionary safety mechanism that protects us from harm or danger by triggering the ‘fight or flight’ response. It activates in response to a stressor, causing psychological and physical changes within the body so that the individual can confront the situation."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"8a1eac5d-2ab2-4191-a475-504537fd4b25","title":"A Brief Overview of Headaches and Migraine","activityType":"blog","min":10,"categories":["7ce2666f-1c9b-4882-90be-2cf097b776f0","720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e"],"topics":["10bccd7d-f986-439f-b98c-faabb5fff499","fd9e05d8-b7c3-4a94-8cb6-396a66fc5f2f","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d"],"keywords":["Headache","Pain","Chronic Illness"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Paramedic","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-22T13:06:22Z","updateDate":"2025-03-19T04:28:50Z","availableDate":"2025-03-18T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"8a1eac5d-2ab2-4191-a475-504537fd4b25","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Headaches are a varied and common symptom of many conditions. In fact, about 15% of Australians are estimated to be taking medication for a headache at any given time (Better Health Channel 2015).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>What is a Headache?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The term ‘\u003Cstrong>headache\u003C/strong>’ refers to any pain in the head area (Healthdirect 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Headaches vary in severity, frequency and length. The pain may be sharp, throbbing or dull, with gradual or sudden onset, and may last from less than an hour to several days (Mayo Clinic 2020).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Headaches are common because there are so many different causes (Better Health Channel 2015). In fact, the \u003Cstrong>International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3) recognises over 200 types of headaches\u003C/strong> (The International Headache Society 2021).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Headaches are divided into two categories:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Primary headaches\u003C/strong>, which are not caused by an underlying illness or injury\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Secondary headaches\u003C/strong>, which are ‘secondary’ side effects of an underlying illness or injury.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>A headache can be caused by anything that stimulates the pain receptors in the head or neck (Better Health Channel 2015).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch3>Primary Headaches\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Primary headaches can be related to chemical activity in the brain, nerves or blood vessels surrounding the skull, the muscles in the head and neck, or a combination of these. Some people may have a genetic predisposition to develop primary headaches (Mayo Clinic 2020). Some common types of primary headaches include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Cluster headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Migraine\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Tension headache.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Primary headaches may be caused by factors such as:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Alcohol\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Certain foods (e.g. processed meats containing nitrates)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Changes in sleep or lack of sleep\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Poor posture\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Skipping meals\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stress.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Secondary Headaches\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>When an underlying condition or external cause activates the pain-sensitive nerves in the head, the individual may experience a secondary headache (Mayo Clinic 2020). Secondary headaches can include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Sinus headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Spinal headache (caused by low pressure or volume of cerebrospinal fluid)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Thunderclap headache (a sudden, severe headache caused by migraine, orgasm or rapid increase of blood pressure)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Medication headache (from overuse of pain medication)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>External compression headache (from compression-causing headwear).\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020; Migraine & Headache Australia 2021a)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are many possible causes of secondary headaches, varying in severity. These include, but are not limited to:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Acute sinusitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Blood clot\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Brain aneurysm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Brain tumour\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Carbon monoxide poisoning\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Concussion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Dehydration\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Ear infection\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Hangover\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Influenza\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Meningitis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stroke.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Please note this is not a complete list of possible causes.\u003C/strong>\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Migraine\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200324_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"migraine\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Migraine\u003C/strong> is a neurological disorder characterised by moderate to severe headaches accompanied by nausea. It affects about 4.9 million people in Australia (Migraine & Headache Australia 2021b).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Migraine headaches can last between four hours and three days. Some people might experience one or two per year, while others might have two or three per week. Women are commonly more affected than men, which is thought to be related to reduced levels of oestrogen during menstruation (Better Health Channel 2014).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch3>Migraine Symptoms\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>According to diagnostic criteria from the International Headache Society, the symptoms of migraine are:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>Pain with \u003Cstrong>at least two\u003C/strong> of the following characteristics:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>On one side of the head\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Moderate to severe in intensity\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Throbbing\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Worsened by movement, and\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>At least one\u003C/strong> of the following associated symptoms:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Nausea\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Vomiting\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Photophobia (sensitivity to light)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Phonophobia (sensitivity to noise), and\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>A headache that lasts between 4 and 72 hours.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Migraine & Headache Australia 2021b)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Other migraine symptoms can include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Osmophobia (sensitivity to smell)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty concentrating\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Feeling generally unwell\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Issues with articulation or co-ordination\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Diarrhoea\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stiff neck or shoulders\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Tingling, pins and needles, numbness or limb weakness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Speech difficulties\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Motor weakness\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/vertigo/view\" target=\"_blank\">Vertigo\u003C/a>.