CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Obstetrics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"cb95c32e-fcca-46bf-8ebb-96180181c6b6","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Obstetrics","wgTitle":"Obstetrics","wgCurRevisionId":1242607826,"wgRevisionId":1242607826,"wgArticleId":52965,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia articles that are too technical from September 2010","All articles that are too technical","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023","Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from May 2018","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Obstetrics","Human pregnancy", "Women's health"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Obstetrics","wgRelevantArticleId":52965,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false, "wgWikibaseItemId":"Q5284418","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready", "jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Obstetrics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Obstetrics rootpage-Obstetrics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Obstetrics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Obstetrics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Obstetrics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Obstetrics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Main_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Main areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prenatal_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prenatal_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Prenatal care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prenatal_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>First trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Second trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_trimester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_trimester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Third trimester</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_trimester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fetal_assessments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fetal_assessments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Fetal assessments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fetal_assessments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diseases_in_pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases_in_pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Diseases in pregnancy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diseases_in_pregnancy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diseases in pregnancy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diseases_in_pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Induction_and_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induction_and_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Induction and labour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induction_and_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complications_and_emergencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complications_and_emergencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Complications and emergencies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complications_and_emergencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpartum_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpartum_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Postpartum period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpartum_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Veterinary_obstetrics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Veterinary_obstetrics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Veterinary obstetrics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Veterinary_obstetrics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Before the 18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_obstetrics_in_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_obstetrics_in_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>History of obstetrics in America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_obstetrics_in_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_role_of_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_role_of_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Historical role of gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_role_of_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Obstetrics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="طب التوليد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طب التوليد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="ধাত্রীবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধাত্রীবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetr%C3%ADcia" title="Obstetrícia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Obstetrícia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porodnictv%C3%AD" title="Porodnictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Porodnictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_(%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE)" title="Μαιευτική (Ιατρική) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαιευτική (Ιατρική)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetricia_(especialidad_m%C3%A9dica)" title="Obstetricia (especialidad médica) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Obstetricia (especialidad médica)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetriko" title="Obstetriko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Obstetriko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrizia" title="Obstetrizia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Obstetrizia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پزشکی زایمان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پزشکی زایمان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obst%C3%A9trique" title="Obstétrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Obstétrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetricia" title="Obstetricia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Obstetricia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%EA%B3%BC" title="산과 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="산과" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रसूति विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रसूति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetriko" title="Obstetriko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Obstetriko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetri" title="Obstetri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Obstetri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetricia" title="Obstetricia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Obstetricia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A6%C3%B0ingarfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Fæðingarfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fæðingarfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostetricia" title="Ostetricia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ostetricia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מיילדות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיילדות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಹೆರಿಗೆ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹೆರಿಗೆ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%92%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഒബ്സ്റ്റട്രിക്ക്‌സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഒബ്സ്റ്റട്രിക്ക്‌സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्रसूतिशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रसूतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetri" title="Obstetri – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Obstetri" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="अब्स्टेट्रिक्स – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अब्स्टेट्रिक्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A3%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="産科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="産科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrikk" title="Obstetrikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Obstetrikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akusherlik" title="Akusherlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Akusherlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪ੍ਰਸੂਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਸੂਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%90%DA%96%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%DA%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="زېږوني درملګري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="زېږوني درملګري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetr%C3%ADcia" title="Obstetrícia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Obstetrícia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetric%C4%83" title="Obstetrică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Obstetrică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_(%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Акушерство (Медицина) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Акушерство (Медицина)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රසවවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රසවවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Obstetrics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetriikka" title="Obstetriikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Obstetriikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மகப்பேறியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகப்பேறியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82_(%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81)" title="ప్రసూతిశాస్త్రం (వైద్యశాస్త్రము) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రసూతిశాస్త్రం (వైద్యశాస్త్రము)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="สูติศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สูติศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrik" title="Obstetrik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Obstetrik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_(%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Акушерство (Медицина) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Акушерство (Медицина)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BA%A3n_khoa" title="Sản khoa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sản khoa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostetrike" title="Ostetrike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ostetrike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A2%E7%A7%91" title="產科 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="產科" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A2%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="產科學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="產科學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5284418#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Obstetrics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Obstetrics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Obstetrics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&oldid=1242607826" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Obstetrics&id=1242607826&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FObstetrics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FObstetrics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Obstetrics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Obstetrics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5284418" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the medical specialty. For the health profession, see <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Obstetrician</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Physician</li> <li>Surgeon</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">Specialty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (M.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Osteopathic medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic medicine</a> (D.O.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (M.B.B.S.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (MBChB)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">clinics</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/obstetrics" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:obstetrics">obstetrics</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Obstetrics</b> is the field of study concentrated on <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">postpartum period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">medical specialty</a>, obstetrics is combined with <a href="/wiki/Gynecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynecology">gynecology</a> under the discipline known as <a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrics and gynecology">obstetrics and gynecology</a> (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_areas">Main areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Main areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prenatal_care">Prenatal care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prenatal care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prenatal care is important in screening for various <a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">complications of pregnancy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes routine office visits with physical exams and routine lab tests along with telehealth care for people with low-risk pregnancies:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="3D ultrasound of 3-inch (76 mm) fetus (about 14 weeks gestational age)"><img alt="3D ultrasound of 3-inch (76 mm) fetus (about 14 weeks gestational age)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg/94px-Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg/141px-Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg/188px-Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="294" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a> of 3-inch (76 mm) fetus (about 14 weeks <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fetus at 17 weeks"><img alt="Fetus at 17 weeks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg/88px-Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg/133px-Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg/177px-Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="331" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fetus at 17 weeks</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fetus