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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Opposition to the Fischer thesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_the_Fischer_thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960s–1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960s–1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>1960s–1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960s–1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Post-2000</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-2000-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-2000 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe's_Last_Summer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe's_Last_Summer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span><i>Europe's Last Summer</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe's_Last_Summer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Sleepwalkers:_How_Europe_Went_to_War_in_1914" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Sleepwalkers:_How_Europe_Went_to_War_in_1914"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span><i>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Sleepwalkers:_How_Europe_Went_to_War_in_1914-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reception_in_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_in_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Reception in Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_in_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vernon_Bogdanor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vernon_Bogdanor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Vernon Bogdanor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vernon_Bogdanor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Russian_Origins_of_the_First_World_War_and_July_1914" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Russian_Origins_of_the_First_World_War_and_July_1914"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span><i>The Russian Origins of the First World War</i> and <i>July 1914</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Russian_Origins_of_the_First_World_War_and_July_1914-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_War_That_Ended_Peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_War_That_Ended_Peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span><i>The War That Ended Peace</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_War_That_Ended_Peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Origins_of_the_First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Origins_of_the_First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span><i>The Origins of the First World War</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Origins_of_the_First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Other views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historiographical debate</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the article on the causes of the war themselves, see <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">Historiography of World War I</a></div> <p>Historians writing about the origins of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> have differed over the relative emphasis they place upon the factors involved. Changes in historical arguments over time are in part related to the delayed availability of classified historical archives. The deepest distinction among historians remains between those who focus on the actions of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> as key and those who focus on a wider group of actors. Meanwhile some historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fritz Fischer</a>, maintain that Germany deliberately sought war while others do not. The main distinction among the latter is between those who believe that a war between the "<a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">Great Powers</a>" was ultimately unplanned but still caused principally by Germany and Austria-Hungary taking risks, and those who believe that either all or some of the other powers, namely <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)#Russia" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/France_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="France in World War I">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia#Balkan_Wars,_World_War_I_and_the_First_Yugoslavia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Britain in World War I">Great Britain</a>, played a more significant role in risking war than had been traditionally suggested. </p><p>Given the catastrophic consequences of the war, and its far-reaching social, political and economic implications, the origins of the war, and in particular who "caused" the war, remain heated questions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1914–the_Color_books"><span id="1914.E2.80.93the_Color_books"></span>1914–the Color books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1914–the Color books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Color_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Color books">Color books</a></div> <p>As soon as the war began, the major nations issued "<a href="/wiki/Color_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Color books">color books</a>" containing documents (mostly from July 1914) that helped justify their actions. A color book is a collection of diplomatic correspondence and other official documents published by a government for educational or political reasons, and to promote the government position on current or past events. In wartime or times of crisis, they have especially been used as a propaganda vehicle, to justify governmental action, or to assign blame to foreign actors. The choice of what documents to include, how to present them, and even what order to list them, can make them tantamount to government-issued propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-EncPIL-2014_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncPIL-2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 17th century, <a href="/wiki/British_Blue_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="British Blue Book">blue books</a> first came into use in England as a means of publishing diplomatic correspondence and reports. They were so named, because of their blue cover. During the time of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in the early 19th century, they were being published regularly. By the second half of the century, Turkey began publishing its own version in red, and the concept of color books spread to other countries in Europe, with each country using one color: Germany using white; France: yellow; red: Austria-Hungary (Spain also used red later, as did the Soviet Union); green: Italy; gray: Belgium; orange: Netherlands (and Tsarist Russia). This concept spread to the Americas as well, with the United States using red, Mexico: orange, and various countries in Central and South America using other colors; it even spread as far as China (yellow) and Japan (gray).<sup id="cite_ref-EncPIL-2014_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EncPIL-2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg/220px-On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg/330px-On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg/440px-On_Ne_Passe_Pas_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="1402" /></a><figcaption>Poster, c. 1918 by Maurice Neumont</figcaption></figure> <p><i><a href="/wiki/The_German_White_Book" title="The German White Book">The German White Book</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appeared on 4 August 1914, and was the first such book to come out. It contains 36 documents.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a week, most other combatant countries had published their own book, each named with a different color name. France held off until 1 December 1914, when they finally published their <i><a href="/wiki/French_Yellow_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="French Yellow Book">Yellow Book</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt-1937-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other combatants in the war published similar books: the <i><a href="/wiki/Blue_Book_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue Book of Britain">Blue Book of Britain</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-nag_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><a href="/wiki/Orange_Book_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange Book of Russia">Orange Book of Russia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-nag_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nag-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.18_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.18-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Book_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow Book of France">Yellow Book of France</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.19_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.19-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Red_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Red Book">Austro-Hungarian Red Book</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Grey_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Grey Book">Belgian Grey Book</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Blue_Book" title="Serbian Blue Book">Serbian Blue Book</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beer-1915_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beer-1915-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Yellow_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="French Yellow Book">French Yellow Book</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Livre Jaune</i></span>), completed after three months of work, contained 164 documents. These works of propaganda aimed to convince public opinion of the validity of their rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Kempe-2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kempe-2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7–19">: 7–19 </span></sup> Unlike the others which were limited to the weeks before the start of the war, the Yellow Book included some documents from 1913, putting Germany in a bad light by shedding light on their mobilization for a European war. Some of the documents in the Yellow Book were challenged by Germany as not genuine, but their objections were mostly ignored, and the Yellow Book was widely cited as a resource in the <a href="/wiki/July_crisis_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="July crisis of 1914">July crisis of 1914</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt-1937-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It turned out after the war was over, that the Yellow Book wasn't complete, or entirely accurate. Historians who gained access to previously unpublished French material were able to use it in their report to the Senate entitled "Origins and responsibilities for the Great War"<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as did ex-President <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Raymond Poincaré</a>. The conclusion set forth in the report of the 1919 French Peace Commission is illustrative of the two-pronged goals of blaming their opponents while justifying their own actions, as laid out in two sentences: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The war was premeditated by the Central Powers, as well as by their Allies Turkey and Bulgaria, and is the result of acts deliberately committed with the intention of making it inevitable.<br />Germany, in concordance with Austria-Hungary, worked deliberately to have the many conciliatory proposals of the Entente Powers set aside, and their efforts to avoid war nullified.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><small>Peace Conference Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties</small></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Later, publication of complete archives from the period of the July crisis by Germany, Britain, and Austria, as well as some from Soviet archives, revealed some truths that the Yellow Book conveniently left out. In particular, was Yellow Book document #118, which showed a Russian mobilization in response to Austrian mobilization the day before on 30 July, but in fact, the order of mobilization was reversed; Russian mobilized first. After a contorted explanation by <a href="/wiki/Quai_d%27Orsay" title="Quai d'Orsay">Quai d'Orsay</a>, confidence in the Yellow Book was ruined, and historians avoided using it.