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Migraine & Headache Australia 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Migraine with Aura\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Also known as ‘classic migraine’, this type of migraine is characterised by recurrent migraine symptoms accompanied or preceded by visual and sensory disturbances known as aura (Mayo Clinic 2021; Jesani & Simerson 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Aura symptoms most commonly begin within an hour before migraine symptoms, though sometimes they will occur without a migraine (Mayo Clinic 2021). Aura symptoms may include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Blind spots\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Zigzag lines across the field of vision\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Shimmering spots or stars\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Changes in vision or vision loss\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Flashes of light\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Numbness, generally on one side of the face or one hand that slowly spreads\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Speech or language difficulty\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Muscle weakness.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Headaches\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Headaches can be caused by a combination of factors and in some cases, a serious underlying issue. Recurring headaches might require tests such as scans, eye tests and sinus X-rays to determine their cause (Better Health Channel 2015). The following factors may be considered when diagnosing a headache:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Location of the pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Severity of the pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Duration of the pain\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Other symptoms\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>How often the pain recurs\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Factors that worsen and improve the pain.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Better Health Channel 2015)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\t\n\u003Ch2>Treating Headaches\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Treatment depends on the cause of the headache. If the headache is recurring, it may be triggered by a lifestyle factor or particular behaviour. The following strategies may help to alleviate the pain:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Relaxing in a quiet, dark space\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sleeping\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Getting fresh air\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Staying hydrated\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Placing a cool or warm cloth on the forehead or back of the neck\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Massage\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Taking appropriate analgesic medicines.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Preventing Headaches\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200324_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"preventing headache posture\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Maintaining a good posture may help to prevent headaches.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The following strategies may help to prevent headaches:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Maintaining a healthy diet\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Staying hydrated\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Regular exercise\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Avoiding sitting or standing in one position for a long time (this can cause muscle tension)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Reducing caffeine, alcohol and tobacco intake\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stress-reduction strategies such as yoga, massage and meditation\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Maintaining a good posture\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Consulting an optometrist (if the headache is eye-related\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Avoiding overuse of headache medicines, which can cause ‘rebound’ headaches.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Healthdirect 2023; Mayo Clinic 2024; Better Health Channel 2015) \u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>When to Seek a Healthcare Professional\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Most headaches are not serious but in rare cases can indicate a serious medical condition such as a stroke, meningitis or encephalitis\u003C/strong> (Mayo Clinic 2020). A person should seek medical attention if they are experiencing:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>An especially severe headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Difficulty seeing, speaking, walking, swallowing or understanding speech\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Confusion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fainting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>High fever (more than 39° C)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Numbness, weakness or paralysis\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stiff neck\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Persistent vomiting\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fit or seizure\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Head injury\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rash\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Possible poisoning.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2020; Healthy WA 2015; Nall & Veazey 2023)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200324_cover_v2.jpg"],"excerpt":"Headaches are a varied and common symptom of many conditions. In fact, about 15% of Australians are estimated to be taking medication for a headache at any given time.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-23T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2014, \u003Cem>Headache - Migraine\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/headache-migraine\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/headache-migraine\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2015, \u003Cem>Headache\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/headache\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/headache\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2023, \u003Cem>Headaches\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/headaches\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/headaches\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthy WA 2015, \u003Cem>Headache\u003C/em>, Government of Western Australia, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/F_I/Headache\" target=\"_blank\">https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/F_I/Headache\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The International Headache Society 2021, \u003Cem>Classification - ICHD-3\u003C/em>, The International Headache Society, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://ichd-3.org/classification-outline/\" target=\"_blank\">https://ichd-3.org/classification-outline/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Jesani & Simerson 2019, ‘Pharmacologic Management of Acute Migraines in the Emergency Department’, \u003Cem>Advanced Emergency Nursing Journal\u003C/em>, vol. 41, no. 2, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nursingcenter.com/journalarticle?Article_ID=4982360&Journal_ID=646631&Issue_ID=4982045#P27\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nursingcenter.com/journalarticle?Article_ID=4982360&Journal_ID=646631&Issue_ID=4982045#P27\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2020, \u003Cem>Headache\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/headache/basics/definition/sym-20050800\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/headache/basics/definition/sym-20050800\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2021, \u003Cem>Migraine with Aura\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/migraine-with-aura/symptoms-causes/syc-20352072\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/migraine-with-aura/symptoms-causes/syc-20352072\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2024, \u003Cem>Headaches: Reduce Stress to Prevent the Pain\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tension-headache/in-depth/headaches/art-20046707\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tension-headache/in-depth/headaches/art-20046707\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Migraine & Headache Australia 2021a, \u003Cem>Headache Types\u003C/em>, Migraine & Headache Australia, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://headacheaustralia.org.au/types-of-headaches/\" target=\"_blank\">https://headacheaustralia.org.au/types-of-headaches/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Migraine & Headache Australia 2021b, \u003Cem>Migraine\u003C/em>, Migraine & Headache Australia, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://headacheaustralia.org.au/migraine/\" target=\"_blank\">https://headacheaustralia.org.au/migraine/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Nall, R & Veazey, K 2023, ‘When is a Headache a Cause for Concern?’, \u003Cem>Medical News Today\u003C/em>, 28 November, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/when-to-worry-about-a-headache\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/when-to-worry-about-a-headache\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://headacheaustralia.