at 20 weeks"><img alt="Fetus at 20 weeks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg/90px-3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg/135px-3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg/180px-3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="223" data-file-height="297" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fetus at 20 weeks</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_trimester">First trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Routine tests in the first <a href="/wiki/Trimester_(pregnancy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimester (pregnancy)">trimester</a> of pregnancy generally include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complete_blood_count" title="Complete blood count">Complete blood count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_type" title="Blood type">Blood type</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rh_blood_group_system" title="Rh blood group system">Rh-negative</a> antenatal patients should receive <a href="/wiki/Rho(D)_immune_globulin" title="Rho(D) immune globulin">RhoGAM</a> at 28 weeks to prevent <a href="/wiki/Rh_disease" title="Rh disease">Rh disease</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coombs_test#Indirect_Coombs_test" title="Coombs test">Indirect Coombs test</a> (AGT) to assess risk of <a href="/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn" title="Hemolytic disease of the newborn">hemolytic disease of the newborn</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_plasma_reagin" title="Rapid plasma reagin">Rapid plasma reagin</a> test to screen for <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubella" title="Rubella">Rubella</a> antibody screen<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBsAg" title="HBsAg">HBsAg</a> test to screen for <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Testing for <a href="/wiki/Chlamydia" title="Chlamydia">chlamydia</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Gonorrhea" title="Gonorrhea">gonorrhea</a> when indicated<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24548498_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24548498-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">Mantoux test</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">Urinalysis</a> and culture<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> screen</li></ul> <p>Genetic screening for <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> (trisomy 21) and <a href="/wiki/Edwards_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards syndrome">Edwards syndrome</a> (trisomy 18), the national standard in the United States, is rapidly evolving away from the AFP-<a href="/wiki/Quad_screen" class="mw-redirect" title="Quad screen">quad screen</a>, done typically in the second trimester at 16–18 weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newer integrated screen (formerly called F.A.S.T.E.R for First And Second Trimester Early Results) can be done at 10 plus weeks to 13 plus weeks with an <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> of the fetal neck (thicker nuchal skin correlates with higher risk of Down syndrome being present) and two chemicals (analytes), <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_plasma_protein_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A">pregnancy-associated plasma protein A</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">human chorionic gonadotropin</a> (pregnancy hormone level itself<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). It gives an accurate risk profile very early. A second blood screen at 15 to 20 weeks refines the risk more accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cost is higher than an "AFP-quad" screen due to the ultrasound and second blood test, but it is quoted to have a 93% pick up rate as opposed to 88% for the standard AFP/QS. This is an evolving standard of care in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson2017_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson2017-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang2019_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2019-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Down_Syndrome_karyotype.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Down_Syndrome_karyotype.png/220px-Down_Syndrome_karyotype.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Down_Syndrome_karyotype.png 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Down syndrome karyotype</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_trimester">Second trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>MSAFP/quad. screen (four simultaneous blood tests) (maternal serum <a href="/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein" title="Alpha-fetoprotein">AFP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inhibin_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhibin A">inhibin A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estriol" title="Estriol">estriol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">βHCG</a>) – elevations, low numbers or odd patterns correlate with neural tube defect risk and increased risks of trisomy 18 or trisomy 21<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Ultrasound either abdominal or transvaginal to assess cervix, placenta, fluid and baby<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Amniocentesis is the national standard for women over 35 or who reach 35 by mid pregnancy or who are at increased risk by family history or prior birth history.<sup id="cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_trimester">Third trimester</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Third trimester"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematocrit" title="Hematocrit">Hematocrit</a> (if low, the mother receives iron supplements)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_B_Streptococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Group B Streptococcus">Group B Streptococcus</a> screen. If positive, the woman receives IV penicillin or ampicillin while in labor—or, if she is allergic to penicillin, an alternative therapy, such as IV clindamycin or IV vancomycin.<sup id="cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Glucose loading test (GLT) – screens for <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>; if > 140 mg/dL, a <a href="/wiki/Glucose_tolerance_test" title="Glucose tolerance test">glucose tolerance test</a> (GTT) is administered; a fasting glucose > 105 mg/dL suggests gestational diabetes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Most doctors do a sugar load in a drink form of 50 grams of glucose in cola, lime or orange and draw blood an hour later (plus or minus 5 minutes). The standard modified criteria have been lowered to 135 since the late 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg/220px-Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg/330px-Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg/440px-Ultrasonography_of_abdominal_pregnancy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>The result of an ultrasonography: a black and white image that shows a clear view of the interior abdomen</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fetal_assessments">Fetal assessments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fetal assessments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scan12weeks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Scan12weeks.jpg/220px-Scan12weeks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Scan12weeks.jpg/330px-Scan12weeks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Scan12weeks.jpg/440px-Scan12weeks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>A dating <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">scan</a> at 12 weeks</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a> is routinely used for dating the gestational age of a pregnancy from the size of the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>, determine the number of fetuses and <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placentae</a>, evaluate for an <a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">ectopic pregnancy</a> and first trimester bleeding, the most accurate dating being in first trimester before the growth of the foetus has been significantly influenced by other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultrasound is also used for detecting congenital anomalies (or other foetal anomalies) and determining the <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_profile" title="Biophysical profile">biophysical profiles</a> (BPP), which are generally easier to detect in the second trimester when the foetal structures are larger and more developed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computerized_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computerized tomography">computerized tomography</a> (CT) are not used, especially in the first trimester, due to the <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, which has <a href="/wiki/Teratogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratogen">teratogenic</a> effects on the foetus.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No effects of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) on the foetus have been demonstrated,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this technique is too expensive for routine observation. Instead, <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">obstetric ultrasonography</a> is the imaging method of choice in the first trimester and throughout the pregnancy, because it emits no <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>, is portable, and allows for realtime imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The safety of frequent ultrasound scanning has not been confirmed. Despite this, increasing numbers of women are choosing to have additional scans for no medical purpose, such as gender scans, 3D and 4D scans.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A normal gestation would reveal a <a href="/wiki/Gestational_sac" title="Gestational sac">gestational sac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yolk_sac" title="Yolk sac">yolk sac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fetal_pole" title="Fetal pole">fetal pole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a> can be assessed by evaluating the mean gestational sac diameter (MGD) before week 6, and the crown-rump length after week 6. <a href="/wiki/Multiple_gestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple gestation">Multiple gestation</a> is evaluated by the number of <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placentae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">amniotic sacs</a> present.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other tools used for assessment include: </p> <ul><li>Fetal screening is used to help assess the viability of the fetus, as well as congenital abnormalities.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Fetal <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> can be used for the screening of genetic diseases. This can be obtained via <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a> (CVS<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li>Foetal <a href="/wiki/Haematocrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Haematocrit">haematocrit</a> for the assessment of foetal <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>, Rh isoimmunization, or <a href="/wiki/Hydrops_fetalis" title="Hydrops fetalis">hydrops</a> can be determined by <a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_umbilical_blood_sampling" class="mw-redirect" title="Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling">percutaneous umbilical blood sampling</a> (PUBS), which is done by placing a needle through the abdomen into the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> and taking a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Umbilical_cord" title="Umbilical cord">umbilical cord</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Fetal lung maturity is associated with how much <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> the fetus is producing. Reduced production of surfactant indicates decreased lung maturity and is a high risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">infant respiratory distress syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically a <a href="/wiki/Lecithin" title="Lecithin">lecithin</a>:<a href="/wiki/Sphingomyelin" title="Sphingomyelin">sphingomyelin</a> ratio greater than 1.5 is associated with increased lung maturity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a> (NST) for fetal heart rate<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_challenge_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxytocin challenge test">Oxytocin challenge test</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diseases_in_pregnancy">Diseases in pregnancy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diseases in pregnancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease in pregnancy</a></div> <p>A pregnant woman may have a <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">pre-existing disease</a>, that may become worse or become a risk to the pregnancy, or to <a href="/wiki/Postnatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Postnatal">postnatal development</a> of the offspring<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy">Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy</a> deals with the interactions of <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> (not restricted to <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>) and pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Risks for the child include miscarriage, growth restriction, growth acceleration, foetal obesity (macrosomia), polyhydramnios and birth defects.