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt-1937-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In his essay for the April 1937 issue of Foreign Affairs, <a href="/wiki/Bernadotte_E._Schmitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernadotte E. Schmitt">Bernadotte E. Schmitt</a> examined recently published diplomatic correspondence in the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Documents Diplomatiques Français</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-France-1936-10_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France-1936-10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-France-1936-11_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-France-1936-11-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and compared it to the documents in the <i>French Yellow Book</i> published in 1914, concluding that the Yellow Book "was neither complete nor entirely reliable" and went into some detail in examining documents either missing from the <i>Yellow Book</i>, or presented out of order to confuse or mislead the sequence in which events occurred. He concluded,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The documents will not change existing views to any great extent. They will not establish the innocence of France in the minds of Germans. On the other hand, the French will be able to find in them a justification of the policy they pursued in July 1914; and in spite of Herr Hitler's recent declaration repudiating Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, they will continue, on the basis of these documents, to hold Germany primarily responsible for the Great War.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt-1937-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>France and the Outbreak of the World War</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the German <i>White Book</i>, anything that could benefit the Russian position was redacted.<sup id="cite_ref-Kempe-2008_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kempe-2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1918–1930s"><span id="1918.E2.80.931930s"></span>1918–1930s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1918–1930s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Responsibilities" title="Commission of Responsibilities">Commission of Responsibilities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg/220px-Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg/330px-Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg/440px-Europe_as_it_should_be_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_P._B%C3%A9n%C3%A9zet" title="Louis P. Bénézet">Louis P. Bénézet</a>'s map of "Europe As It Should Be" (1918), depicting nations based on ethnic and linguistic criteria. Bénézet's book <i>The World War and What was Behind It</i> (1918) blamed on German aggression combined with perceived threats to the traditional social order from radicals and ethnic nationalists.</figcaption></figure><p>Straight after the war <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> historians argued that Germany was solely responsible for the start of the war: a view reinforced by the inclusion of '<a href="/wiki/War_guilt" class="mw-redirect" title="War guilt">war guilt</a>' clauses within the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919, the German diplomat and former Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow" title="Bernhard von Bülow">Bernhard von Bülow</a> went through the German archives to suppress any documents that might show that Germany was responsible for the war and to ensure that only documents that were exculpatory (favorable to the defendant, in this case, Germany) might be seen by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of Bülow's efforts, between 1923–27 the German Foreign Ministry published forty volumes of documents, which as the German-Canadian historian <a href="/wiki/Holger_Herwig" title="Holger Herwig">Holger Herwig</a> noted were carefully edited to promote the idea that the war was not the fault of one nation but were rather the result of the breakdown of international relations.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain documents such as some of the papers of the Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg" title="Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg">Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg</a> which did not support this interpretation were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kantorowicz" title="Hermann Kantorowicz">Hermann Kantorowicz</a>, one of the few German historians who argued in the 1920s that Germany was responsible for the war, found that the Foreign Ministry went out of its way to stop his work from being published and tried to have him fired from his post at <a href="/wiki/Kiel_University" title="Kiel University">Kiel University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1933, Kantorowicz who as a Jewish German would have been banned from publishing, was forced to leave Germany for his "unpatriotic" writings.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exceptions of the work of scholars such as Kantorowicz, Herwig has concluded that the majority of the work published on the subject of World War I's origins in Germany prior to <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fritz Fischer</a>'s book <i>Griff nach der Weltmacht</i> was little more than a pseudo-historical "sham".<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Academic work in the English-speaking world in the later 1920s and 1930s, blamed the participants more or less equally. In the early 1920s, several American historians opposed to the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Bradshaw_Fay" title="Sidney Bradshaw Fay">Sidney Bradshaw Fay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Elmer_Barnes" title="Harry Elmer Barnes">Harry Elmer Barnes</a> produced works that claimed that Germany was not responsible for war. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which had seemingly assigned all responsibility for the war to Germany and thus justified the Allied claim to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations" title="World War I reparations">reparations</a>, was invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A feature of American "revisionist" historians of the 1920s was a tendency to treat Germany as a victim of the war and the Allies as the aggressors.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objective of Fay and Barnes was to put an end to reparations imposed on Germany, by attempting to prove what they regarded as the moral invalidity of Article 231. The exiled Wilhelm praised Barnes upon meeting him in 1926. According to Barnes, Wilhelm "was happy to know that I did not blame him for starting the war in 1914. He disagreed with my view that Russia and France were chiefly responsible. He held that the villains of 1914 were the international Jews and Free Masons who, he alleged, desired to destroy national states and the Christian religion."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German Foreign Ministry lavished special "care" upon the efforts of both Fay and Barnes with generous use of the German archives, and in the case of Barnes, research funds provided by the German government.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German government liked Fay's <i>The Origin of the War</i> so much that it purchased hundreds of copies in various languages to hand out for free at German embassies and consulates.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German government allowed books that were pro-German in their interpretation, such as Barnes's <i>The Genesis of the World War</i>, to be translated into German while books such as <a href="/wiki/Bernadotte_Schmitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernadotte Schmitt">Bernadotte Schmitt</a>'s <i>The Coming of War 1914</i> that were critical of German actions in 1914, were not permitted to be published in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Patriotic_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chapter 10 of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II's</a> <i>Memoirs</i> is entitled "The Outbreak of War". In it the Kaiser lists twelve "proofs" from the more extensive "Comparative Historical Tables" that he had compiled, which demonstrate the preparations for war by the Entente Powers made in the spring and summer of 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular he alleged: </p> <dl><dd>(5) According to the memoirs of the French Ambassador at <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, M. Paléologue, published in 1921 in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, the Grand Duchesses Anastasia and Militza told him, on July 22, 1914, at Tsarskoe Selo, that their father, the King of <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, had informed them in a cipher telegram, "we shall have war before the end of the month [that is, before the 13th of August, Russian style] ... nothing will be left of <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. ... You will take <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>. ... Our armies will meet at <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. ... Germany will be annihilated."</dd></dl> <p>In a different approach, <a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a> in his pamphlet <i>Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism</i> portrayed the war as <a href="/wiki/Imperialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperialist">imperialist</a>, caused by rivalries triggered by highly organised financial monopolies, that by frenzied competition for markets and raw materials, had inevitably brought about the war. Evidence of secret deals between the Tsar and British and French governments to split the spoils of war was released by the <a href="/wiki/Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviets">Soviets</a> in 1917–18. In the 1920s and 1930s, more socialist works built on this theme, a line of analysis which is still to be found, although vigorously disputed on the grounds that wars occurred before the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lenin argued that the private ownership of the means of production, in the hands of a limited number of capitalist monopolies, would inevitably lead to war. He identified railways as a 'summation' of the basic capitalist industries, coal, iron and steel and that their uneven development summed up capitalist development.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">National Socialist</a> approach to the question of the war's origins were summed up in a pamphlet entitled <i>Deutschkunde uber Volk, Staat, Leibesubungen</i>. In 1935, the British ambassador to Germany, Sir <a href="/wiki/Eric_Phipps" title="Eric Phipps">Eric Phipps</a>, summed up the contents of <i>Deutschkunde uber Volk, Staat, Leibesubungen</i> which described the origins of the war thus: </p> <blockquote><p>"Not Germany, but England, France and Russia prepared for war soon after the death of <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a>. But Germany has also guilt to bear. She could have prevented the world war on three fronts, if she had not waited so long. The opportunity presented itself often—against England in the <a href="/wiki/Boer_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer War">Boer War</a>, against Russia when she was engaged against Japan... That she did not do so is Germany's guilt, though a proof that she was peaceful and wanted no war."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the inter-war period, various factors such as the network of secret alliances, emphasis on speed of offence, rigid military planning, <a href="/wiki/Darwinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwinian">Darwinian</a> ideas and a lack of resolution mechanisms were blamed by many historians. These ideas have maintained some currency since then. Famous proponents include <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Remak" title="Joachim Remak">Joachim Remak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy" title="Paul Kennedy">Paul Kennedy</a>. At the same time, many one-sided works were produced by politicians and other participants, often trying to exculpate themselves. In Germany these tended to deflect blame, while in Allied countries they tended to blame Germany or Austria-Hungary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Fischer_thesis">The Fischer thesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Fischer thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fischer_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer controversy">Fischer controversy</a></div> <p>In 1961, the German historian <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fritz Fischer</a> published the controversial <i><a href="/wiki/Germany%27s_Aims_in_the_First_World_War" title="Germany's Aims in the First World War">Griff nach der Weltmacht</a></i>, in which Fischer argued that the German government had an <a href="/wiki/Expansionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansionist">expansionist</a> foreign policy, formulated in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic</a> gains in the election of 1912 and had started a <a href="/wiki/War_of_aggression" title="War of aggression">war of aggression</a> in 1914. Fischer was the first historian to have full access to the entire remaining German World War I archives. Previous historians had only been able to access heavily edited archives that had been created in order to support the view that war was the inevitable product of the breakdown of international diplomacy, rather than the end result of German expansionist ambitions. </p><p>He was the first to draw attention to the <a href="/wiki/German_Imperial_War_Council_of_8_December_1912" title="German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912">War Council chaired by the Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> and the top military-naval leadership of the <i>Reich</i> on December 8, 1912, in which it was declared that Germany would start a war of aggression in the summer of 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kaiser and the Army leadership wanted to start a war at once in December 1912, but heeded objections from Grand Admiral <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Tirpitz" title="Alfred von Tirpitz">Alfred von Tirpitz</a>, who supported the idea of starting a war but argued that the German Navy needed more time to prepare and asked that the war be put off until the summer of 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kaiser agreed to Tirpitz's request.