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">Headache & Migraine Australia\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"9aae5bec-e4be-4193-808f-2478c5eaccac","resourceID":"8a1eac5d-2ab2-4191-a475-504537fd4b25","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"8a1eac5d-2ab2-4191-a475-504537fd4b25"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"8a1eac5d-2ab2-4191-a475-504537fd4b25","resourceType":"blog","alias":"headaches","metaTitle":"Headaches and Migraines: Symptoms and Causes | Ausmed","metaDescription":"The term ‘headache’ refers to any pain in the head area. Headaches vary in severity, frequency and length. The pain may be sharp, throbbing or dull, with gradual or sudden onset, and may last from less than an hour to several days."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"b05f227f-e299-4c99-8489-6fdc8ac1e26b","title":"Being Immunocompromised: What Does it Mean?","activityType":"blog","min":8,"categories":["44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a","720dbc81-0555-402b-af7b-231f805bef0e","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561"],"topics":["b81bd785-f011-4be0-bd5b-77485b18c8de","95173d95-a577-443e-a6a0-e94777556fc1","cc65571f-5cfb-465c-9caa-295aec4f804d","187f0dd2-05b7-40cb-8fa3-6c7edd1e247d","c592857d-daae-4c3a-b28f-f624098b21ca","22146b27-7f36-4806-9f46-b6080cb7b621"],"keywords":["Immunology","Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)","Infection Prevention and Control","Chronic Illness","Primary Health","Preventative Health"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-23T14:08:34Z","updateDate":"2025-03-19T05:41:46Z","availableDate":"2025-03-18T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["3f21aa92-e7d0-4b34-a009-d69e7730a2cc"],"bundles":["1abae61e-91eb-4813-81a1-22acf58c6691","33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba","ec442063-3982-4d27-9d56-a95774577e6b"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"b05f227f-e299-4c99-8489-6fdc8ac1e26b","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">People who are immunocompromised are affected more frequently and severely by infections.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The term \u003Cstrong>immunocompromised\u003C/strong> (or \u003Cstrong>immunosuppressed\u003C/strong>) refers to people who have an ‘immunodeficiency’ or weakened immune system, meaning their ability to fight infections and diseases is reduced (Vincent 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>There are two types of immunodeficiency:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Primary immunodeficiency\u003C/strong>: Chronic, genetic disorders causing an individual to be born without some immune defences or with an impaired immune system.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Secondary immunodeficiency\u003C/strong>: Immunodeficiencies acquired from environmental factors such a disease.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022; British Society for Immunology 2017)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200325_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"immunocompromised patient in hospital\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch3>Primary Immunodeficiency\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Primary immunodeficiencies comprise over 400 disorders caused by genetic defects in the immune system. They cause the immune system to function less efficiently than normal, potentially causing complications. These disorders are often inherited (ASCIA 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Primary immunodeficiencies may be mild and evade detection for years, or they may be severe enough to be noticed right at birth (Mayo Clinic 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>They fall broadly into one of the following six categories:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col style=\"font-size:18px\">\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Antibody deficiency (B cell) deficiencies\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Combined (both B and T cell) immunodeficiencies\u003C/strong>\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>This category includes \u003Cstrong>severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)\u003C/strong>, which causes opportunistic infections and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/failure-to-thrive/view\" target=\"_blank\">failure to thrive\u003C/a> in infants due to little-to-no immune function. It is serious and can be fatal unless diagnosed and treated early.\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Phagocytic cell deficiencies\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Complement deficiencies\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Immune dysregulation\u003C/strong> - this is a broad category that occurs when the immune system isn’t controlled normally and may react to its own cells.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Autoinflammatory disorders\u003C/strong>.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(ASCIA 2024; Fernandez 2023a; ASCIA Immunodeficiency Strategy 2021)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch3>Secondary Immunodeficiency\u003C/h3>\n\n\u003Cp>Secondary immunodeficiencies are more common than primary immunodeficiencies. They are acquired after the immune system is weakened by an external factor (Primary Immunodeficiency UK 2017) such as:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hiv-prevention-diagnosis-and-management/view\" target=\"_blank\">Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Malnutrition\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Immunosuppressive treatments such as chemotherapy.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(British Society for Immunology 2017; Fernandez 2024b)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Secondary immunodeficiencies may also affect critically ill, older or hospitalised people (Fernandez 2024b).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200325_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"secondary immunodeficiency chemotherapy\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Risk Factors for Immunodeficiency\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Currently, the only known risk factor for primary immunodeficiency is having a family history of a primary immunodeficiency disorder (Mayo Clinic 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Diagnosing Primary Immunodeficiency\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Blood tests\u003C/strong> can be used to measure if a patient has a normal level of blood cells and immune system cells. They can also determine whether the immune system is responding properly.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Prenatal or DNA tests\u003C/strong> may be used.