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus and pregnancy</a> confers an increased rate of foetal death <i>in utero</i> and <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Spontaneous abortion">spontaneous abortion</a> (miscarriage), as well as of <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_lupus" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonatal lupus">neonatal lupus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease in pregnancy</a> can, if uncorrected, cause adverse effects on foetal and maternal well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy, and may cause a previously unnoticed thyroid disorder to worsen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability in pregnancy</a> is the propensity of pregnant women to develop <a href="/wiki/Thrombosis" title="Thrombosis">thrombosis</a> (blood <sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> clots). Pregnancy itself is a factor of <a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercoagulability">hypercoagulability</a> (pregnancy-induced hypercoagulability), as a physiologically adaptive mechanism to prevent <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Postpartum hemorrhage"><i>post partum</i> bleeding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gresele_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gresele-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when combined with an additional underlying hypercoagulable states, the risk of thrombosis or embolism may become substantial.<sup id="cite_ref-gresele_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gresele-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperemesis_gravidarum" title="Hyperemesis gravidarum">Hyperemesis</a> gravidarum in pregnancy occurs due to extreme, persistent nausea and vomiting during pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If untreated, can lead to <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a>, weight loss, and electrolyte imbalances. Most women develop nausea and vomiting during the first trimester.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause of hyperemesis gravidarum is not known. However, it is believed to be caused by a rapidly rising blood level of a hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which is released by the placenta.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">Preeclampsia</a> is a condition that causes high blood pressure during pregnancy. If left untreated, it can be life-threatening.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In pregnant women, preeclampsia may occur after 20 weeks of pregnancy, often in women who have no history of high blood pressure. Symptoms of preeclampsia may include severe headache, vision changes and pain under the ribs.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some women, symptoms may not occur, until they go for a routine prenatal visit.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Induction_and_labour">Induction and labour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Induction and labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Induction_(birth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Induction (birth)">Induction (birth)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pain_management_during_childbirth" title="Pain management during childbirth">Pain management during childbirth</a></div> <p>Induction is a method of artificially or prematurely stimulating labour in a woman.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons to induce can include <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a>, foetal distress, placental malfunction, intrauterine growth retardation and failure to progress through labour increasing the risk of infection and foetal distresses.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Induction may be achieved via several methods: </p> <ul><li>Disturbance of cervical membranes<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessary" title="Pessary">Pessary</a> of <i>Prostin</i> cream, <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandin</a> E<sub>2</sub><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Intravaginal or oral administration of <a href="/wiki/Misoprostol" title="Misoprostol">misoprostol</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cervical insertion of a 30-mL <a href="/wiki/Foley_catheter" title="Foley catheter">Foley catheter</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Rupturing the amniotic membranes<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Intravenous infusion of synthetic <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> (Pitocin or Syntocinon)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>During labour, the obstetrician carries out the following tasks: </p> <ul><li>Monitor the progress of labour, by reviewing the nursing chart, performing vaginal examination, and assessing the trace produced by a foetal monitoring device (the <a href="/wiki/Cardiotocograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiotocograph">cardiotocograph</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Provide pain relief, either by <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Opiates">opiates</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Local_anaesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Local anaesthesia">epidural anaesthesia</a> done by <a href="/wiki/Anaesthesiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesiology">anaesthestists</a>, an anaesthesiologist, or a <a href="/wiki/Nurse_anaesthetist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse anaesthetist">nurse anaesthetist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2405898_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2405898-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean section</a>, if there is an associated risk with vaginal delivery, as such foetal or maternal compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complications_and_emergencies">Complications and emergencies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Complications and emergencies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a></div> <p>The main emergencies include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic pregnancy</a> is when an embryo implants in the uterine (fallopian) tube or (rarely) on the ovary or inside the peritoneal cavity. This may cause massive internal bleeding.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">Pre-eclampsia</a> is a disease defined by a combination of signs and symptoms that are related to maternal hypertension.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause is unknown, and markers are being sought to predict its development from the earliest stages of pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some unknown factors cause vascular damage in the <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a>, causing <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If severe, it progresses to <a href="/wiki/Eclampsia" title="Eclampsia">eclampsia</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a> occur, which can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preeclamptic patients with the <a href="/wiki/HELLP_syndrome" title="HELLP syndrome">HELLP syndrome</a> show liver failure and <a href="/wiki/Disseminated_intravascular_coagulation" title="Disseminated intravascular coagulation">disseminated intravascular coagulation</a> (DIC).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only treatment is to deliver the foetus. Women may still develop pre-eclampsia following delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_abruption" title="Placental abruption">Placental abruption</a> is where the placenta detaches from the uterus and the woman and foetus can bleed to death if not managed appropriately.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foetal_distress" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetal distress">Foetal distress</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Foetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetus">foetus</a> is getting compromised in the uterine environment.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_dystocia" title="Shoulder dystocia">Shoulder dystocia</a> where one of the foetus' shoulders becomes stuck during vaginal birth. There are many risk factors, including macrosmic (large) foetus, but many are also unexplained.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_rupture" title="Uterine rupture">Uterine rupture</a> can occur during obstructed labour and endanger foetal and maternal life.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolapsed_cord" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolapsed cord">Prolapsed cord</a> can only happen after the membranes have ruptured.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The umbilical cord delivers before the presenting part of the foetus. If the foetus is not delivered within minutes, or the pressure taken off the cord, the foetus dies.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical hemorrhage">Obstetrical hemorrhage</a> may be due to a number of factors such as <a href="/wiki/Placenta_previa" class="mw-redirect" title="Placenta previa">placenta previa</a>, uterine rupture or tears, <a href="/wiki/Uterine_atony" title="Uterine atony">uterine atony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">retained placenta</a> or placental fragments, or bleeding disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerperal_sepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerperal sepsis">Puerperal sepsis</a> is an ascending infection of the genital tract.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may happen during or after labour. Signs to look out for include signs of infection (pyrexia or hypothermia, raised heart rate and respiratory rate, reduced blood pressure), and abdominal pain, offensive <a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">lochia</a> (blood loss) increased lochia, clots, diarrhea and vomiting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postpartum_period">Postpartum period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Postpartum period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum period</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> makes a distinction between the use of <i>postpartum care</i> when it concerns the care of the mother after giving birth, and <i>postnatal care</i> when the care of the newborn is concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum care</a> is provided to the mother following childbirth. </p><p>A woman in the Western world who gives birth in a <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a> may leave the hospital as soon as she is medically stable, and chooses to leave, which can be as early as a few hours later, but usually averages a stay of one or two days; the average postnatal stay following delivery by <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">caesarean section</a> is three to four days.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26857705_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26857705-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time the mother is monitored for <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">bleeding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel">bowel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">bladder</a> function, and baby care. The <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infant</a>'s health is also monitored.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Veterinary_obstetrics">Veterinary obstetrics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Veterinary obstetrics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_obstetrics" title="Veterinary obstetrics">Veterinary obstetrics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/220px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/330px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/440px-Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Two <a href="/wiki/Midwives" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwives">midwives</a> assisting a woman in labour on a <a href="/wiki/Birthing_chair" title="Birthing chair">birthing chair</a> in the 16th century, from a work by <a href="/wiki/Eucharius_R%C3%B6%C3%9Flin" class="mw-redirect" title="Eucharius Rößlin">Eucharius Rößlin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women in Europe was <a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">confined exclusively to women</a>, and rigorously excluded men.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expectant mother would invite close female friends and family members to her home to keep her company during <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelis_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelis-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 96–98">: 96–98 </span></sup> Skilled <a href="/wiki/Midwives" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwives">midwives</a> managed all aspects of the labour and delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of physicians and surgeons was very rare and only occurred if a serious complication had taken place and the midwife had exhausted all measures at her disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calling a surgeon was very much a last resort and having men deliver women in this era was seen as offending female modesty.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumPorter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1050–1051">: 1050–1051 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_the_18th_century">Before the 18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Before the 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_medicine_in_antiquity" title="Women's medicine in antiquity">Women's medicine in antiquity</a></div> <p>Prior to the 18th and 19th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwifery</a> was well established but obstetrics was not recognized as a specific medical specialty. However, the subject matter and interest in the <a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">female reproductive system</a> and sexual practice can be traced back to Ancient Egypt<sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup> and Ancient Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-Hufnagel_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hufnagel-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soranus_of_Ephesus" title="Soranus of Ephesus">Soranus of Ephesus</a> sometimes is called the most important figure in <a href="/wiki/Surgery_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgery in Ancient Rome">ancient</a> gynecology.<sup id="cite_ref-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Living in the late first century AD and early second century, he studied anatomy and had opinions and techniques on abortion, contraception – most notably <i><a href="/wiki/Coitus_interruptus" title="Coitus interruptus">coitus interruptus </a></i>– and birth complications. After his death, techniques and works of gynecology declined; very little of his works were recorded and survived to the late 18th century when gynecology and obstetrics reemerged as a medical specialism.