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1973, the British historian <a href="/wiki/John_R%C3%B6hl" class="mw-redirect" title="John Röhl">John Röhl</a> noted that in view of what Fischer had uncovered, especially the War Council meeting of December 8, 1912, that the idea that Germany bore the main responsibility for the war was no longer denied by the vast majority of historians,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Fischer later denied claiming that the war was decided upon at that meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Annika_Mombauer" title="Annika Mombauer">Annika Mombauer</a> in contrast to Röhl observed in her work on <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Younger" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Younger">Helmuth von Moltke</a> that despite a great deal of research and debate "there is no direct evidence to prove that military decision-makers understood December 1912 as a decisive moment at which a future war had been agreed upon".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fischer's discovery of Imperial German government documents prepared after the war began, calling for the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> of Russian Poland and German colonization to provide Germany with <i><a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></i> (living space) as a war aim, has also led to the widespread acceptance by historians of continuity between the foreign policies of Germany in 1914 and 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fischer alleged the German government hoped to use external expansion and aggression to check internal dissent and democratization. Some of his work is based on <a href="/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg" title="Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg">Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg's</a> <a href="/wiki/Septemberprogramm" title="Septemberprogramm">Septemberprogramm</a> which laid out Germany's war aims. Controversially, Fischer asserted a version of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i> thesis that drew a connection between aggression in 1914 and 1939. Fischer was later to call Bethmann Hollweg the "Hitler of 1914". Fischer prompted the <i>Primat der Innenpolitik</i> ("primacy of domestic politics") school, emphasizing domestic German political factors. Some prominent scholars in this school include <a href="/wiki/Imanuel_Geiss" title="Imanuel Geiss">Imanuel Geiss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Hans-Ulrich Wehler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen" title="Wolfgang Mommsen">Wolfgang Mommsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volker_Berghahn" title="Volker Berghahn">Volker Berghahn</a>. </p><p>In a major 2011 conference entitled "the Fischer Controversy 50 Years On", a group of historians and academics debated the legacy of Fischer's work. The conclusion was that "...a consensus emerged that Fischer had got it right in attributing 'a significant part of the historical responsibility for the outbreak of a general war' to Germany and that Fischer's thesis of the continuity of German war aims still stands fifty years later." Yet by August 2014, many new books had appeared which by their divergent views collectively continue the controversy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_the_Fischer_thesis">Opposition to the Fischer thesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Opposition to the Fischer thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "Berlin War Party" thesis and variants of it, blaming domestic German political factors, became something of an orthodoxy in the years after publication. Nonetheless many authors have attacked it. German conservative historians such as <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter" title="Gerhard Ritter">Gerhard Ritter</a> asserted that the thesis was dishonest and inaccurate. </p><p>Ritter promoted the idea that Germany displayed the same traits as other countries and could not be singled out. In a 1962 essay, Ritter contended that Germany's principal goal in 1914 was to maintain <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> as a great power, and thus German foreign policy was largely defensive as opposed to Fischer's claim that it was mostly aggressive.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter claimed that Fischer attached unwarranted significance to the highly bellicose advice about waging a "preventive war" in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> offered in July 1914 to the Chief of Cabinet of the Austro-Hungarian foreign ministry, Count Alexander Hoyos, by the German journalist Viktor Naumann.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter charged that Naumann was speaking as a private individual and not as Fischer claimed on behalf of the German government.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter felt that Fischer had been dishonest in his portrayal of Austro-German relations in July 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter charged that it was not true that Germany had pressured a reluctant Austria-Hungary into attacking <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter argued that the main impetus for war within Austria-Hungary was internal, and though there were divisions of opinion about the course to pursue in Vienna and Budapest, it was not German pressure that led to war being chosen.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Ritter's opinion, the most Germany can be criticized for in July 1914 was a mistaken evaluation of the state of European power politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter claimed that the German government had underrated the state of military readiness in Russia and France, falsely assumed that British foreign policy was more pacific than what it really was, overrated the sense of moral outrage caused by the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" class="mw-redirect" title="Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Archduke Franz Ferdinand</a> on European opinion, and above all, overestimated the military power and political common sense of Austria-Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter felt that in retrospect it was not necessary from the German point of view to maintain Austria-Hungary as a great power but claimed that at the time most Germans regarded the Dual Monarchy as a "brother empire" and viewed the prospect of the Balkans being in the Russian sphere of influence as an unacceptable threat.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter argued that though the Germans supported the idea of an Austrian-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, this was more of an <i>ad hoc</i> response to the crisis gripping Europe as opposed to Fischer's claim that Germany was deliberately setting off a war of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter complained that Fischer relied too much on the memories of Austro-Hungarian leaders such as the Count <a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Tisza" title="István Tisza">István Tisza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Count_Ottokar_Czernin" class="mw-redirect" title="Count Ottokar Czernin">Count Ottokar Czernin</a> who sought to shift all of the responsibility for the war on German shoulders.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ritter ended his essay by writing he felt profound "sadness" over the prospect that the next generation of Germans would not be as nationalistically-minded as previous generations as a result of reading Fischer.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Fischer argued that in private, Ritter admitted that some evidence supported Fischer on some points. In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Hans_Rothfels" title="Hans Rothfels">Hans Rothfels</a> on March 26, 1962, before publishing an article attacking Fischer, Ritter wrote: </p><blockquote><p>"I am alarmed and dismayed by your letter of 21 March. If Bethmann, as you write, in July 1914 had the 'desire' [<i>Wunsch</i>] to bring about war with Russia, then either he played without conscience with the fate of the German people, or he had simply incredible illusions about our military capablilities. In any case, Fischer would then be completely in the right when he denies that Bethmann seriously wanted to avoid war...If what in your view, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Riezler" title="Kurt Riezler">Riezler</a>'s diary reveals is correct, I would have to discard my article, instead of publishing it...In any case we are dealing here with a most ominous [<i>unheimlichen</i>] state secret, and all historical perspectives are displaced [<i>verschieben sich</i>], since...Bethmann Hollweg's September Program then appears in a wholly different light".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Trachtenberg concluded in 1991: </p> <dl><dd>It is certainly not true, however, that the views of the Fischer school have come to be almost universally shared, either inside Germany or out. The older interpretations of people like Pierre Renouvin, Bernadotte Schmitt, and <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Albertini" title="Luigi Albertini">Luigi Albertini</a>--which, while quite critical of Germany, never went so far as to claim that the German government deliberately set out to provoke a general war--are still very widely accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1960s–1990s"><span id="1960s.E2.80.931990s"></span>1960s–1990s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1960s–1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1960s two theories emerged to explain the causes of World War I. One championed by the West German historian <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Hillgruber" title="Andreas Hillgruber">Andreas Hillgruber</a> argued that in 1914, a "calculated risk" on the part of Berlin had gone awry.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hillgruber argued that what the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Imperial German government</a> had attempted to do in 1914 was to break the informal Triple Entente of Russia, France and Britain by encouraging Austria-Hungary to invade Serbia and thus provoke a crisis in an area that would concern only <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>. Hillgruber argued that the Germans hoped that both <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> would decide the crisis in the Balkans did not concern them and that lack of Anglo-French support would lead the Russians to reach an understanding with Germany. Hillgruber argued that when the Austrian attack on Serbia caused Russia to mobilize instead of backing down, the German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg" title="Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg">Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg</a> under strong pressure from a hawkish General Staff led by General <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Younger" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Younger">Moltke the Younger</a> panicked and ordered the <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a> to be activated, thus leading to a German attack on France. In Hillgruber’s opinion the German government had pursued a high-risk diplomatic strategy of provoking a war in the Balkans that had inadvertently caused a world war.