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Symptoms and Effects of Immunodeficiency\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Symptoms and effects may vary depending on the type of immunodeficiency. They can include:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Infections that are:\n\t\t\u003Cul>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>More frequent, persistent or harder to treat than what is typical\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Opportunistic\u003C/strong> (infections that occur more often or are more severe in immunocompromised people)\u003C/li>\n\t\t\t\u003Cli>Caused by unusual bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites\u003C/li>\n\t\t\u003C/ul>\u003C/li>\t\n\t\u003Cli>Frequent and recurring pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus infections, ear infections, meningitis or skin infections\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Inflammation and infection of internal organs\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Blood disorders (e.g. anaemia, low platelet count)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Digestive issues (e.g. cramping, nausea)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Delayed growth and development\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Autoimmune disorders\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cancer\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Damage to the heart, lungs, nervous system or digestive tract\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Death from a serious infection.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022; HIVinfo 2021; ASCIA 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Additionally, those who are immunocompromised are more at risk of illness and death from some vaccine-preventable illnesses (AIH 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>How Can Immunocompromised People Reduce the Risk of Infection?\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Practice good hygiene\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Avoid contact with people who are sick\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Maintain dental hygiene and health\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Maintain a healthy, balanced diet\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Exercise regularly\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Avoid risky food items (e.g. unpasteurised milk, raw meat, cross-contaminated food)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Take precautionary measures around animals and pets, especially if they are sick\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Take precautionary measures with travel\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Prevent insect bites\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Practice safe sex\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Get adequate sleep\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Manage stress.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022; CPS 2025)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200325_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"immunodeficiency prevention hand hygiene\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Vaccination for Immunocompromised People\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Vaccination for people who are immunocompromised is challenging\u003C/strong> (AIH 2024). \n\n\u003Cp>Immunocompromised people are at increased risk of serious illness or death from certain vaccine-preventable illnesses. There are certain vaccines that are routinely recommened for immunocompromised people, and in some cases, they may require additional vaccine doses (AIH 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>However, live vaccines are often contraindicated in immunocompromised people due to the risk of adverse effects (AIH 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>The decision on whether to administer vaccines to an immunocompromised person should be made based on a thorough, individualised risk assessment and \u003Ca href=\"https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccination-for-special-risk-groups/vaccination-for-people-who-are-immunocompromised\" target=\"_blank\">recommendations from the Australian Immunisation Handbook\u003C/a> (2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Treating Immunodeficiency\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Please note that immunodeficiency treatment will differ depending on many factors, including the type of immunodeficiency, the individual and the treatment options available.\u003C/strong>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Primary immunodeficiency disorders\u003C/strong> can be treated in several ways:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Managing, treating and preventing infections contracted by the individual\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Therapies to boost the immune system\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Stem cell transplantation, which provides an individual with a normally functioning immune system.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Secondary immunodeficiencies\u003C/strong> can potentially be resolved if the underlying condition is treated (Primary Immunodeficiency UK 2017).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200325_cover_v3.jpg"],"excerpt":"The term immunocompromised (or immunosuppressed) refers to people who have an ‘immunodeficiency’ or a weakened immune system, meaning their ability to fight infections and diseases is reduced.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-24T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1","b11123e3-09ad-4f1d-9619-98b8ef1c2458"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">ASCIA Immunodeficiency Strategy 2021, \u003Cem>Types of Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders (Inborn Errors of Immunity)\u003C/em>, Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nationalimmunodeficiencystrategy.org.au/types-of-pid\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nationalimmunodeficiencystrategy.org.au/types-of-pid\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy 2024, \u003Cem>Primary Immunodeficiencies (Inborn Errors of Immunity)\u003C/em>, ASCIA, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/immunodeficiencies/primary-immunodeficiency\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/immunodeficiencies/primary-immunodeficiency\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Australian Immunisation Handbook 2024, \u003Cem>Vaccination for People Who are Immunocompromised\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/vaccination-for-special-risk-groups/vaccination-for-people-who-are-immunocompromised\" target=\"_blank\">https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/vaccination-for-special-risk-groups/vaccination-for-people-who-are-immunocompromised\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">British Society for Immunology 2017, \u003Cem>Immunodeficiency\u003C/em>, British Society for Immunology, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.immunology.org/policy-and-public-affairs/briefings-and-position-statements/immunodeficiency\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.immunology.org/policy-and-public-affairs/briefings-and-position-statements/immunodeficiency\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Canadian Paediatric Society 2025, \u003Cem>Safe Living Strategies for the Immunocompromised Child\u003C/em>, Canadian Paediatric Society, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cps.ca/en/documents/position/immunocompromised-child\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cps.ca/en/documents/position/immunocompromised-child\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Fernandez, J 2024a, \u003Cem>Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)\u003C/em>, MSD Manual, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/immunology-allergic-disorders/immunodeficiency-disorders/severe-combined-immunodeficiency-scid\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/immunology-allergic-disorders/immunodeficiency-disorders/severe-combined-immunodeficiency-scid\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Fernandez, J 2023b, \u003Cem>Overview of Immunodeficiency Disorders\u003C/em>, MSD Manual, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/immunology-allergic-disorders/immunodeficiency-disorders/overview-of-immunodeficiency-disorders#v27389432\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/immunology-allergic-disorders/immunodeficiency-disorders/overview-of-immunodeficiency-disorders#v27389432\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">HIVinfo 2021, \u003Cem>HIV and Opportunistic Infections, Coinfections, and Conditions\u003C/em>, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/what-opportunistic-infection\" target=\"_blank\">https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/what-opportunistic-infection\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2022, \u003Cem>Primary Immunodeficiency\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/primary-immunodeficiency/symptoms-causes/syc-20376905\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/primary-immunodeficiency/symptoms-causes/syc-20376905\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Primary Immunodeficiency UK 2017, \u003Cem>Secondary Immunodeficiency (SID)\u003C/em>, Immunodeficiency UK, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"http://www.immunodeficiencyuk.org/static/media/up/secondaryimmunodeficiency.