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 123">: 123 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 18th century marked the beginning of many advances in European <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwifery</a>, based on better knowledge of the physiology of pregnancy and labour.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the century, medical professionals began to understand the anatomy of the uterus and the physiological changes that take place during labour.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Forceps_in_childbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Forceps in childbirth">forceps in childbirth</a> also took place at this time. All these medical advances in obstetrics were a lever for the introduction of men into an arena previously managed and run by women – midwifery.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumPorter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1051–1052">: 1051–1052 </span></sup> </p><p>The addition of the male-midwife (or man-midwife) is historically a significant change to the profession of obstetrics.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th century medical men began to train in area of childbirth and believed with their advanced knowledge in anatomy that childbirth could be improved.<sup id="cite_ref-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France these male-midwives were referred to as <i>accoucheurs</i>, a title later used all over Europe. The founding of <a href="/wiki/Lying-in" title="Lying-in">lying-in</a> hospitals also contributed to the medicalization and male-dominance of obstetrics.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early <a href="/wiki/Maternity_hospital" title="Maternity hospital">maternity hospitals</a> were establishments where women would come to have their babies delivered, as opposed to the practice since time immemorial of the midwife attending the home of the woman in labour.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This institution provided male-midwives with endless patients to practice their techniques on and was a way for these men to demonstrate their knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Martell2000_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martell2000-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many midwives of the time bitterly opposed the involvement of men in childbirth. Some male practitioners also opposed the involvement of medical men like themselves in midwifery and even went as far as to say that male-midwives only undertook midwifery solely for perverse erotic satisfaction. The accoucheurs argued that their involvement in midwifery was to improve the process of childbirth. These men also believed that obstetrics would forge ahead and continue to strengthen.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumPorter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1050–1051">: 1050–1051 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>18th-century physicians expected that obstetrics would continue to grow, but the opposite happened. Obstetrics entered a stage of stagnation in the 19th century, which lasted until about the 1880s.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelis_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelis-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 96–98">: 96–98 </span></sup> The central explanation for the lack of advancement during this time was the rejection of obstetrics by the medical community.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 19th century marked an era of medical reform in Europe and increased regulation over the profession. Major European institutions such as The College of Physicians and Surgeons<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2018)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> considered delivering babies ungentlemanly work and refused to have anything to do with childbirth as a whole. Even when <a href="/wiki/Medical_Act_1858" title="Medical Act 1858">Medical Act 1858</a> was introduced, which stated that medical students could qualify as doctors, <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwifery</a> was entirely ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This made it nearly impossible to pursue an education in midwifery and also have the recognition of being a doctor or surgeon. Obstetrics was pushed to the side.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumPorter-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1053–1055">: 1053–1055 </span></sup> </p><p>By the late 19th century, the foundation of modern-day obstetrics and midwifery began developing. Delivery of babies by doctors became popular and readily accepted, but midwives continued to play a role in childbirth.<sup id="cite_ref-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Midwifery also changed during this era due to increased regulation and the eventual need for midwives to become certified.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many European countries by the late 19th century were monitoring the training of midwives and issued certification based on competency. Midwives were no longer uneducated in the formal sense.<sup id="cite_ref-Drife_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drife-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As midwifery began to develop, so did the profession of obstetrics near the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Childbirth was no longer unjustifiably despised by the medical community as it once had been at the beginning of the century. But obstetrics was underdeveloped compared to other medical specialities. Many male physicians would deliver children but very few would have referred to themselves as obstetricians. The end of the 19th century did mark a significant accomplishment in the profession with the advancements in <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">asepsis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesia">anaesthesia</a>, which paved the way for the mainstream introduction and later success of the <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean section</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Drife_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drife-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the 1880s mortality rates in lying-hospitals would reach unacceptably high levels and became an area of public concern. Much of these maternal deaths were due to <a href="/wiki/Puerperal_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerperal fever">puerperal fever</a>, then known as childbed fever. In the 1800s <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a> noticed that women giving birth at home had a much lower incidence of childbed fever than those giving birth by physicians in lying-hospitals. His investigation discovered that washing hands with an <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> solution before a delivery reduced childbed fever fatalities by 90%.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So it was concluded that it was physicians who had been spreading disease from one labouring mother to the next. Despite the publication of this information, doctors still would not wash. It was not until the 20th century when advancements in aseptic technique and the understanding of disease would play a significant role in the decrease of <a href="/wiki/Maternal_mortality" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal mortality">maternal mortality</a> rates among many populations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_obstetrics_in_America">History of obstetrics in America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History of obstetrics in America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of obstetrics as a practice for accredited doctors happened at the turn of the 18th century and thus was very differently developed in Europe and in the Americas due to the independence of many countries in the Americas from European powers. "Unlike in Europe and the British Isles, where <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwifery</a> laws were national, in America, midwifery laws were local and varied widely".<sup id="cite_ref-Roth_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roth-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gynaecology and Obstetrics gained attention in the American medical field at the end of the nineteenth century through the development of such procedures as the ovariotomy.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These procedures then were shared with European surgeons who replicated the surgeries. This was a period when antiseptic, aseptic or anaesthetic measures were just being introduced to surgical and observational procedures and without these procedures surgeries were dangerous and often fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-Lavers_2018_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lavers_2018-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following are two surgeons noted for their contributions to these fields include <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_McDowell" title="Ephraim McDowell">Ephraim McDowell</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Marion_Sims" title="J. Marion Sims">J. Marion Sims</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ephraim McDowell developed a surgical practice in 1795 and performed the first ovariotomy in 1809 on a 47-year-old widow who then lived on for 31 more years.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had attempted to share this with John Bell whom he had practiced under who had retired to Italy. Bell was said to have died without seeing the document but it was published by an associate in <i>Extractions of Diseased Ovaria</i> in 1825.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-century the surgery was both successfully and unsuccessfully being performed. Pennsylvanian surgeons the Attlee brothers made this procedure very routine for a total of 465 surgeries – John Attlee performed 64 successfully of 78 while his brother William reported 387 – between the years of 1843 and 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the middle of the nineteenth century this procedure was successfully performed in Europe by English surgeons Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Spencer_Wells" title="Thomas Spencer Wells">Spencer Wells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Clay_(surgeon)" title="Charles Clay (surgeon)">Charles Clay</a> as well as French surgeons <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Koeberl%C3%A9" title="Eugène Koeberlé">Eugène Koeberlé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_N%C3%A9laton" title="Auguste Nélaton">Auguste Nélaton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jules-%C3%89mile_P%C3%A9an" title="Jules-Émile Péan">Jules Péan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 125">: 125 </span></sup> </p><p>J. Marion Sims was the surgeon responsible for being the first treating a <a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">vesicovaginal fistula</a><sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 125">: 125 </span></sup> – a condition linked to many caused mainly by prolonged pressing of the foetus against the pelvis or other causes such as rape, hysterectomy, or other operations – and also having been doctor to many European royals and the 20th President of the United States James A. Garfield after he had been shot. Sims does have a controversial medical past. Under the beliefs at the time about pain and the prejudice towards African people, he had practiced his surgical skills and developed skills on slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-IWF_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IWF-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These women were the first patients of modern gynecology. One of the women he operated on was named <a href="/wiki/Anarcha_Westcott" title="Anarcha Westcott">Anarcha Westcott</a>, the woman he first treated for a fistula.<sup id="cite_ref-IWF_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IWF-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_role_of_gender">Historical role of gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Historical role of gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women and men inhabited very different roles in natal care up to the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of a physician was exclusively held by men who went to university, an overly male institution, who would theorize anatomy and the process of reproduction based on theological teaching and philosophy. Many beliefs about the female body and menstruation in the 17th and 18th centuries were inaccurate; clearly resulting from the lack of literature about the practice.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 123–125">: 123–125 </span></sup> Many of the theories of what caused menstruation prevailed from Hippocratic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hufnagel_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hufnagel-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Midwives" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwives">Midwives</a>, meaning "with woman", were those who assisted in the birth and care of both born and unborn children, a position historically held mainly by women.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the birth of a child, men were rarely present. Women from the neighbourhood or family would join in on the process of birth and assist in many different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The one position where men would help with the birth of a child would be in the sitting position, usually when performed on the side of a bed to support the mother.<sup id="cite_ref-Gelis_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gelis-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> </p><p>Men were introduced into the field of obstetrics in the nineteenth century and resulted in a change of the focus of this profession.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gynaecology directly resulted as a new and separate field of study from obstetrics and focused on the curing of illness and indispositions of female sexual organs.