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another theory was <a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">A. J. P. Taylor</a>'s "Railway Thesis" in his 1969 book <i>War by Timetable</i>. In Taylor's opinion, none of the great powers wanted a war but all of the great powers wished to increase their power relative to the others. Taylor argued that by engaging in an arms race and having the general staffs develop elaborate <a href="/wiki/Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">railway</a> timetables for mobilization, the continental powers hoped to develop a deterrent that would lead to other powers seeing the risk of war as too dangerous. When the crisis began in the summer of 1914, the need to mobilize faster than potential opponents made the leaders of 1914 prisoners of their logistics. The railway timetables forced invasion (of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> from Germany) as an unavoidable physical and logistical consequence of German mobilization. Taylor argued that the mobilization that was meant to serve as a threat and deterrent to war instead relentlessly caused a world war by forcing invasion. </p><p>Other authors, such as the American Marxist historian <a href="/wiki/Arno_J._Mayer" title="Arno J. Mayer">Arno J. Mayer</a> in 1967, agreed with some aspects of the "Berlin War Party" theory but felt that what Fischer said applied to all European states. In a 1967 essay "The Primacy of Domestic Politics", Mayer made a <i>Primat der Innenpolitik</i> ("primacy of domestic politics") argument for the war's origins. Mayer rejected the traditional <i>Primat der Außenpolitik</i> ("primacy of foreign politics") argument of diplomatic history, because it failed to take into account that all of the major European countries were in a "revolutionary situation" in 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer1997-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mayer's opinion, in 1914 Britain was on the verge of civil war and massive industrial unrest, Italy had been rocked by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Week_(Italy)" title="Red Week (Italy)">Red Week</a> of June 1914, France and Germany were faced with ever-increasing political strife, Russia was facing a huge strike wave, and Austria-Hungary was confronted with rising ethnic and class tensions.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer1997-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mayer insists that <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> was disintegrating in face of the challenge from the extreme right and left in Britain, France and Italy, while being a non-existent force in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer1997-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mayer ended his essay by arguing that <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> should be best understood as a pre-emptive "counterrevolutionary" strike by ruling elites in Europe to preserve their power.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayer1997-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 1972 essay "World War I As a Galloping Gertie", the American historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Schroeder" title="Paul W. Schroeder">Paul W. Schroeder</a> blamed Britain for the First World War. Schroeder argued that the war was a "Galloping Gertie", that it got out of control, sucking the Great Powers into an unwanted war.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schroeder thought that the key to the European situation was what he claimed was Britain's "encirclement" policy directed at Austria-Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schroeder argued that British foreign policy was anti-German and even more anti-Austrian.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schroeder argued that because Britain never took Austria-Hungary seriously, it was British policy to always force concessions on the Dual Monarchy with no regard to the balance of power in Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schroeder claimed that 1914 was a "preventive war" forced on Germany to maintain Austria as a power, which was faced with a crippling British "encirclement policy" aimed at the break-up of that state.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The American historian Samuel R. Williamson, Jr., lays most of the blame with the Austro-Hungarian elites rather than the Germans in his 1990 book, <i>Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War</i>. Another recent work is <a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Niall Ferguson</a>'s <i>The Pity of War</i> which rejects the Fischer thesis, laying most of the blame on diplomatic bumbling from the British. Ferguson echoes Hillgruber in asserting that the German government attempted to use the crisis to split the Entente.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-2000">Post-2000</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Post-2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Annika_Mombauer" title="Annika Mombauer">Annika Mombauer</a> in 2015, a new consensus among scholars had emerged by the 1980s, mainly as a result of Fischer’s intervention: </p> <dl><dd>Few historians agreed wholly with his [Fischer's] thesis of a premeditated war to achieve aggressive foreign policy aims, but it was generally accepted that Germany’s share of responsibility was larger than that of the other great powers.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Regarding historians inside Germany, she adds that by the 1990s, "There was 'a far-reaching consensus about the special responsibility of the German Reich' in the writings of leading historians, though they differed in how they weighted Germany’s role.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe's_Last_Summer"><span id="Europe.27s_Last_Summer"></span><i>Europe's Last Summer</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Europe's Last Summer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American historian <a href="/wiki/David_Fromkin" title="David Fromkin">David Fromkin</a> has blamed elements in the military leadership of Germany and Austria-Hungary in his 2004 book <i>Europe's Last Summer</i>. Fromkin's thesis is that there were two war plans; a first formulated by Austria-Hungary and the German Chancellor to start a war with Serbia to reinvigorate a fading Austro-Hungarian Empire; the second secret plan was that of the German military leadership to provoke a wider war with France and Russia. He thought that the German military leadership, in the midst of a European arms race, believed that they would be unable to further expand the German army without extending the officer corps beyond the traditional <a href="/wiki/Prussian_aristocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian aristocracy">Prussian aristocracy</a>. Rather than allowing that to happen, they manipulated Austria-Hungary into starting a war with Serbia in the expectation that Russia would intervene, giving Germany a pretext to launch what was in essence a preventive war. Part of his thesis is that the German military leadership were convinced that by 1916–18, Germany would be too weak to win a war with France, England and Russia. Notably, Fromkin suggests that part of the war plan was the exclusion of <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> from knowledge of the events, because the Kaiser was regarded by the German General Staff as inclined to resolve crises short of war. Fromkin also argues that in all countries but particularly Germany and Austria documents were widely destroyed or forged to distort the origins of the war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sleepwalkers:_How_Europe_Went_to_War_in_1914"><i>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers_(Clark_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sleepwalkers (Clark book)">The Sleepwalkers (Clark book)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Christopher Clark</a>'s 2013 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers:_How_Europe_Went_to_War_in_1914" title="The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914">The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</a></i> refocused the origins back to the Balkans and sought to redistribute agency back to the diplomats. He also sought to distribute responsibility to all of the Great Powers, paying particular attention to Germany, Austria-Hungary, France and Russia. Clark argues that the Germanic powers sought a localised war to punish Serbia, but in doing so knowingly risked war with Russia. For its part Russia accepted the risk of war by upsetting the balance of power in the Balkans in 1912-13, encouraging anti-Austrian irredentism, and deciding to support Serbia come what may. France did not restrain Russia, positively encouraging her to face down the Germans and support Serbia in 1914. Clark concludes that while all the continental powers risked a general war, none sought that war.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clark notes the speed of the crisis rendered diplomacy futile: "German efforts at mediation – which suggested that Austria should “Halt in Belgrade” and use the occupation of the Serbian capital to ensure its terms were met – were rendered futile by the speed of Russian preparations, which threatened to force the Germans to take counter–measures before mediation could begin to take effect".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, while Clark does not seek to place responsibility on Russia alone, he places more emphasis on Russian actions than many previous historians, stating: "Yes, the Germans declared war on Russia before the Russians declared war on Germany. But by the time that happened, the Russian government had been moving troops and equipment to the German front for a week. The Russians were the first great power to issue an order of general mobilisation and the first Russo-German clash took place on German, not on Russian soil, following the Russian invasion of East Prussia. That doesn’t mean that the Russians should be ‘blamed’ for the outbreak of war. Rather it alerts us to the complexity of the events that brought war about and the limitations of any thesis that focuses on the culpability of one actor."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The book challenges the imputation, hitherto widely accepted by mainstream scholars since <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">1919</a>, of a peculiar "war guilt" on the part of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, instead mapping carefully the complex mechanism of events and misjudgements that led to war.<sup id="cite_ref-DieWeltCC25Oct2013_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DieWeltCC25Oct2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FAZCC09Sep2013_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAZCC09Sep2013-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was, in 1914, nothing inevitable about it. Risks inherent in the strategies pursued by the various governments involved had been taken before without catastrophic consequences: this now enabled leaders to follow similar approaches while not adequately evaluating or recognising those risks. Among international experts many saw this presentation by Clark of his research and insights as groundbreaking.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reception_in_Germany">Reception in Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reception in Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Germany itself, where the book received much critical attention, reactions were not all positive. <a href="/wiki/Volker_Ullrich" title="Volker Ullrich">Volker Ullrich</a> contended that Clark's analysis largely disregards the pressure for war coming from Germany's <a href="/wiki/German_General_Staff" title="German General Staff">powerful military establishment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Hans-Ulrich Wehler</a>, Clark had diligently researched the sources covering the war's causes from the German side only to "eliminate [many of them] with bewildering one-sidedness" (<i>"verblüffend einseitig eliminiert"</i>). Warming to his theme, Wehler attributed the sales success of the book in Germany to a "deep seated need [on the part of German readers], no longer so constrained by the taboos characteristic of the later twentieth century, to free themselves from the burdensome allegations of national war guilt".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vernon_Bogdanor">Vernon Bogdanor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vernon Bogdanor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vernon Bogdanor has criticized Clark for downplaying the German and Austrian refusal of offers of mediation. Over the course of the July Crisis Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary, offered a four-power conference of the Great Powers to help mediate the conflict. Clark dismisses Grey’s attempts as “half-hearted” and founded on a “partisan indifference to the power-political realities of Austro-Hungary’s situation”.