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.immunodeficiencyuk.org/static/media/up/secondaryimmunodeficiency.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Vincent, P 2023, \u003Cem>Immunosuppression\u003C/em>, Patient, viewed 19 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://patient.info/allergies-blood-immune/immune-system-diseases/immune-suppression\" target=\"_blank\">https://patient.info/allergies-blood-immune/immune-system-diseases/immune-suppression\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccination-for-special-risk-groups/vaccination-for-people-who-are-immunocompromised\" target=\"_blank\">Vaccination for People Who are Immunocompromised | Australian Immunisation Handbook\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"ac51bf23-431a-454d-bd96-a7add311cc39","resourceID":"b05f227f-e299-4c99-8489-6fdc8ac1e26b","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"b05f227f-e299-4c99-8489-6fdc8ac1e26b"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"b05f227f-e299-4c99-8489-6fdc8ac1e26b","resourceType":"blog","alias":"being-immunocompromised","metaTitle":"Being Immunocompromised: Explanation and Effects | Ausmed","metaDescription":"People who are immunocompromised are affected more frequently and severely by infections due to a weakened immune system. There are two types of immunodeficiency: primary and secondary."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"3890d12c-508c-42d6-9187-b087711ddb2f","title":"Eating Disorders in Women During Pregnancy","activityType":"blog","min":10,"categories":["eba3ce28-7fb9-4bed-bb57-67c03238dbc2","295f012a-1e87-4d05-b1e1-90f5a2958ef7"],"topics":["13805620-0190-4281-a05b-3059a42d73a3","248e0ab9-6fcb-4a39-b92c-ee966da1b8e3","5f86f5de-c5d0-48a4-aedf-ef28698c9036","a3a3149d-c332-4f70-bb7d-a1e9a1cea329","52691b34-5be2-45c4-b6da-7b4ac66381ee","807b94e9-f81a-4574-9869-88f23afe161d","aa3d2aa6-d04a-40c0-899f-2e48df71988b","266dc235-aa68-4600-839d-a7eb8352471c","05b5304d-946e-48c8-b471-496fad09795b"],"keywords":["Diet","Eating Disorders","Maternity","Mental Health","Midwifery","Neonatal","Obstetrics","Pregnancy","Women's Health"],"professions":["Registered Midwife","Student Nurse or Midwife","Psychologist","Psychology Student"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed"],"createDate":"2022-03-17T04:24:12Z","updateDate":"2025-03-18T03:17:35Z","availableDate":"2025-03-17T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["41edd650-d7c3-43dc-a8f1-c10ad72736ac"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"3890d12c-508c-42d6-9187-b087711ddb2f","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">Weight gain is an entirely natural aspect of a healthy pregnancy. However, for some women, their changing body shape can trigger heightened anxiety along with the emergence, or return, of an eating disorder.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Eating disorders typically affect women of childbearing age (Bye et al. 2018), and if left unmanaged, can be associated with adverse outcomes for both mother and baby. Good nutrition is essential during pregnancy, and even though eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder are well recognised, their management remains a challenge (Fogarty et al. 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Currently, in Australia, about 15% of women will experience an eating disorder at some point in their lives (Butterfly Foundation 2022). The Centre of Perinatal Excellence (2023) estimates that about 7.5% of women will experience an eating disorder while pregnant. This means that a significant number of women will require specialised assessment and care during their pregnancy to ensure adequate nutritional intake.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Types of Eating Disorders\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>There are four eating disorders described by the \u003Cstrong>DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)\u003C/strong> that can threaten the wellbeing of both the mother and fetus (NEDC 2015).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>The three most common eating disorders are:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n \u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Anorexia nervosa:\u003C/strong> A disorder defined by the persistent restriction of energy intake, which leads to lower-than-normal body weight (BMI under 17kg/m2). It’s a condition driven by an intense fear of gaining weight, a preoccupation with appearance and a disturbed body image.\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Bulimia nervosa:\u003C/strong> This disorder is characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviour such as self-induced vomiting, purging, fasting, excessive exercising, or the misuse of laxatives and diuretics. It’s also characterised by a subjective feeling of loss of control when eating and is constantly associated with feelings of self-evaluation and low self-worth.\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Binge eating disorder:\u003C/strong> Typically, a large amount of food is consumed in a short period of time, often alone and with no sense of control whilst eating. Feelings of guilt, shame and loss of control are common after overeating. Unlike other eating disorders, binge eating is not associated with purging or other weight maintenance behaviours.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(SA Health 2020; National Eating Disorders Collaboration 2015)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS) tend to be characterised by fewer, milder symptoms but are still technically considered to be eating disorders (The Women's 2014).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220317_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"eating disorders in pregnancy sad woman\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Assessing the Risks\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Both mother and baby are at risk when there is prolonged poor nutrition during pregnancy. Before pregnancy, women with eating disorders may present with menstrual dysfunction, low bone density and sexual dysfunction. Once pregnant, however, they are at increased risk of many obstetric complications such as miscarriage, preterm delivery or a low birth weight baby (Arnold et al. 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Relatively little current research is available, however, in 2019 Charbonneau and Seabrook investigated available studies on the effects of eating disorders in pregnancy and found that there was an association between eating disorders and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/learn/articles/preventing-preterm-birth\" target=\"_blank\">preterm birth\u003C/a> in 36% of the studies, and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/sga/view\" target=\"_blank\">small for gestational age babies\u003C/a> in 63%.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch4>Risks For the Mother\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Malnutrition, dehydration and possible cardiac irregularities, especially with bulimia\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Prolonged healing from a caesarean birth, episiotomy or \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/perineal-tears/view\" target=\"_blank\">perineal tear\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>High blood pressure and \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/gestational-diabetes/view\" target=\"_blank\">gestational diabetes\u003C/a>, particularly with binge eating disorders\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Depression during or after pregnancy\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Anaemia\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Increased risk of miscarriage.