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This had some relevance to some conditions as menopause, uterine and cervical problems, and childbirth could leave the mother in need of extensive surgery to repair tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, there was also a large blame of the uterus for completely unrelated conditions. This led to many social consequences of the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 123–125">: 123–125 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Obstetrics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Obstetrics" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jacques_Garrigues" title="Henry Jacques Garrigues">Henry Jacques Garrigues</a>, who introduced antiseptic obstetrics to North America</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal-fetal_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal-fetal medicine">Maternal-fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Obstetrical nursing</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22303-obstetrician">"What Is an Obstetrician? What They Do & When To See One"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=What+Is+an+Obstetrician%3F+What+They+Do+%26+When+To+See+One&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Farticles%2F22303-obstetrician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/obstetrics-and-gynecology-specialty-description">"Obstetrics and Gynecology Specialty Description"</a>. American Medical Association<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Obstetrics+and+Gynecology+Specialty+Description&rft.pub=American+Medical+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ama-assn.org%2Fspecialty%2Fobstetrics-and-gynecology-specialty-description&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTulchinskyVaravikova2014" class="citation book cs1">Tulchinsky TH, Varavikova EA (March 2014). "Chapter 6 - Family Health". <i>The new public health</i> (Third ed.). Academic Press. pp. 311–379. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-415766-8.00006-9">10.1016/B978-0-12-415766-8.00006-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415766-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415766-8"><bdi>978-0-12-415766-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6+-+Family+Health&rft.btitle=The+new+public+health.&rft.pages=311-379&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-415766-8.00006-9&rft.isbn=978-0-12-415766-8&rft.aulast=Tulchinsky&rft.aufirst=TH&rft.au=Varavikova%2C+EA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantorJungbauerTottenTilden2022" class="citation journal cs1">Cantor, Amy G.; Jungbauer, Rebecca M.; Totten, Annette M.; Tilden, Ellen L.; Holmes, Rebecca; Ahmed, Azrah; Wagner, Jesse; Hermesch, Amy C.; McDonagh, Marian S. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M22-0737">"Telehealth Strategies for the Delivery of Maternal Health Care: A Rapid Review"</a>. <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>175</b> (9): 1285–1297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2FM22-0737">10.7326/M22-0737</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-4819">0003-4819</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35878405">35878405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251067668">251067668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Telehealth+Strategies+for+the+Delivery+of+Maternal+Health+Care%3A+A+Rapid+Review&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1285-1297&rft.date=2022&rft.issn=0003-4819&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251067668%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35878405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2FM22-0737&rft.aulast=Cantor&rft.aufirst=Amy+G.&rft.au=Jungbauer%2C+Rebecca+M.&rft.au=Totten%2C+Annette+M.&rft.au=Tilden%2C+Ellen+L.&rft.au=Holmes%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Ahmed%2C+Azrah&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Jesse&rft.au=Hermesch%2C+Amy+C.&rft.au=McDonagh%2C+Marian+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acpjournals.org%2Fdoi%2F10.7326%2FM22-0737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRath" class="citation web cs1">Rath L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/antibody-coombs-test">"What Is a Coombs Test?"</a>. <i>WebMD</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Coombs+Test%3F&rft.aulast=Rath&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fa-to-z-guides%2Fantibody-coombs-test&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRath" class="citation web cs1">Rath L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/rubella-test-antibodies">"Why Do I Need a Rubella Test?"</a>. <i>WebMD</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=Why+Do+I+Need+a+Rubella+Test%3F&rft.aulast=Rath&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fa-to-z-guides%2Frubella-test-antibodies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMekaroonkamolHashemi2021" class="citation journal cs1">Mekaroonkamol P, Hashemi N (2021-04-03). Staros EB (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2109144-overview">"Hepatitis B Test: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Hepatitis+B+Test%3A+Reference+Range%2C+Interpretation%2C+Collection+and+Panels&rft.date=2021-04-03&rft.aulast=Mekaroonkamol&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Hashemi%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F2109144-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid24548498-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid24548498_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFontenotGeorge2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fontenot HB, George ER (2014). "Sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy". <i>Nursing for Women's Health</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 67–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1751-486X.12095">10.1111/1751-486X.12095</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24548498">24548498</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nursing+for+Women%27s+Health&rft.atitle=Sexually+transmitted+infections+in+pregnancy&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-72&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1751-486X.12095&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24548498&rft.aulast=Fontenot&rft.aufirst=HB&rft.au=George%2C+ER&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCDCTB2020" class="citation web cs1">CDCTB (2020-12-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/testing/skintesting.htm">"Tuberculosis (TB) Fact Sheets- Tuberculin Skin Testing"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=Tuberculosis+%28TB%29+Fact+Sheets-+Tuberculin+Skin+Testing&rft.date=2020-12-16&rft.au=CDCTB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Ftb%2Fpublications%2Ffactsheets%2Ftesting%2Fskintesting.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/17893-urinalysis">"Urinalysis: What It Is, Purpose, Types & Results"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Urinalysis%3A+What+It+Is%2C+Purpose%2C+Types+%26+Results&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiagnostics%2F17893-urinalysis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeredaCarey2012" class="citation journal cs1">Cereda A, Carey JC (October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3520824">"The trisomy 18 syndrome"</a>. <i>Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases</i>. <b>7</b>: 81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1750-1172-7-81">10.1186/1750-1172-7-81</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3520824">3520824</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23088440">23088440</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orphanet+Journal+of+Rare+Diseases&rft.atitle=The+trisomy+18+syndrome&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3520824%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23088440&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1750-1172-7-81&rft.aulast=Cereda&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Carey%2C+JC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3520824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaloneCanickBallNyberg2005" class="citation journal cs1">Malone FD, Canick JA, Ball RH, Nyberg DA, Comstock CH, Bukowski R, et al. (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa043693">"First-trimester or second-trimester screening, or both, for Down's syndrome"</a>. <i>The New England Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>353</b> (19): 2001–2011. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa043693">10.1056/NEJMoa043693</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16282175">16282175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=First-trimester+or+second-trimester+screening%2C+or+both%2C+for+Down%27s+syndrome&rft.volume=353&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=2001-2011&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMoa043693&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16282175&rft.aulast=Malone&rft.aufirst=FD&rft.au=Canick%2C+JA&rft.au=Ball%2C+RH&rft.au=Nyberg%2C+DA&rft.au=Comstock%2C+CH&rft.au=Bukowski%2C+R&rft.au=Berkowitz%2C+RL&rft.au=Gross%2C+SJ&rft.au=Dugoff%2C+L&rft.au=Craigo%2C+SD&rft.au=Timor-Tritsch%2C+IE&rft.au=Carr%2C+SR&rft.au=Wolfe%2C+HM&rft.au=Dukes%2C+K&rft.au=Bianchi%2C+DW&rft.au=Rudnicka%2C+AR&rft.au=Hackshaw%2C+AK&rft.au=Lambert-Messerlian%2C+G&rft.au=Wald%2C+NJ&rft.au=D%27Alton%2C+ME&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJMoa043693&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/common-tests-during-pregnancy">"Common Tests During Pregnancy"</a>. <i>www.hopkinsmedicine.org</i>. 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hopkinsmedicine.org&rft.atitle=Common+Tests+During+Pregnancy&rft.date=2021-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hopkinsmedicine.org%2Fhealth%2Fwellness-and-prevention%2Fcommon-tests-during-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carlson2017-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carlson2017_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonVora2017" class="citation journal cs1">Carlson LM, Vora NL (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5548328">"Prenatal Diagnosis: Screening and Diagnostic Tools"</a>. <i>Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 245–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ogc.2017.02.004">10.1016/j.ogc.2017.02.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5548328">5548328</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28499534">28499534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obstetrics+and+Gynecology+Clinics+of+North+America&rft.atitle=Prenatal+Diagnosis%3A+Screening+and+Diagnostic+Tools&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-256&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5548328%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28499534&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ogc.2017.02.004&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=LM&rft.au=Vora%2C+NL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5548328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang2019-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang2019_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangMohammadiSouAnis2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang W, Mohammadi T, Sou J, Anis AH (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6892535">"Cost-effectiveness of prenatal screening and diagnostic strategies for Down syndrome: A microsimulation modeling analysis"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>14</b> (12): e0225281. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PLoSO..1425281Z">2019PLoSO..1425281Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0225281">10.1371/journal.pone.0225281</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6892535">6892535</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31800591">31800591</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Cost-effectiveness+of+prenatal+screening+and+diagnostic+strategies+for+Down+syndrome%3A+A+microsimulation+modeling+analysis&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e0225281&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6892535%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31800591&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0225281&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PLoSO..1425281Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Mohammadi%2C+T&rft.au=Sou%2C+J&rft.au=Anis%2C+AH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6892535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Common_Tests_During_Pregnancy_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/common-tests-during-pregnancy">"Common Tests During Pregnancy"</a>. <i>www.hopkinsmedicine.org</i>. 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hopkinsmedicine.org&rft.atitle=Common+Tests+During+Pregnancy&rft.date=2021-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hopkinsmedicine.org%2Fhealth%2Fwellness-and-prevention%2Fcommon-tests-during-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/quad-screen/about/pac-20394911">"Quad screen - Mayo Clinic"</a>. <i>www.mayoclinic.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Quad+screen+-+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fquad-screen%2Fabout%2Fpac-20394911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/9704-pregnancy-prenatal-ultrasonography">"Prenatal Ultrasound Procedure Information"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Prenatal+Ultrasound+Procedure+Information&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiagnostics%2F9704-pregnancy-prenatal-ultrasonography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUscher" class="citation web cs1">Uscher J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/anemia-in-pregnancy">"Anemia in Pregnancy: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment"</a>. <i>WebMD</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=Anemia+in+Pregnancy%3A+Causes%2C+Symptoms%2C+and+Treatment&rft.aulast=Uscher&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fbaby%2Fguide%2Fanemia-in-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/glucose-challenge-test/about/pac-20394277">"Glucose challenge test - Mayo Clinic"</a>. <i>www.mayoclinic.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Glucose+challenge+test+-+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fglucose-challenge-test%2Fabout%2Fpac-20394277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/glucose-tolerance-test/about/pac-20394296">"Glucose tolerance test - Mayo Clinic"</a>. <i>www.mayoclinic.