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russia accepted the four power conference proposal but Austria-Hungary rejected the proposal. Germany also rejected the proposal on the grounds that they believed only Germany would support their ally. Bogdanor believes the Germans were mistaken. “That’s mistaken. I think Grey would have taken the Austrian side and would have said concessions were needed by Serbia to keep the peace…and it would have been very difficult for the Russians not to go along with that."<sup id="cite_ref-bogdanor_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bogdanor-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russians further proposed that the conflict be subject to the court of arbitration in the Hague but this too was rejected by Germany and Austria-Hungary. To Bogdanor the rejection of the options of the four power conference and the court of arbitration weigh heavily against Germany and Austria-Hungary when looking for the causes of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-bogdanor_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bogdanor-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Russian_Origins_of_the_First_World_War_and_July_1914"><i>The Russian Origins of the First World War</i> and <i>July 1914</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Russian Origins of the First World War and July 1914"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sean_McMeekin" title="Sean McMeekin">Sean McMeekin</a>, in his books <i>The Russian Origins of the First World War</i> and <i>July 1914</i>, also places more emphasis on Russian actions and in particular Russian Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Sazonov" title="Sergey Sazonov">Sergey Sazonov</a>’s bellicosity and duplicity. McMeekin argues that Russia’s Balkan policy, and crucial support for Serbia, only make sense in the context of her wider strategic desire to control or capture Constantinople and the Straits from the ailing Ottomans. This is similar to the Russians' plan during the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 in which they had also wanted to gain the Straits around the area. Furthermore, Russia's foreign policy of gaining these Straits were the same during the Balkan Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further argues that during the July crisis Sazonov must have known that Russia’s partial mobilisation would inevitably lead to general mobilisation and likely war. Moreover he highlights that Sazonov deliberately lied to the British about Russia’s mobilisation, rendering the British unable to restrain their entente partner through ignorance of the advanced state of their military preparations.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_War_That_Ended_Peace"><i>The War That Ended Peace</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The War That Ended Peace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan" title="Margaret MacMillan">Margaret MacMillan</a>, in her book, <i>The War That Ended Peace</i>, puts the blame for the start of the First World War on the decision making of a small group of people, primarily blaming the leaders of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-MacMillan_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacMillan-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russians did not want to back down after mobilizing, due to the fast mobilization that they had ordered. German leaders were also to blame due to their issuance of the Blank Cheque to Austria-Hungary during the <a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a>, which pushed Austria-Hungary into going to war with Serbia. Finally, the leaders of Austria-Hungary were culpable for planning to invade Serbia after the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MacMillan_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacMillan-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Origins_of_the_First_World_War"><i>The Origins of the First World War</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Origins of the First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian William Mulligan, in his book, <i>The Origins of the First World War</i>, believes that the First World War had started due to the fall of international relations which had then led to various empires around the continent feeling threatened which had then led to poor decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European powers had weakened due to crisis such as the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> and the two crises in Morocco which happened as a result of the weakening power in the Ottoman Empire in the area. Mulligan believes that an arms race was facilitated due to the powers becoming weaker and this arms race led to even more fear and instability. All this fear and instability then exploded in the <a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a> and poor decisions were made because European powers believed that the power of their countries were at stake.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_views">Other views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alexander Anievas also puts the blame of the start of the First World War on the decline of relations between the European powers in the article "1914 In World Historical Perspective: The Uneven and Combined Origins of World War I". Anievas believes that countries in Europe such as Germany and Russia had tried to bolster their empires due to the collapse of influence from the Ottoman Empire in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> region of Europe. In this attempt, major crises such as those in Bosnia and Morocco broke out<sup id="cite_ref-:1_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These crises brought further problems on the European stage. For example, due to the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a>, Russia had now suffered a major embarrassment on the world stage; their relationship with Austria-Hungary worsened and Russia ordered an early mobilization during the <a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, with the nation of Germany, the crisis that had occurred in Morocco led to worse relations between Germany and other major European countries. The Germans felt threatened; they began to build up their weapons which in turn led to Russia re-arming too.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political scientists Richard N. Lebow and Thomas Lindemann argue that the First World War broke out partly due to ideas about <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a>. Austrians felt that Serbians, as Slavs, were inferior to Austrian-Hungarians and Germans, so it was legitimate to make Serbian territory part of Germanic empires.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">American entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">British entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">French entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">German entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italian entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japanese entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russian entry into World War I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">History of the Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference, 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes of World War II</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">German title of the White Book was: "<i>Das Deutsche Weißbuch über den Ausbruch des deutsch-russisch-französischen Krieges</i>" ("The German White Book about the Outbreak of the German-Russian-French War".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The German White Book was translated and published in English the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-Germany-1914_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Germany-1914-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: "<i>Les origines et les responsabilités de la grande guerre</i>"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EncPIL-2014-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EncPIL-2014_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EncPIL-2014_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hartwig, Matthias (12 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vjS0BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">"Colour books"</a>. In Bernhardt, Rudolf; Bindschedler, Rudolf; Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Public International Law</i>. Vol. 9 International Relations and Legal Cooperation in General Diplomacy and Consular Relations. Amsterdam: North-Holland. pp. 26–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-5699-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-5699-3"><bdi>978-1-4832-5699-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/769268852">769268852</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colour+books&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Public+International+Law&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=26-&rft.pub=North-Holland&rft.date=2014-05-12&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769268852&rft.isbn=978-1-4832-5699-3&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvjS0BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Germany-1914-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Germany-1914_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGermany._Auswärtiges_Amt1914" class="citation book cs1">Germany. Auswärtiges Amt (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NJIBAAAAMAAJ"><i>The German White-book: Authorized Translation. Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the War, with Supplements</i></a>. Liebheit & Thiesen. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1158533">1158533</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+White-book%3A+Authorized+Translation.+Documents+Relating+to+the+Outbreak+of+the+War%2C+with+Supplements&rft.pub=Liebheit+%26+Thiesen&rft.date=1914&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1158533&rft.au=Germany.+Ausw%C3%A4rtiges+Amt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNJIBAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmitt-1937-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitt-1937_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt1937" class="citation journal cs1">Schmitt, Bernadotte E. (1 April 1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181125112233/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/france/1937-04-01/france-and-outbreak-world-war">"France and the Outbreak of the World War"</a>. <i>Foreign Affairs</i>. <b>26</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/france/1937-04-01/france-and-outbreak-world-war">the original</a> on 25 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=France+and+the+Outbreak+of+the+World+War&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1937-04-01&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=Bernadotte+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2Ffrance%2F1937-04-01%2Ffrance-and-outbreak-world-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nag-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nag_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nag_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/document_packs/p_whitebook.htm">"German White Book"</a>. United Kingdom: The National Archives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=German+White+Book&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pub=The+National+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fpathways%2Ffirstworldwar%2Fdocument_packs%2Fp_whitebook.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.18-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.18_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempe2008">Kempe 2008</a>, vol.7, p.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.19-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKempe2008vol.7,_p.19_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKempe2008">Kempe 2008</a>, vol.7, p.19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beer-1915-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beer-1915_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeer1915" class="citation book cs1">Beer, Max (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6OMnAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA16"><i>"Das Regenbogen-Buch": deutsches Wiessbuch, österreichisch-ungarisches Rotbuch, englisches Blaubuch, französisches Gelbbuch, russisches Orangebuch, serbisches Blaubuch und belgisches Graubuch, die europäischen Kriegsverhandlungen</i></a> [<i>The Rainbow Book: German White Book, Austrian-Hungarian Red Book, English Blue Book, French Yellow Book, Russian Orange Book, Serbian Blue Book and Belgian Grey Book, the European war negotiations</i>]. Bern: F. Wyss. pp. 16–. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9427935">9427935</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Das+Regenbogen-Buch%22%3A+deutsches+Wiessbuch%2C+%C3%B6sterreichisch-ungarisches+Rotbuch%2C+englisches+Blaubuch%2C+franz%C3%B6sisches+Gelbbuch%2C+russisches+Orangebuch%2C+serbisches+Blaubuch+und+belgisches+Graubuch%2C+die+europ%C3%A4ischen+Kriegsverhandlungen&rft.place=Bern&rft.pages=16-&rft.pub=F.