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Ch4>Risks For the Baby\u003C/h4>\n\n\u003Cul>\n \u003Cli>Malnutrition\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Premature birth\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Low birth weight, especially if the mother has anorexia and a low body mass index (BMI)\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>High birth weight if the mother has binge eating disorder\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Poor development\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Feeding difficulties\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Respiratory distress\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Eating Disorders Victoria 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Barriers to Seeking Help\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Bye et al. (2018) describe five main \u003Cstrong>barriers to disclosing eating disorders\u003C/strong> in pregnancy, as perceived by women:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n \u003Cli>Stigma\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Lack of opportunity\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Preference for self-management\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Current symptomatology\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Illness awareness.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Cp>They also identified the following four themes, which were seen as barriers to identifying eating disorders both during and after pregnancy:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Col>\n \u003Cli>System constraints\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Recognition of role\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Personal attitudes\u003C/li>\n \u003Cli>Stigma and taboo.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ol>\n\n\u003Ch2>Helping Women Adapt to a Changing Body Image\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220317_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"eating disorders in pregnancy woman looking in mirror\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Cp>The combination of a rapidly changing body shape along with a susceptibility to eating disorders, or a history of previous disorders, can leave some women feeling vulnerable as their body image changes in ways that are beyond their control during pregnancy (Fogarty et al. 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>As Bye et al. (2018) suggest, midwives and health visitors are ideally placed to identify and support these women, as they are often the primary point of contact during the antenatal and postnatal periods.\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Screening women for increased eating disorder symptoms, especially if they have had past symptoms or are experiencing current difficulties, is key to offering practical and effective support, as past difficulties tend to resurface during pregnancy, albeit usually in a milder form (Arnold et al. 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Where possible, access to an interprofessional team should be made available during pregnancy, including a midwife, family doctor, dietician, eating disorder specialist and obstetrician. Care should also be extended into the postpartum period, as the risk of relapse or postnatal depression can be particularly high at this time (SA Health 2020).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>One tool that is commonly adopted to help identify eating disorders in the antenatal period is the \u003Cstrong>SCOFF questionnaire\u003C/strong>. This is a simple screening tool that midwives can use during antenatal visits to help identify women who may need further monitoring or referral to specialised services. Answering ‘yes’ to two or more of the following questions can be an early indicator of anorexia nervosa, bulimia or binge eating disorder:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>S\u003C/strong> - Do you make yourself sick because you feel uncomfortably full?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>C\u003C/strong> - Do you feel like you lose control when you are eating?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>O\u003C/strong> - Have you recently lost one stone (6.35 kilograms) in 3 months?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>F\u003C/strong> - Do you believe you are fat although others say you are thin?\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>F\u003C/strong> - Would you say food dominates your life?\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(SA Health 2020)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Avoiding Red Flag Times\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Eating disorders seldom disappear completely at the end of pregnancy and it’s important that any support initiated during antenatal care is maintained into the postnatal period to avoid any ‘red flag’ times when discontinued care may leave a woman vulnerable to further relapse (Fogarty et al. 2018).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Although the care pathway for women with eating disorders may seem multi-faceted and complex at times, it’s important that every opportunity is taken to help them overcome the disorder. Without this help, not only is the mother’s health at risk, but also the short and long-term health of the child, who may become at greater risk of developing an eating disorder in later life (Arnold et al. 2019).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20220317_cover.jpg"],"excerpt":"Weight gain is an entirely natural aspect of a healthy pregnancy. However, for some women, their changing body shape can trigger heightened anxiety along with the emergence, or return, of an eating disorder.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2022-03-16T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Arnold, C, Johnson, H, Mahon, C & Agius, M 2019, ’The Effects of Eating Disorders in Pregnancy on Mother and Baby: A Review’, \u003Cem>Psychiatria Danubina\u003C/em>, vol. 31, sup. 3, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/383731\" target=\"_blank\">https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/383731\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Butterfly Foundation 2022, \u003Cem>The Reality of Eating Disorders in Australia\u003C/em>, Butterfly Foundation, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://butterfly.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/The-reality-of-eating-disorders-in-Australia-2022.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https://butterfly.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/The-reality-of-eating-disorders-in-Australia-2022.pdf\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Bye, A, Shawe, J, Bick, D et al. 2018, ‘Barriers to Identifying Eating Disorders in Pregnancy and in the Postnatal Period: A Qualitative Approach’, \u003Cem>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth\u003C/em>, vol. 18, no. 1, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12884-018-1745-x\" target=\"_blank\">https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12884-018-1745-x\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Centre of Perinatal Excellence 2023, \u003Cem>Eating Disorders During Pregnancy\u003C/em>, COPE, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.cope.org.au/expecting-a-baby/mental-health-conditions-pregnancy/eating-disorders-during-pregnancy/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.cope.org.au/expecting-a-baby/mental-health-conditions-pregnancy/eating-disorders-during-pregnancy/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Charbonneau, K & Seabrook, J 2019, ‘Adverse Birth Outcomes Associated with Types of Eating Disorders: A Review’, \u003Cem>Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research\u003C/em>, vol. 80, no. 3, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://dcjournal.ca/doi/abs/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-044\" target=\"_blank\">https://dcjournal.ca/doi/abs/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-044\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Eating Disorders Victoria 2024, \u003Cem>Eating Disorders in Children, Teens, Midlife and Pregnancy\u003C/em>, Eating Disorders Victoria, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/eating-disorders-in-children-teens-midlife-and-pregnancy/\" target=\"_blank\">https://eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/eating-disorders-in-children-teens-midlife-and-pregnancy/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Fogarty, S, Elmir, R, Hay, P & Schmied, V 2018, ‘The Experience of Women with an Eating Disorder in the Perinatal Period: A Meta-ethnographic Study’, \u003Cem>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth\u003C/em>, vol. 18, no. 1, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-018-1762-9\" target=\"_blank\">https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-018-1762-9\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Eating Disorders Collaboration 2015, \u003Cem>Pregnancy and Eating Disorders: A Professional’s Guide to Assessment and Referral\u003C/em>, NEDC, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://nedc.com.au/assets/NEDC-Resources/NEDC-Resource-Pregnancy.pdf?2025031704\" target=\"_blank\">https://nedc.com.au/assets/NEDC-Resources/NEDC-Resource-Pregnancy.pdf?2025031704\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">SA Health 2020, \u003Cem>South Australian Perinatal Practice Guideline: Eating Disorders and Pregnancy\u003C/em>, Government of South Australia, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/a13c27004ee217a7b435bdd150ce4f37/Eating+Disorders+and+Pregnancy_PPG_v3_0.