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Glucose+tolerance+test+-+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fglucose-tolerance-test%2Fabout%2Fpac-20394296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanskyRamus2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kansky C, Ramus RM (2021-06-15). Pierce Jr JG (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2047305-overview">"Basic Obstetric Ultrasound: Background, Indications, Contraindications"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Basic+Obstetric+Ultrasound%3A+Background%2C+Indications%2C+Contraindications&rft.date=2021-06-15&rft.aulast=Kansky&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Ramus%2C+RM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F2047305-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancesco2004" class="citation book cs1">DeFrancesco V (January 2004). "Perinatology.". <i>Clinical Engineering Handbook</i>. Academic Press. pp. 410–416. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-012226570-9%2F50102-2">10.1016/B978-012226570-9/50102-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-226570-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-226570-9"><bdi>978-0-12-226570-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Perinatology.&rft.btitle=Clinical+Engineering+Handbook&rft.pages=410-416&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2004-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-012226570-9%2F50102-2&rft.isbn=978-0-12-226570-9&rft.aulast=DeFrancesco&rft.aufirst=V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawDuncanVouyoukaOzsvath2011" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw P, Duncan A, Vouyouka A, Ozsvath K (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvs.2010.05.140">"Radiation exposure and pregnancy"</a>. <i>Journal of Vascular Surgery</i>. Radiation Safety in Vascular Surgery. <b>53</b> (1 Suppl): 28S–34S. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvs.2010.05.140">10.1016/j.jvs.2010.05.140</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20869193">20869193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vascular+Surgery&rft.atitle=Radiation+exposure+and+pregnancy&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1+Suppl&rft.pages=28S-34S&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jvs.2010.05.140&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20869193&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Duncan%2C+A&rft.au=Vouyouka%2C+A&rft.au=Ozsvath%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jvs.2010.05.140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlorainyAlbadrAbujamea2006" class="citation journal cs1">Alorainy IA, Albadr FB, Abujamea AH (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074503">"Attitude towards MRI safety during pregnancy"</a>. <i>Annals of Saudi Medicine</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 306–309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5144%2F0256-4947.2006.306">10.5144/0256-4947.2006.306</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074503">6074503</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16885635">16885635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Saudi+Medicine&rft.atitle=Attitude+towards+MRI+safety+during+pregnancy&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=306-309&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074503%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16885635&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5144%2F0256-4947.2006.306&rft.aulast=Alorainy&rft.aufirst=IA&rft.au=Albadr%2C+FB&rft.au=Abujamea%2C+AH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbstTaftiShanahan2022" class="citation book cs1">Herbst MK, Tafti D, Shanahan MM (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470450/">"Obstetric Ultrasound"</a>. <i>StatPearls</i>. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29261880">29261880</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Obstetric+Ultrasound&rft.btitle=StatPearls&rft.place=Treasure+Island+%28FL%29&rft.pub=StatPearls+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29261880&rft.aulast=Herbst&rft.aufirst=MK&rft.au=Tafti%2C+D&rft.au=Shanahan%2C+MM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK470450%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdvardssonSmallPerssonLalos2014" class="citation journal cs1">Edvardsson K, Small R, Persson M, Lalos A, Mogren I (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4287579">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Ultrasound is an invaluable third eye, but it can't see everything': a qualitative study with obstetricians in Australia"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2393-14-363">10.1186/1471-2393-14-363</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4287579">4287579</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25336335">25336335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=%27Ultrasound+is+an+invaluable+third+eye%2C+but+it+can%27t+see+everything%27%3A+a+qualitative+study+with+obstetricians+in+Australia&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=363&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4287579%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25336335&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2393-14-363&rft.aulast=Edvardsson&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Small%2C+R&rft.au=Persson%2C+M&rft.au=Lalos%2C+A&rft.au=Mogren%2C+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4287579&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisslederHarisinghaniWittenbergChen2011" class="citation book cs1">Weissleder R, Harisinghani MG, Wittenberg J, Chen JW, eds. (2011). "Obstetric Imaging". <i>Primer of Diagnostic Imagin</i> (5th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby. pp. 533–574. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-323-06538-2.00010-X">10.1016/B978-0-323-06538-2.00010-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-06538-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-06538-2"><bdi>978-0-323-06538-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Obstetric+Imaging&rft.btitle=Primer+of+Diagnostic+Imagin&rft.place=St.+Louis%2C+Mo.&rft.pages=533-574&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Mosby&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-323-06538-2.00010-X&rft.isbn=978-0-323-06538-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanSabihSabih2021" class="citation web cs1">Khan AN, Sabih D, Sabih A (2021-04-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/403208-overview">"Early Pregnancy Loss (Embryonic Demise) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Ultrasonography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Pregnancy+Loss+%28Embryonic+Demise%29+Imaging%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Ultrasonography&rft.date=2021-04-26&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=AN&rft.au=Sabih%2C+D&rft.au=Sabih%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F403208-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarino2021" class="citation journal cs1">Marino T (2021-06-14). Ramus RM (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1200683-overview">"Prenatal Diagnosis for Congenital Malformations and Genetic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Noninvasive Techniques, Invasive Techniques"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Prenatal+Diagnosis+for+Congenital+Malformations+and+Genetic+Disorders%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Noninvasive+Techniques%2C+Invasive+Techniques&rft.date=2021-06-14&rft.aulast=Marino&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F1200683-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/chorionic-villus-sampling/about/pac-20393533">"Chorionic villus sampling - Mayo Clinic"</a>. <i>www.mayoclinic.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Chorionic+villus+sampling+-+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fchorionic-villus-sampling%2Fabout%2Fpac-20393533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGomellaCunninghamEyalTuttle2013" class="citation book cs1">Gomella TL, Cunningham MD, Eyal FG, Tuttle DJ (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://accesspediatrics.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?aid=1107523894"><i>Fetal Assessment</i></a> (7 ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fetal+Assessment&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Gomella&rft.aufirst=TL&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+MD&rft.au=Eyal%2C+FG&rft.au=Tuttle%2C+DJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faccesspediatrics.mhmedical.com%2Fcontent.aspx%3Faid%3D1107523894&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJobe1984" class="citation book cs1">Jobe AH (January 1984). "Fetal lung maturation and the respiratory distress syndrome.". <i>Fetal Physiology and Medicine</i> (Second ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 317–351. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-407-00366-8.50016-2">10.1016/B978-0-407-00366-8.50016-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-407-00366-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-407-00366-8"><bdi>978-0-407-00366-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fetal+lung+maturation+and+the+respiratory+distress+syndrome.&rft.btitle=Fetal+Physiology+and+Medicine&rft.pages=317-351&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1984-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-407-00366-8.50016-2&rft.isbn=978-0-407-00366-8&rft.aulast=Jobe&rft.aufirst=AH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/nonstress-test/about/pac-20384577">"Nonstress test - Mayo Clinic"</a>. <i>www.mayoclinic.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayoclinic.org&rft.atitle=Nonstress+test+-+Mayo+Clinic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Ftests-procedures%2Fnonstress-test%2Fabout%2Fpac-20384577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunkin" class="citation web cs1">Dunkin MA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/baby/managing-a-high-risk-pregnancy">"High-Risk Pregnancies: Symptoms, Doctors, Support, and More"</a>. <i>WebMD</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=High-Risk+Pregnancies%3A+Symptoms%2C+Doctors%2C+Support%2C+and+More&rft.aulast=Dunkin&rft.aufirst=MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fbaby%2Fmanaging-a-high-risk-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2022" class="citation journal cs1">Moore T (2022-04-06). Griffing GT (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview">"Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Diabetes+Mellitus+and+Pregnancy%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Gestational+Diabetes%2C+Maternal-Fetal+Metabolism+in+Normal+Pregnancy&rft.date=2022-04-06&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F127547-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhuranaWolf2021" class="citation journal cs1">Khurana R, Wolf RE (2021-10-16). Talavera F, Singh AK (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/335055-overview">"Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Systemic+Lupus+Erythematosus+and+Pregnancy%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Pathophysiology%2C+Epidemiology&rft.date=2021-10-16&rft.aulast=Khurana&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Wolf%2C+RE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F335055-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriel" class="citation web cs1">Friel LA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/pregnancy-complicated-by-disease/thyroid-disorders-in-pregnancy">"Thyroid Disorders in Pregnancy - Gynecology and Obstetrics"</a>. <i>MSD Manual Professional Edition</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSD+Manual+Professional+Edition&rft.atitle=Thyroid+Disorders+in+Pregnancy+-+Gynecology+and+Obstetrics&rft.aulast=Friel&rft.aufirst=LA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msdmanuals.com%2Fprofessional%2Fgynecology-and-obstetrics%2Fpregnancy-complicated-by-disease%2Fthyroid-disorders-in-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlemuTerefeAbebeBiadgo2016" class="citation journal cs1">Alemu A, Terefe B, Abebe M, Biadgo B (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5153572">"Thyroid hormone dysfunction during pregnancy: A review"</a>. <i>International Journal of Reproductive Biomedicine</i>. <b>14</b> (11): 677–686. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5153572">5153572</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27981252">27981252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Reproductive+Biomedicine&rft.atitle=Thyroid+hormone+dysfunction+during+pregnancy%3A+A+review&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=677-686&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5153572%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27981252&rft.aulast=Alemu&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Terefe%2C+B&rft.au=Abebe%2C+M&rft.au=Biadgo%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5153572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsHenkinCreager2020" class="citation journal cs1">Nichols KM, Henkin S, Creager MA (November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jacc.2020.06.090">"Venous Thromboembolism Associated With Pregnancy: JACC Focus Seminar"</a>. <i>Journal of the American College of Cardiology</i>. <b>76</b> (18): 2128–2141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jacc.2020.06.090">10.1016/j.jacc.2020.06.090</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33121721">33121721</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226205234">226205234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+College+of+Cardiology&rft.atitle=Venous+Thromboembolism+Associated+With+Pregnancy%3A+JACC+Focus+Seminar&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=2128-2141&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226205234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33121721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jacc.2020.06.090&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=KM&rft.au=Henkin%2C+S&rft.au=Creager%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jacc.2020.06.090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gresele-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gresele_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gresele_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 264 in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGresele2008" class="citation book cs1">Gresele P (2008). <i>Platelets in haematologic and cardiovascular disorders: a clinical handbook</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88115-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88115-9"><bdi>978-0-521-88115-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Platelets+in+haematologic+and+cardiovascular+disorders%3A+a+clinical+handbook&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88115-9&rft.aulast=Gresele&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12232-hyperemesis-gravidarum-severe-nausea--vomiting-during-pregnancy">"Hyperemesis Gravidarum: Symptoms & Treatment"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Hyperemesis+Gravidarum%3A+Symptoms+%26+Treatment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F12232-hyperemesis-gravidarum-severe-nausea--vomiting-during-pregnancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/morning-sickness/symptoms-causes/syc-20375254">"Morning sickness - Symptoms and causes"</a>. <i>Mayo Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Morning+sickness+-+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fmorning-sickness%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20375254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaither2019" class="citation web cs1">Gaither K (13 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/baby/preeclampsia-eclampsia">"Preeclampsia"</a>. <i>WebMD</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebMD&rft.atitle=Preeclampsia&rft.date=2019-12-13&rft.aulast=Gaither&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fbaby%2Fpreeclampsia-eclampsia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/preeclampsia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355745">"Preeclampsia - Symptoms and causes"</a>. <i>Mayo Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Preeclampsia+-+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fpreeclampsia%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20355745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/staying-healthy-during-pregnancy/4-common-pregnancy-complications">"4 Common Pregnancy Complications"</a>. <i>www.hopkinsmedicine.org</i>. 