+Wyss&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9427935&rft.aulast=Beer&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6OMnAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kempe-2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kempe-2008_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kempe-2008_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kempe, Hans (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sA5z0wgoI1gC&pg=RA1-PA238"><i>Der Vertrag von Versailles und seine Folgen: Propagandakrieg gegen Deutschland</i></a> [<i>The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences: Propaganda War against Germany</i>]. Vaterländische Schriften (in German). Vol. 7: Kriegschuldlüge 1919 [War Guilt Lies 1919]. Mannheim: Reinhard Welz Vermittler Verlag e.K. pp. 238–257 (vol. 7 p.19). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-938622-16-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-938622-16-2"><bdi>978-3-938622-16-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Vertrag+von+Versailles+und+seine+Folgen%3A+Propagandakrieg+gegen+Deutschland&rft.place=Mannheim&rft.series=Vaterl%C3%A4ndische+Schriften&rft.pages=238-257+%28vol.+7+p.19%29&rft.pub=Reinhard+Welz+Vermittler+Verlag+e.K.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-938622-16-2&rft.aulast=Kempe&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsA5z0wgoI1gC%26pg%3DRA1-PA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeace_Conference_Commission_on_the_Responsibility_of_the_Authors_of_the_War_and_on_Enforcement_of_Penalties.1919" class="citation book cs1">Peace Conference Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties. (29 March 1919). "1 Responsabilité des auteurs de la Guerre". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJFbMgAACAAJ"><i>Rapport présenté à la conférence des préliminaires de paix par la commission des responsabilités des auteurs de la guerre et sanctions: Nur für den Dienstgebrauch. Conférence des préliminaires de paix. 29 Mars 1919. [Umschlagtitel]</i></a> (conference report). Paris: s.t. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/632565106">632565106</a>. <q><i>La guerre a été préméditée par les Puissances centrales, ainsi que par leurs Alliés, la Turquie et la Bulgarie et elle est le résultat d'actes délibérément commis dans l'intention de la rendre inévitable.<br />L'Allemagne, d'accord avec l'Autriche-Hongrie, a travaillé délibérément a faire écarter les nombreuses propositions conciliatrices des Puissances de l'Entente et a réduire a néant leurs éfforts pour éviter la guerre.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1+Responsabilit%C3%A9+des+auteurs+de+la+Guerre&rft.btitle=Rapport+pr%C3%A9sent%C3%A9+%C3%A0+la+conf%C3%A9rence+des+pr%C3%A9liminaires+de+paix+par+la+commission+des+responsabilit%C3%A9s+des+auteurs+de+la+guerre+et+sanctions%3A+Nur+f%C3%BCr+den+Dienstgebrauch.+Conf%C3%A9rence+des+pr%C3%A9liminaires+de+paix.+29+Mars+1919.+%5BUmschlagtitel%5D&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=s.t.&rft.date=1919-03-29&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F632565106&rft.au=Peace+Conference+Commission+on+the+Responsibility+of+the+Authors+of+the+War+and+on+Enforcement+of+Penalties.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJFbMgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span> as quoted in Kempe (2008)<a href="#CITEREFKempe2008">Kempe 2008</a>, vol.7, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-France-1936-10-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-France-1936-10_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance._Ministère_des_affaires_étrangèresCommission_de_publication_des_documents_relatifs_aux_origines_de_la_guerre_de_19141936" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">France. Ministère des affaires étrangères; Commission de publication des documents relatifs aux origines de la guerre de 1914 (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVPBNAEACAAJ"><i>Documents diplomatiques français (1871-1914)</i></a> [<i>French diplomatic documents</i>]. Vol. Tome X, (17 mars-23 juillet 1914) (3e Série, (1911-1914) ed.). Imprimerie Nationale. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/769058353">769058353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+diplomatiques+fran%C3%A7ais+%281871-1914%29&rft.edition=3e+S%C3%A9rie%2C+%281911-1914%29&rft.pub=Imprimerie+Nationale&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769058353&rft.au=France.+Minist%C3%A8re+des+affaires+%C3%A9trang%C3%A8res&rft.au=Commission+de+publication+des+documents+relatifs+aux+origines+de+la+guerre+de+1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVPBNAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-France-1936-11-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-France-1936-11_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance._Ministère_des_affaires_étrangèresCommission_de_publication_des_documents_relatifs_aux_origines_de_la_guerre_de_19141936" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">France. Ministère des affaires étrangères; Commission de publication des documents relatifs aux origines de la guerre de 1914 (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2B3kNAEACAAJ"><i>Documents diplomatiques français (1871-1914)</i></a> [<i>French diplomatic documents</i>]. Vol. Tome XI, (24 juillet-4 août 1914) (3e Série, (1911-1914) ed.). Imprimerie Nationale. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/769062659">769062659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+diplomatiques+fran%C3%A7ais+%281871-1914%29&rft.edition=3e+S%C3%A9rie%2C+%281911-1914%29&rft.pub=Imprimerie+Nationale&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F769062659&rft.au=France.+Minist%C3%A8re+des+affaires+%C3%A9trang%C3%A8res&rft.au=Commission+de+publication+des+documents+relatifs+aux+origines+de+la+guerre+de+1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2B3kNAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_Wilhelm_Gatzke1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_W._Gatzke" title="Hans W. Gatzke">Hans Wilhelm Gatzke</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OmRg2V71BCAC&pg=PA52"><i>Germany and the United States, a "special Relationship?"</i></a>. Harvard UP. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674353268" title="Special:BookSources/9780674353268"><bdi>9780674353268</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+United+States%2C+a+%22special+Relationship%3F%22&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Harvard+UP&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780674353268&rft.au=Hans+Wilhelm+Gatzke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOmRg2V71BCAC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_R._Kelley2006" class="citation book cs1">Donald R. Kelley (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DU0ZGFL9dWYC&pg=PA90"><i>Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. Yale UP. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300135092" title="Special:BookSources/0300135092"><bdi>0300135092</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+History%3A+Historical+Inquiry+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Yale+UP&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0300135092&rft.au=Donald+R.+Kelley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDU0ZGFL9dWYC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patriotic-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patriotic_17-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herwig, Holger. "Patriotic Self-Censorship in Germany", pages 153–159, from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i>, edited by Holger Herwig. <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lipstadt, Deborah <i>Denying the Holocaust</i> London: Plume Books, 1994, pages 32–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lipstadt, Deborah, <i>Denying the Holocaust</i>. London: Plume Books, 1994, page 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ywZoAAAAMAAJ&dq=kaiser+%22My+Memoirs"><i>My Memoirs: 1878–1918</i></a> by William II, London: Cassell & Co. (1922) pp. 245-252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig (1989) page 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenin (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dispatch of Phipps to Hoare December 16, 1935 Doc 275 C 8362/71775/18 <i>British Documents on Foreign Affairs</i>, Volume 46, Germany 1935, University Publications of America, 1994 page 394</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rohl, John. "1914: Delusion or Design", pages 125–130, from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i>, edited by Holger Herwig. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997 pages 127–129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rohl, John "1914: Delusion or Design" pages 125–130 from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i> edited by Holger Herwig, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997 page 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Röhl, John "1914: Delusion or Design" pages 125-130 from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i> edited by Holger Herwig, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997 page 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Röhl, John, "1914: Delusion or Design", pages 125-130, from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i>, edited by Holger Herwig. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997 page 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, Fritz, "Twenty-Five Years Later: Looking Back on the "Fischer Controversy" and Its Consequences", pages 207-223, from <i>Central European History</i>, Volume 21, Issue 3, 1988, page 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mombauer, Annika, <i>Helmuth von Moltke and the origins of the First World War</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moses, John, "The Fischer Controversy", pages 328-329, from <i>Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People and Culture, 1871–1990</i>, Volume 1, edited by Dieter Buse and Juergen Doerr. Garland Publishing: New York, 1998 page 328</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carsten, F.L. Review of Griff <i>nach der Weltmacht</i>, pages 751–753 from <i>English Historical Review</i>, Volume 78, Issue #309, October 1963 of pages 752–753</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ritter1997-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritter1997_32-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ritter, Gerhard, "Anti-Fischer", pages 135–142 from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i> edited by Holger Herwig. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, Fritz "Twenty-Five Years Later: Looking Back on the "Fischer Controversy" and Its Consequences" pages 207-223 from <i>Central European History</i>, Volume 21, Issue 3, 1988 page 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Trachtenberg1991" class="citation book cs1">Marc Trachtenberg (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0glIMk1wLf0C&pg=PA50"><i>History and Strategy</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691023433" title="Special:BookSources/0691023433"><bdi>0691023433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Strategy&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0691023433&rft.au=Marc+Trachtenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0glIMk1wLf0C%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillgruber, Andreas <i>Germany and the Two World Wars</i>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981 pages 26 & 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herwig, Holger H. "Andreas Hillgruber: Historian of 'Großmachtpolitik' 1871-1945," pages 186-198 from <i>Central European History</i> Volume, XV 1982 page 190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayer1997-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayer1997_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayer, Arno, "The Primacy of Domestic Politics", pages 42-47 from <i>The Outbreak of World I</i>, edited by Holger Herwig. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schroder-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schroder_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroder_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroder_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroder_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroder_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schroder, Paul, "World War I As a Galloping Gertie", pages 142-151 from <i>The Outbreak of World War I</i> edited by Holger Herwig. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annika Mombauer, "Guilt or Responsibility? The Hundred-Year Debate on the Origins of World War I." <i>Central European History</i> 48#4 (2015): 541-564, quote on p. 543.