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-a13c27004ee217a7b435bdd150ce4f37-nGDIKdF\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/a13c27004ee217a7b435bdd150ce4f37/Eating+Disorders+and+Pregnancy_PPG_v3_0.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-a13c27004ee217a7b435bdd150ce4f37-nGDIKdF\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">The Women's 2014, \u003Cem>Eating Disorders in & After Pregnancy\u003C/em>, The Royal Women's Hospital, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.thewomens.org.au/health-information/pregnancy-and-birth/mental-health-pregnancy/eating-disorders-in-after-pregnancy\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.thewomens.org.au/health-information/pregnancy-and-birth/mental-health-pregnancy/eating-disorders-in-after-pregnancy\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://butterfly.org.au/\" target=\"_blank\">The Butterfly Foundation\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://nedc.com.au/assets/NEDC-Resources/NEDC-Resource-Pregnancy.pdf?2025031704\" target=\"_blank\">Pregnancy and Eating Disorders: A Professional’s Guide to Assessment and Referral | NEDC\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"f977ed9e-8112-45e1-a028-a8b94b5823a3","resourceID":"3890d12c-508c-42d6-9187-b087711ddb2f","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"3890d12c-508c-42d6-9187-b087711ddb2f"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"3890d12c-508c-42d6-9187-b087711ddb2f","resourceType":"blog","alias":"eating-disorders-during-pregnancy","metaTitle":"Eating Disorders in Women During Pregnancy | Ausmed","metaDescription":"Eating disorders typically affect women of childbearing age, and if left unmanaged, can be associated with adverse outcomes for both mother and baby. Good nutrition is essential during pregnancy and even though eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder are well recognised, their management remains a challenge."},"source":"ausmed"},{"resourceID":"935e2155-f997-4c18-89c5-3ced7639716f","title":"The Common Cold: Just How Common is it?","activityType":"blog","min":8,"categories":["44c823ae-431e-4265-8b61-9634efe68a1a","8a51f6e9-0d70-4aff-9f74-2b89b57f9561"],"topics":["2a3faf90-3606-4b3c-aef4-7329b4aa7ba6"],"keywords":["Infectious Diseases"],"professions":["Nurse Practitioner","Other","Registered Nurse","Enrolled Nurse","Non-Practising","Other Profession","Community Care Worker","Health Care Worker","Personal Care Assistant (PCA)","Assistant in Nursing (AIN)","Direct Care Worker","Allied Health Assistant","Ward Assistant","Other Profession"],"educatorNames":["Ausmed Editorial Team"],"createDate":"2020-03-16T12:36:08Z","updateDate":"2025-03-17T01:31:55Z","availableDate":"2025-03-16T13:00:00Z","expiryDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","ausmedGoals":["3f21aa92-e7d0-4b34-a009-d69e7730a2cc"],"bundles":["33cce188-ee06-4ac8-a185-82c4efd472ba"],"blogDetail":{"resourceID":"935e2155-f997-4c18-89c5-3ced7639716f","status":"Published","providerName":"Ausmed Education","content":"\u003Cp style=\"font-size:20px\">As its name suggests, the \u003Cstrong>common cold\u003C/strong> (or upper respiratory tract infection) is a highly prevalent infection that can be caused by over 200 types of viruses. It affects the nose and throat (Healthdirect 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Most cold-causing viruses belong to either the coronavirus or rhinovirus families\u003C/strong> (Healthdirect 2024). As there are so many viruses that can cause a cold, it’s possible to have one cold after another from unrelated strains (NHS Inform 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>At this stage, it’s not considered possible to be vaccinated against colds due to the number of viruses that can cause them (Herndon 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Prevalence of Colds\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The common cold is considered the most common contagious disease in Australia, the most common reason for being absent from school or work, and the most common reason for seeing a general practitioner (Lung Foundation Australia 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Adults will often catch two to four colds per year, while children may get as many as six to eight\u003C/strong>, as they lack immunity to many of the viruses that cause colds (Healthdirect 2024). \u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200318_body_1.jpg\" alt=\"cold sick child\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>How Colds Are Spread\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Colds spread through droplets in the air generated from sneezing, coughing or talking, which enter the body through the eyes, mouth or nose. These droplets may also contaminate objects and surfaces (Mayo Clinic 2023).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Cold-causing viruses can live on hands and surfaces for as long as 24 hours (NHS 2024).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Cp>Generally, an individual is contagious from one day before symptoms present and for the first five days of the illness (SA Health 2022).\u003C/p> \n\n\u003Ch2>Risk Factors\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The following factors may increase the risk of getting a cold:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Age\u003C/strong>: Children younger than six years of age have generally not built up immunity to many cold viruses yet\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Being \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/being-immunocompromised/view\" target=\"_blank\">\u003Cstrong>immunocompromised\u003C/strong>\u003C/a>\u003C/li> \n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Time of year\u003C/strong>: People are more likely to catch colds in winter or autumn due to the colder weather bringing people into closer proximity with each other\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Smoking\u003C/strong>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Being exposed to large groups of people\u003C/strong> in settings such as school, aeroplanes etc.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(SA Health 2022; Mayo Clinic 2023; Lung Foundation Australia 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Symptoms of the Common Cold\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>The onset of symptoms is generally one to three days after exposure to a cold-causing virus. Depending on the individual and the virus, people may experience a combination of the following symptoms:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Runny or stuffy nose\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sore throat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Cough\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Congestion\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Mild body aches\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Headache\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Sneezing\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Red eyes\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Swelling of lymph glands\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Fever (rare in people over the age of three)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Loss of appetite\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nausea and vomiting (occasionally)\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Generally feeling unwell.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(Mayo Clinic 2023; Better Health Channel 2022; SA Health 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Thick, yellow or green nasal discharge is common as a cold progresses (Mayo Clinic 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200318_body_2.jpg\" alt=\"cold symptoms coughing\">\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Colds v Influenza\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>Colds are often confused with \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/influenza/view\" target=\"_blank\">influenza\u003C/a> (‘the flu’), however, they are different illnesses caused by different viruses (Healthdirect 2022):\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Flu symptoms are similar but more severe than cold symptoms overall.