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hopkinsmedicine.org&rft.atitle=4+Common+Pregnancy+Complications&rft.date=2021-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hopkinsmedicine.org%2Fhealth%2Fconditions-and-diseases%2Fstaying-healthy-during-pregnancy%2F4-common-pregnancy-complications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealthdirect_Australia2022" class="citation web cs1">Healthdirect Australia (2022-02-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/induced-labour">"Induced labour"</a>. <i>www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au&rft.atitle=Induced+labour&rft.date=2022-02-08&rft.au=Healthdirect+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au%2Finduced-labour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurányim2000" class="citation thesis cs1">Surányim A (2000). <i>Prenatal and postnatal evaluation of foetal renal hyperechogenicity in pregnancies complicated with pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation</i> (Ph.D. thesis). University of Szeged. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14232%2Fphd.2154">10.14232/phd.2154</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Prenatal+and+postnatal+evaluation+of+foetal+renal+hyperechogenicity+in+pregnancies+complicated+with+pre-eclampsia+and+intrauterine+growth+retardation&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=University+of+Szeged&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14232%2Fphd.2154&rft.aulast=Sur%C3%A1nyim&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoldenhauer" class="citation web cs1">Moldenhauer JS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/complications-of-labor-and-delivery/prelabor-rupture-of-the-membranes-prom">"Prelabor Rupture of the Membranes (PROM) - Women's Health Issues"</a>. <i>MSD Manual Consumer Version</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSD+Manual+Consumer+Version&rft.atitle=Prelabor+Rupture+of+the+Membranes+%28PROM%29+-+Women%27s+Health+Issues&rft.aulast=Moldenhauer&rft.aufirst=JS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msdmanuals.com%2Fhome%2Fwomen-s-health-issues%2Fcomplications-of-labor-and-delivery%2Fprelabor-rupture-of-the-membranes-prom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-14108/prostin-e2-vaginal/details">"Prostin E2 Vaginal: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Pictures, Warnings & Dosing - WebMD"</a>. <i>www.webmd.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.webmd.com&rft.atitle=Prostin+E2+Vaginal%3A+Uses%2C+Side+Effects%2C+Interactions%2C+Pictures%2C+Warnings+%26+Dosing+-+WebMD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmd.com%2Fdrugs%2F2%2Fdrug-14108%2Fprostin-e2-vaginal%2Fdetails&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoNgaiLiuWong1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ho PC, Ngai SW, Liu KL, Wong GC, Lee SW (November 1997). "Vaginal misoprostol compared with oral misoprostol in termination of second-trimester pregnancy". <i>Obstetrics and Gynecology</i>. <b>90</b> (5): 735–738. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0029-7844%2897%2900419-5">10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00419-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9351755">9351755</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21261210">21261210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obstetrics+and+Gynecology&rft.atitle=Vaginal+misoprostol+compared+with+oral+misoprostol+in+termination+of+second-trimester+pregnancy&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=735-738&rft.date=1997-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21261210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9351755&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0029-7844%2897%2900419-5&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=PC&rft.au=Ngai%2C+SW&rft.au=Liu%2C+KL&rft.au=Wong%2C+GC&rft.au=Lee%2C+SW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdenijiOladokunOlayemiAdeniji2005" class="citation journal cs1">Adeniji OA, Oladokun A, Olayemi O, Adeniji OI, Odukogbe AA, Ogunbode O, et al. (February 2005). "Pre-induction cervical ripening: transcervical foley catheter versus intravaginal misoprostol". <i>Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 134–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01443610500040737">10.1080/01443610500040737</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15814391">15814391</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24250115">24250115</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynaecology&rft.atitle=Pre-induction+cervical+ripening%3A+transcervical+foley+catheter+versus+intravaginal+misoprostol&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=134-139&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24250115%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15814391&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01443610500040737&rft.aulast=Adeniji&rft.aufirst=OA&rft.au=Oladokun%2C+A&rft.au=Olayemi%2C+O&rft.au=Adeniji%2C+OI&rft.au=Odukogbe%2C+AA&rft.au=Ogunbode%2C+O&rft.au=Aimakhu%2C+CO&rft.au=Omigbodun%2C+AO&rft.au=Ilesanmi%2C+AO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000512.htm">"Premature rupture of membranes"</a>. <i>MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia</i>. Bethesda (MD): U.S. National Library of Medicine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Premature+rupture+of+membranes&rft.btitle=MedlinePlus+Medical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Bethesda+%28MD%29&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedlineplus.gov%2Fency%2Fpatientinstructions%2F000512.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/30427#gref">"Oxytocin 10 IU/ml Solution for infusion - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (emc)"</a>. <i>www.medicines.org.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medicines.org.uk&rft.atitle=Oxytocin+10+IU%2Fml+Solution+for+infusion+-+Summary+of+Product+Characteristics+%28SmPC%29+-+%28emc%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicines.org.uk%2Femc%2Fmedicine%2F30427%23gref&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriorLees2019" class="citation book cs1">Prior T, Lees C (2019). "Control and Monitoring of Fetal Growth.". <i>Encyclopedia of Endocrine Diseases</i>. Vol. 5. pp. 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-801238-3.65414-4">10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.65414-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128122006" title="Special:BookSources/9780128122006"><bdi>9780128122006</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:81797258">81797258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Control+and+Monitoring+of+Fetal+Growth.&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Endocrine+Diseases&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A81797258%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-801238-3.65414-4&rft.isbn=9780128122006&rft.aulast=Prior&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Lees%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid2405898-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid2405898_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd-Thomas1990" class="citation journal cs1">Lloyd-Thomas AR (January 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbja%2F64.1.85">"Pain management in paediatric patients"</a>. <i>British Journal of Anaesthesia</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 85–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbja%2F64.1.85">10.1093/bja/64.1.85</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2405898">2405898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Anaesthesia&rft.atitle=Pain+management+in+paediatric+patients&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-104&rft.date=1990-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbja%2F64.1.85&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2405898&rft.aulast=Lloyd-Thomas&rft.aufirst=AR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbja%252F64.1.85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaint_Louis2022" class="citation journal cs1">Saint Louis H (2022-04-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/263424-overview">"Cesarean Delivery: Overview, Preparation, Technique"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Cesarean+Delivery%3A+Overview%2C+Preparation%2C+Technique&rft.date=2022-04-14&rft.aulast=Saint+Louis&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F263424-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ectopic-pregnancy/symptoms-causes/syc-20372088">"Ectopic pregnancy - Symptoms and causes"</a>. <i>Mayo Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Ectopic+pregnancy+-+Symptoms+and+causes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fdiseases-conditions%2Fectopic-pregnancy%2Fsymptoms-causes%2Fsyc-20372088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimSteinberg2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lim KH, Steinberg G (2022-04-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview">"Preeclampsia: Practice Essentials, Overview, Pathophysiology"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Preeclampsia%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Overview%2C+Pathophysiology&rft.date=2022-04-13&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=KH&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F1476919-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtal-Mittelmark" class="citation web cs1">Artal-Mittelmark R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/normal-pregnancy/stages-of-development-of-the-fetus">"Stages of Development of the Fetus - Women's Health Issues"</a>. <i>MSD Manual Consumer Version</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSD+Manual+Consumer+Version&rft.atitle=Stages+of+Development+of+the+Fetus+-+Women%27s+Health+Issues&rft.aulast=Artal-Mittelmark&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msdmanuals.com%2Fhome%2Fwomen-s-health-issues%2Fnormal-pregnancy%2Fstages-of-development-of-the-fetus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/150109">"Hypertension: Causes, symptoms, and treatments"</a>. <i>www.medicalnewstoday.com</i>. 2021-11-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medicalnewstoday.com&rft.atitle=Hypertension%3A+Causes%2C+symptoms%2C+and+treatments&rft.date=2021-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F150109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeppa2011" class="citation journal cs1">Seppa N (2011-01-20). "Body & brain: Uncontrolled epilepsy can be fatal: Study finds more deaths in adults whose seizures persist". <i>Science News</i>. <b>179</b> (3): 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fscin.5591790305">10.1002/scin.5591790305</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8423">0036-8423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=Body+%26+brain%3A+Uncontrolled+epilepsy+can+be+fatal%3A+Study+finds+more+deaths+in+adults+whose+seizures+persist&rft.volume=179&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2011-01-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fscin.5591790305&rft.issn=0036-8423&rft.aulast=Seppa&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaramSvendsenAbildgaard2009" class="citation journal cs1">Haram K, Svendsen E, Abildgaard U (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2654858">"The HELLP syndrome: clinical issues and management. A Review"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2393-9-8">10.1186/1471-2393-9-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2654858">2654858</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19245695">19245695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=The+HELLP+syndrome%3A+clinical+issues+and+management.