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mombauer, p. 544</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xlOjIk6xbU"><i>2015 Laura Shannon Prize with Sir Christopher Clark</i></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/1xlOjIk6xbU">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2015+Laura+Shannon+Prize+with+Sir+Christopher+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D1xlOjIk6xbU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Clark's ″The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013), p. 525.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2013" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Christopher (29 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n16/christopher-clark/the-first-calamity">"Christopher Clark · the First Calamity: July, 1914 · LRB 29 August 2013"</a>. <i>London Review of Books</i>. <b>35</b> (16).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=London+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Christopher+Clark+%C2%B7+the+First+Calamity%3A+July%2C+1914+%C2%B7+LRB+29+August+2013&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=16&rft.date=2013-08-29&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrb.co.uk%2Fv35%2Fn16%2Fchristopher-clark%2Fthe-first-calamity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DieWeltCC25Oct2013-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DieWeltCC25Oct2013_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthold_Seewald2013" class="citation news cs1">Berthold Seewald (25 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/themen/ausbruch-des-ersten-weltkriegs-die-selbstzerstoerung-europas-12563968.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Besessen von der deutschen Kriegsschuld" Mit seinen neuen Thesen zum Kriegsausbruch 1914 provoziert der britische Historiker Christopher Clark heftige Debatten. In Potsdam stellte er sich seinen Kritikern – mit erstaunlichem Ergebnis.<i>Die Selbstzerstörung Europas.</i>"</a>. <i>Faz.net</i>. <a href="/wiki/Die_Welt" title="Die Welt">Die Welt</a> (online)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faz.net&rft.atitle=%22Besessen+von+der+deutschen+Kriegsschuld%22+Mit+seinen+neuen+Thesen+zum+Kriegsausbruch+1914+provoziert+der+britische+Historiker+Christopher+Clark+heftige+Debatten.+In+Potsdam+stellte+er+sich+seinen+Kritikern+%E2%80%93+mit+erstaunlichem+Ergebnis.Die+Selbstzerst%C3%B6rung+Europas.&rft.date=2013-10-25&rft.au=Berthold+Seewald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Faktuell%2Ffeuilleton%2Fbuecher%2Fthemen%2Fausbruch-des-ersten-weltkriegs-die-selbstzerstoerung-europas-12563968.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAZCC09Sep2013-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FAZCC09Sep2013_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreas_Kilb2013" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Kilb" class="extiw" title="de:Andreas Kilb">Andreas Kilb</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (9 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/themen/ausbruch-des-ersten-weltkriegs-die-selbstzerstoerung-europas-12563968.html">"Die Selbstzerstörung Europas: Christopher Clark hat eine Studie über den Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkriegs verfasst: "Die Schlafwandler" ist das Buch des Jahres. Und eine Mahnung an alle, die militärische Konflikte regional begrenzen wollen"</a>. <i>Faz.net</i>. <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a> (online)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faz.net&rft.atitle=Die+Selbstzerst%C3%B6rung+Europas%3A+Christopher+Clark+hat+eine+Studie+%C3%BCber+den+Ausbruch+des+Ersten+Weltkriegs+verfasst%3A+%22Die+Schlafwandler%22+ist+das+Buch+des+Jahres.+Und+eine+Mahnung+an+alle%2C+die+milit%C3%A4rische+Konflikte+regional+begrenzen+wollen.&rft.date=2013-09-09&rft.au=Andreas+Kilb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Faktuell%2Ffeuilleton%2Fbuecher%2Fthemen%2Fausbruch-des-ersten-weltkriegs-die-selbstzerstoerung-europas-12563968.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Evans, Rezension zu: Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers. How Europe Went to War in 1914, London 2013. In: The New York Review of Books, 6 February 2014, pages 14–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker Ullrich: Zündschnur am Pulverfass. In <a href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a>, 17 September 2013; <a href="/wiki/Volker_Ullrich" title="Volker Ullrich">Volker Ullrich</a>: <i>Nun schlittern sie wieder.</i> In <i>Die Zeit</i>, 16 January 2014. see also: Annika Mombauer: <i>Julikrise und Kriegsschuld – Thesen und Stand der Forschung.</i> In: <i>Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte</i> 64 (2014), H. 16/17, pages 10–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"ein tiefsitzendes, jetzt wieder hochgespültes apologetisches Bedürfnis", der Deutschen "sich von den Schuldvorwürfen zu befreien".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Hans-Ulrich Wehler</a>: <i>Beginn einer neuen Epoche der Weltkriegsgeschichte.</i> In: <i>Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</i>, 6. Mai 2014, Nr. 104, page 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Clark's ″The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013), p. 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bogdanor-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bogdanor_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bogdanor_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ubDPVLZ2iE">Britain and 1914 - Professor Vernon Bogdanor 46mins</a>, YouTube.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMeekin,_Sean,_1974-_author.2013" class="citation book cs1">McMeekin, Sean, 1974- author. (2013). <i>The Russian origins of the First World War</i>. 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"Austria-Hungary and the First World War." <i>Histoire Politique</i> 1 (2014): 16-49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-politique-2014-1-page-16.htm">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Leonard V. (November 2007). 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"The origins of the First World War". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Affairs_(journal)" title="International Affairs (journal)">International Affairs</a></i>. <b>90</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">429–</span>439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-2346.12118">10.1111/1468-2346.12118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+the+First+World+War&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E429-%3C%2Fspan%3E439&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-2346.12118&rft.aulast=Strachan&rft.aufirst=Hew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Trachtenberg, Marc. "The Meaning of Mobilization in 1914." <i>International Security</i> 15#3 (1991) pp. 120–150 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2538909">online</a></li> <li>Vasquez, John A. "The First World War and International Relations Theory: A Review of Books on the 100th Anniversary." <i>International Studies Review</i> 16#4 (2014): 623-644.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaite2014" class="citation speech cs1">Waite, Robert G. (6 November 2014). <i>"The dangerous and menacing war psychology of hatred and myth". American Historians and the Outbreak of the First World War 1914. An Overview</i> (Speech). Berliner Gesellschaft für Faschismus- und Weltkriegsforschung.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+dangerous+and+menacing+war+psychology+of+hatred+and+myth%22.+American+Historians+and+the+Outbreak+of+the+First+World+War+1914.+An+Overview&rft.pub=Berliner+Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+Faschismus-+und+Weltkriegsforschung&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.aulast=Waite&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+causes+of+World+War+I" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Williamson Jr, Samuel R., and Ernest R. May. "An identity of opinion: Historians and July 1914." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 79.2 (2007): 335-387. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/519317">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barker. Ernest, et al. eds. <i>Why we are at war; Great Britain's case</i> (3rd ed. 1914), the official British case against Germany. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924027830839">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)77" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles73" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_I23293" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_I" title="Template talk:World War I"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_I" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War I"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_I23293" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_I" title="Outline of World War I">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_I" title="List of military engagements of World War I">Military engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_geography_in_World_War_I" title="Role of geography in World War I">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">Home fronts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_memorials" title="World War I memorials">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_popular_culture" title="World War I in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_World_War_I" title="Propaganda in World War I">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_puppet_states" title="List of World War I puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Theatres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="European theatre of World War I">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_theatre" title="Balkans theatre">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_front_(World_War_I)" title="Italian front (World War I)">Italian Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Hejaz & Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="African theatre of World War I">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Kamerun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togoland_campaign" title="Togoland campaign">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_in_North_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military operations in North Africa during World War I">North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I">Asian and Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">German Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_occupation_of_German_New_Guinea" title="Allied occupation of German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U-boat_campaign" title="U-boat campaign">U-boat campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">North Atlantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_in_the_Mediterranean_during_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I">Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Principal<br />participants</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_I" title="Allied leaders of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro#World_War_I" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)#Russia_at_war,_1914–1916" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia#Serbia_in_World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Central_Powers_of_World_War_I" title="Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi Campaign">Senussi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">South African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Darfur" title="Sultanate of Darfur">Darfur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I" title="Timeline of World War I">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Pre-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> (1870–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> (1880–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">Tangier Crisis</a> (1905–06)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> (1908–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a> (1913)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Origins</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Historiography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Sarajevo assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_riots_in_Sarajevo" title="Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo">Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Frontiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia_(1914)" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)">Russian invasion of East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Grand Couronné">Battle of Grand Couronné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">First Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">Siege of Przemyśl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">Black Sea raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_truce" title="Christmas truce">Christmas truce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1915</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Battle