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>The onset of symptoms is gradual for colds and quick (within a few hours) for influenza.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Colds are unpleasant but most people can still go about their daily lives. Influenza, on the other hand, can make an individual feel too unwell and exhausted to function normally.\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>There is a vaccination for influenza but not for colds.\u003C/li> \n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2024)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Ch2>Treatments for Colds\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>There is no cure or specific treatment for a cold, but symptoms may be managed with the following strategies:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Medicines to lower fever or ease aches\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Rest and sleep\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Warm drinks to stay hydrated and ease a sore throat\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Nasal drops or spray to ease a blocked nose\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Throat lozenges\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Keeping warm\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Gargling salt water to ease a sore throat.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2024; Better Health Channel 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Cstrong>Antibiotics should not be used for colds\u003C/strong> as they are only effective against bacterial infections (NHS 2024).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Colds are generally not serious and will resolve on their own within a week to 10 days (Mayo Clinic 2023).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Ccenter>\u003Cimg src=\"https://ausmed-images.s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200318_body_3.jpg\" alt=\"cold treatment throat lozenge\">\n\u003Cfigcaption>Throat lozenges can help with managing cold symptoms.\u003C/figcaption>\n\u003C/center>\n\u003C/figure>\n\n\u003Ch2>Preventing Colds\u003C/h2>\n\n\u003Cp>It’s difficult to avoid getting a cold, but the best way to reduce the risk is to maintain a healthy lifestyle and practise \u003Ca href=\"https://www.ausmed.com.au/cpd/articles/hand-hygiene-101\" target=\"_blank\">effective hand hygiene\u003C/a> (Lung Foundation Australia 2022).\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cp>Those who have a cold should try to avoid spreading it to others by:\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cul>\n\t\u003Cli>Performing hand hygiene as required\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Using tissues when sneezing and disposing of them as soon as possible\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli>Wiping down frequently touched surfaces.\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>\n\n\u003Cp>\u003Csmall>(NHS 2024; SA Health 2022)\u003C/small>\u003C/p>\n\n\u003Cbr>","thumbnailImages":["https://ausmed-images.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-articles/20200318_cover_v2.jpg"],"excerpt":"The common cold is considered the most common contagious disease in Australia, the most common reason for being absent from school or work, and the most common reason for seeing a general practitioner.","reviewDate":"2027-03-30T13:00:00Z","publishDate":"2020-03-17T13:00:00Z","guidelines":["dcaed7e0-6d01-4740-9a68-e3ad3719e49d","b11123e3-09ad-4f1d-9619-98b8ef1c2458","40a58630-3c02-4196-89c7-15b794b961e1"],"references":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group list-group-references\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Better Health Channel 2022, \u003Cem>Colds\u003C/em>, Victoria State Government, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/colds\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/colds\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Healthdirect 2024, \u003Cem>Colds\u003C/em>, Australian Government, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/colds\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/colds\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Herndon, K 2024, \u003Cem>Why Is There No Vaccine for the Common Cold?\u003C/em>, Verywell Health, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.verywellhealth.com/why-there-will-never-be-a-vaccine-for-the-common-cold-770451\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.verywellhealth.com/why-there-will-never-be-a-vaccine-for-the-common-cold-770451\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Lung Foundation Australia 2022, \u003Cem>The Common Cold\u003C/em>, Lung Foundation Australia, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://lungfoundation.com.au/patients-carers/living-with-a-lung-disease/other-lung-conditions/the-common-cold/\" target=\"_blank\">https://lungfoundation.com.au/patients-carers/living-with-a-lung-disease/other-lung-conditions/the-common-cold/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">Mayo Clinic 2023, \u003Cem>Common Cold\u003C/em>, Mayo Clinic, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/common-cold/symptoms-causes/syc-20351605\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/common-cold/symptoms-causes/syc-20351605\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">National Health Service 2024, \u003Cem>Common Cold\u003C/em>, NHS, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/common-cold/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/common-cold/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">NHS Inform 2024, \u003Cem>Common Cold\u003C/em>, NHS Scotland, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/common-cold/\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/common-cold/\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">SA Health 2022, \u003Cem>Common Cold - Including Symptoms\u003C/em>, Treatment and Prevention, Government of South Australia, viewed 17 March 2025, \u003Ca href=\"https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/common+cold/common+cold+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention\" target=\"_blank\">https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/common+cold/common+cold+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","additionalResources":"\u003Cul class=\"list-group\">\n\t\u003Cli class=\"list-group-item\">\u003Ca href=\"https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/cold-or-flu-infographic\" target=\"_blank\">Cold or Flu? (Infographic) | Healthdirect\u003C/a>\u003C/li>\n\u003C/ul>","blogEducators":[{"relationID":"a8d94dac-0ebe-4011-a3eb-728d77e5f433","resourceID":"935e2155-f997-4c18-89c5-3ced7639716f","educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","educatorModel":{"educatorID":"19d618b9-9e1b-421d-9b09-7ad56a48ba40","firstName":" ","lastName":"Ausmed","createDate":"2019-05-29T15:03:17Z","updateDate":"2024-10-28T01:59:23Z","alias":"ausmed-editorial-team","contactDetail":{"position":"Editorial Team","department":"","organisation":"","qualifications":"","photoURL":"https://ausmed-images.s3.amazonaws.com/ausmed.com/ausmed-educator/Ausmed-logo-square.jpg?stamp=1690771155383","country":"AUS","allowPost":true,"allowEmail":true,"allowTextMsg":true},"eventDetail":{"topics":["e6279e61-739d-4009-ac7c-2531b49a2425"],"biographyNames":["Default",""],"biographies":["Ausmed’s editorial team is committed to providing high-quality, well-researched and reputable education to our users, free of any commercial bias or conflict of interest. All education produced by Ausmed is developed in consultation with healthcare professionals and undergoes a rigorous review process to ensure the relevancy of all healthcare information and updates to changes in practice. If you have identified an issue with the education offered by Ausmed or wish to submit feedback to Ausmed's editorial team, please email ausmed@ausmed.com.au with your concerns.",""],"extraBio":"","brochureBio":""},"types":"Educator"}}],"blogExtraDetail":{"resourceID":"935e2155-f997-4c18-89c5-3ced7639716f"}},"aliasObject":{"resourceID":"935e2155-f997-4c18-89c5-3ced7639716f","resourceType":"blog","alias":"common-cold","metaTitle":"The Common Cold: Symptoms, Prevention and Treatment | Ausmed","metaDescription":"As its name suggests, the common cold (or upper respiratory tract infection) is a highly prevalent infection that can be caused by over 200 types of viruses. It affects the nose and throat."},"source":"ausmed"}]}</script></body></html>