of Łomża">Battle of Łomża</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Artois" title="Second Battle of Artois">Second Battle of Artois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Battles of the Isonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russia)" title="Great Retreat (Russia)">Great Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Narew_Offensive" title="Bug–Narew Offensive">Bug-Narew Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk" title="Siege of Novogeorgievsk">Siege of Novogeorgievsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">Vistula–Bug offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Champagne" title="Second Battle of Champagne">Second Battle of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1916</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">Erzurum offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Naroch_offensive" title="Lake Naroch offensive">Lake Naroch offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Battle of Asiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baranovichi_offensive" title="Baranovichi offensive">Baranovichi offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Battle of Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania" title="Battle of Transylvania">Battle of Transylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Capture of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram" title="Zimmermann telegram">Zimmermann telegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1917)" title="Battle of Arras (1917)">Second battle of Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_the_Aisne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second battle of the Aisne">Second battle of the Aisne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerensky_offensive" title="Kerensky offensive">Kerensky offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărăști">Battle of Mărăști</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărășești">Battle of Mărășești</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Oituz" title="Third Battle of Oituz">Third Battle of Oituz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Palestine_offensive" title="Southern Palestine offensive">Southern Palestine offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Malmaison" title="Battle of La Malmaison">Battle of La Malmaison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_(1917)" title="Battle of Cambrai (1917)">Battle of Cambrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani" title="Armistice of Focșani">Armistice of Focșani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers" title="Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers">Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1918</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goychay" title="Battle of Goychay">Battle of Goychay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Piave_River" title="Second Battle of the Piave River">Second Battle of the Piave River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="Second Battle of the Marne">Second Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Transjordan_attack" title="Third Transjordan attack">Third Transjordan attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse–Argonne offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Salonica" title="Armistice of Salonica">Armistice of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Romanian_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Second Romanian campaign of World War I">Second Romanian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice with Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria_Navale" title="Bollettino della Vittoria Navale">Naval Victory Bulletin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Belgrade" title="Armistice of Belgrade">Armistice of Belgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Co-belligerent conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a> (1900–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_rebellion" title="Muscat rebellion">Muscat rebellion</a> (1913–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War</a> (1914–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovambo_Uprising" title="Ovambo Uprising">Ovambo Uprising</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_campaign" title="Senussi campaign">Senussi campaign</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Central Asian Revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur_(1916)" title="Invasion of Darfur (1916)">Invasion of Darfur</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> (1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Post-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani War</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland Uprising</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">Egyptian Revolution</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="United Kingdom during the Turkish War of Independence">Anglo-Turkish War</a> (1918–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Franco-Turkish War</a> (1918–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War</a> (1919–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a> (1920)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_War" title="Vlora War">Vlora War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Franco-Syrian War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Soviet–Georgian War</a> (1921)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="Strategic bombing during World War I">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_cryptography" title="World War I cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_World_War_I" title="Horses in World War I">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_in_World_War_I" title="Logistics in World War I">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_in_World_War_I" title="Convoys in World War I">Convoy system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Conscription493" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Conscription</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_conscription_in_Australia" title="World War I conscription in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seferberlik" title="Seferberlik">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_to_the_British_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Recruitment to the British Army during World War I">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">Casualties</a> /<br />Civilian impact</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>British casualties <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_parliamentarians_who_died_in_the_First_World_War" title="List of British parliamentarians who died in the First World War">Parliamentarians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_casualties_of_World_War_I" title="Ottoman casualties of World War I">Ottoman casualties</a></li> <li>Sports <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_rugby_union_players_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of international rugby union players killed in World War I">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympians_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of Olympians killed in World War I">Olympians</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Disease</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_typhus_and_relapsing_fever_epidemic_in_Serbia" title="1915 typhus and relapsing fever epidemic in Serbia">1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Serbia" title="Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia">Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia</a></li> <li>Bulgarian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Albania" title="Bulgarian occupation of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Serbia_(World_War_I)" title="Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li>German occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">Northeast France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ober_Ost" title="Ober Ost">Ober Ost</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a></li> <li>Russian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Eastern_Galicia_(1914%E2%80%931915)" title="Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)">Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Western_Armenia" title="Occupation of Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Prisoners of war in World War I">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Germans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Italian prisoners of war in World War I">Italians</a></li> <li>POW locations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_Canada" title="List of World War I prisoner-of-war camps in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_prisoners_of_war_in_Germany" title="World War I prisoners of war in Germany">Germany</a> / <a href="/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_I" title="German prisoner-of-war camps in World War I">camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camps_in_Switzerland_during_World_War_I" title="Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I">Switzerland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_World_War_I" title="Refugees of World War I">Refugees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgian refugees <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_the_Netherlands_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in the Netherlands during the First World War">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_Britain_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in Britain during the First World War">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Allied blockades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_from_East_Prussia_during_World_War_I" title="Deportations from East Prussia during World War I">Deportations from East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Kalisz" title="Destruction of Kalisz">Destruction of Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Dinant" title="Sack of Dinant">Sack of Dinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_World_War_I" title="Massacres of Albanians in World War I">Massacres of Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian_internment" title="Ukrainian Canadian internment">Ukrainian Canadian internment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomacy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Entry into the war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_I" title="Declarations of war during World War I">Declarations of war</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/To_my_peoples" title="To my peoples">Austria-Hungary against Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1914)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war upon Germany (1914)">UK against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I#Declaration_of_jihad" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottomans against the Triple Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">USA against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">USA against Austria-Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Agreement" title="Constantinople Agreement">Constantinople Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_treaty_(1915)" title="Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915)">Bulgaria–Germany treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Darin" title="Treaty of Darin">Treaty of Darin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sazonov%E2%80%93Pal%C3%A9ologue_Agreement" title="Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement">Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Economy_Pact" title="Paris Economy Pact">Paris Economy Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1916)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1916)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_of_Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne" title="Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne">Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Peace treaties</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modus_vivendi_of_Acroma" title="Modus vivendi of Acroma">Modus vivendi of Acroma</a></li> <li>Treaties of Brest-Litovsk <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Russia–Central Powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Ukraine%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)">Ukraine–Central Powers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arrest_of_a_Suspect_in_Sarajevo" title="Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo">Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">Mutilated victory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/They_shall_not_pass" title="They shall not pass">They shall not pass</a></i></li></ul> 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