+A+Review&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2654858%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19245695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2393-9-8&rft.aulast=Haram&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Svendsen%2C+E&rft.au=Abildgaard%2C+U&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2654858&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17952-preeclampsia">"Preeclampsia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments & Prevention"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Preeclampsia%3A+Symptoms%2C+Causes%2C+Treatments+%26+Prevention&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F17952-preeclampsia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9435-placental-abruption">"Placental Abruption: Symptoms, Causes & Effects On Baby"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Placental+Abruption%3A+Symptoms%2C+Causes+%26+Effects+On+Baby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F9435-placental-abruption&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoldenhauer" class="citation web cs1">Moldenhauer JS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/complications-of-labor-and-delivery/fetal-distress">"Fetal Distress - Women's Health Issues"</a>. <i>MSD Manual Consumer Version</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MSD+Manual+Consumer+Version&rft.atitle=Fetal+Distress+-+Women%27s+Health+Issues&rft.aulast=Moldenhauer&rft.aufirst=JS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msdmanuals.com%2Fhome%2Fwomen-s-health-issues%2Fcomplications-of-labor-and-delivery%2Ffetal-distress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22311-shoulder-dystocia">"Shoulder Dystocia: Signs, Causes, Prevention & Complications"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Shoulder+Dystocia%3A+Signs%2C+Causes%2C+Prevention+%26+Complications&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F22311-shoulder-dystocia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstatikieLimenihKebede2017" class="citation journal cs1">Astatikie G, Limenih MA, Kebede M (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389173">"Maternal and fetal outcomes of uterine rupture and factors associated with maternal death secondary to uterine rupture"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-017-1302-z">10.1186/s12884-017-1302-z</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389173">5389173</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28403833">28403833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Maternal+and+fetal+outcomes+of+uterine+rupture+and+factors+associated+with+maternal+death+secondary+to+uterine+rupture&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=117&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389173%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28403833&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-017-1302-z&rft.aulast=Astatikie&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Limenih%2C+MA&rft.au=Kebede%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims2014" class="citation journal cs1">Sims ME (2014-01-01). "Legal Briefs: Iatrogenesis: Prolapsed Umbilical Cord After Artificial Rupture of the Membranes and Unskilled Stabilization". <i>NeoReviews</i>. <b>15</b> (1): e32–e36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fneo.15-1-e32">10.1542/neo.15-1-e32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1526-9906">1526-9906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeoReviews&rft.atitle=Legal+Briefs%3A+Iatrogenesis%3A+Prolapsed+Umbilical+Cord+After+Artificial+Rupture+of+the+Membranes+and+Unskilled+Stabilization&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e32-e36&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fneo.15-1-e32&rft.issn=1526-9906&rft.aulast=Sims&rft.aufirst=ME&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12345-umbilical-cord-prolapse">"Umbilical Cord Prolapse: Causes, Diagnosis & Management"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Umbilical+Cord+Prolapse%3A+Causes%2C+Diagnosis+%26+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F12345-umbilical-cord-prolapse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2022" class="citation journal cs1">Smith JR (2022-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/275038-overview">"Postpartum Hemorrhage: Practice Essentials, Problem, Epidemiology"</a>. <i>Medscape</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Postpartum+Hemorrhage%3A+Practice+Essentials%2C+Problem%2C+Epidemiology&rft.date=2022-04-01&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femedicine.medscape.com%2Farticle%2F275038-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemisseSiferKedirFekene2019" class="citation journal cs1">Demisse GA, Sifer SD, Kedir B, Fekene DB, Bulto GA (March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6423770">"Determinants of puerperal sepsis among post partum women at public hospitals in west SHOA zone Oromia regional STATE, Ethiopia (institution BASEDCASE control study)"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-019-2230-x">10.1186/s12884-019-2230-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6423770">6423770</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30885159">30885159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Determinants+of+puerperal+sepsis+among+post+partum+women+at+public+hospitals+in+west+SHOA+zone+Oromia+regional+STATE%2C+Ethiopia+%28institution+BASEDCASE+control+study%29&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95&rft.date=2019-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6423770%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30885159&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-019-2230-x&rft.aulast=Demisse&rft.aufirst=GA&rft.au=Sifer%2C+SD&rft.au=Kedir%2C+B&rft.au=Fekene%2C+DB&rft.au=Bulto%2C+GA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6423770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHO_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310595/">"WHO Technical Consultation on Postpartum Care"</a>. World Health Organization. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WHO+Technical+Consultation+on+Postpartum+Care&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK310595%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid26857705-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid26857705_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesTaylorMacArthurPritchett2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jones E, Taylor B, MacArthur C, Pritchett R, Cummins C (February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4746909">"The effect of early postnatal discharge from hospital for women and infants: a systematic review protocol"</a>. <i>Systematic Reviews</i>. <b>5</b>: 24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13643-016-0193-9">10.1186/s13643-016-0193-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4746909">4746909</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26857705">26857705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+effect+of+early+postnatal+discharge+from+hospital+for+women+and+infants%3A+a+systematic+review+protocol&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4746909%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26857705&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13643-016-0193-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Taylor%2C+B&rft.au=MacArthur%2C+C&rft.au=Pritchett%2C+R&rft.au=Cummins%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4746909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/9675-pregnancy-types-of-delivery">"Types of Delivery for Pregnancy"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Types+of+Delivery+for+Pregnancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Farticles%2F9675-pregnancy-types-of-delivery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotlarGersonPetrilloLanger2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kotlar B, Gerson E, Petrillo S, Langer A, Tiemeier H (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7812564">"The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal and perinatal health: a scoping review"</a>. <i>Reproductive Health</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12978-021-01070-6">10.1186/s12978-021-01070-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7812564">7812564</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33461593">33461593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reproductive+Health&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+the+COVID-19+pandemic+on+maternal+and+perinatal+health%3A+a+scoping+review&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7812564%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33461593&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12978-021-01070-6&rft.aulast=Kotlar&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Gerson%2C+E&rft.au=Petrillo%2C+S&rft.au=Langer%2C+A&rft.au=Tiemeier%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7812564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gelis-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gelis_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gelis_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gelis_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelis1991" class="citation book cs1">Gelis J (1991). <i>History of Childbirth</i>. Boston: Northeastern University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Childbirth&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Northeastern+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gelis&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealthdirect_Australia2021" class="citation web cs1">Healthdirect Australia (2021-05-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/the-role-of-your-midwife">"What do midwives do?"</a>. <i>www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au&rft.atitle=What+do+midwives+do%3F&rft.date=2021-05-23&rft.au=Healthdirect+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au%2Fthe-role-of-your-midwife&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Challenges_experienced_by_midwives_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdataraAmoobaAfayaSalia2021" class="citation journal cs1">Adatara P, Amooba PA, Afaya A, Salia SM, Avane MA, Kuug A, et al. (April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8033657">"Challenges experienced by midwives working in rural communities in the Upper East Region of Ghana: a qualitative study"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-021-03762-0">10.1186/s12884-021-03762-0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8033657">8033657</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33836689">33836689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Challenges+experienced+by+midwives+working+in+rural+communities+in+the+Upper+East+Region+of+Ghana%3A+a+qualitative+study&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=287&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8033657%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33836689&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-021-03762-0&rft.aulast=Adatara&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Amooba%2C+PA&rft.au=Afaya%2C+A&rft.au=Salia%2C+SM&rft.au=Avane%2C+MA&rft.au=Kuug%2C+A&rft.au=Maalman%2C+RS&rft.au=Atakro%2C+CA&rft.au=Attachie%2C+IT&rft.au=Atachie%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8033657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BynumPorter-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BynumPorter_80-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBynumPorter1993" class="citation book cs1">Bynum WF, Porter R, eds. (1993). <i>Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine</i>. London and New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Medicine.&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2000" class="citation web cs1">Carr I (May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neonatology.org/pdf/dyingtohaveababy.pdf">"Some Obstetrical History: Dying to Have a Baby - the History of Childbirth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Manitoba: Women's Health</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Manitoba%3A+Women%27s+Health.&rft.atitle=Some+Obstetrical+History%3A+Dying+to+Have+a+Baby+-+the+History+of+Childbirth&rft.date=2000-05&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neonatology.org%2Fpdf%2Fdyingtohaveababy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McGrew_1985-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McGrew_1985_82-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrew1985" class="citation book cs1">McGrew RE (1985). <i>Encyclopedia of Medical History</i>. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Medical+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Company&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=McGrew&rft.aufirst=RE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hufnagel-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hufnagel_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hufnagel_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHufnagel2012" class="citation book cs1">Hufnagel GL (2012). <i>A History of Women's Menstruation from Ancient Greece to the Twenty-first Century: Psychological, Social, Medical, Religious, and Educational Issues</i>. <a href="/wiki/Lewiston,_New_York" title="Lewiston, New York">Lewiston, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Mellen_Press" title="Edwin Mellen Press">Edwin Mellen Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Women%27s+Menstruation+from+Ancient+Greece+to+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+Psychological%2C+Social%2C+Medical%2C+Religious%2C+and+Educational+Issues.&rft.place=Lewiston%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Edwin+Mellen+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Hufnagel&rft.aufirst=GL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Confederation_of_Midwives2022" class="citation web cs1">International Confederation of Midwives (2022-01-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalmidwives.org/icm-news/the-origins-of-midwifery.html">"The Origins of Midwifery"</a>. <i>ICM</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ICM&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Midwifery&rft.date=2022-01-31&rft.au=International+Confederation+of+Midwives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalmidwives.org%2Ficm-news%2Fthe-origins-of-midwifery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGasnerAatsha2022" class="citation book cs1">Gasner A, Aatsha PA (2022). "Physiology, Uterus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557575/"><i>StatPearls</i></a>. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32491507">32491507</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Physiology%2C+Uterus&rft.btitle=StatPearls&rft.place=Treasure+Island+%28FL%29&rft.pub=StatPearls+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32491507&rft.aulast=Gasner&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Aatsha%2C+PA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK557575%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rhodes P (2004-09-23). "Leake, John (1729–1792), man-midwife". <i>Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F16239">10.1093/ref:odnb/16239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861412-8"><bdi>978-0-19-861412-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F16239&rft.isbn=978-0-19-861412-8&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Initiation_of_traditional_birth_att_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAziatoOmenyo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Aziato L, Omenyo CN (March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5842514">"Initiation of traditional birth attendants and their traditional and spiritual practices during pregnancy and childbirth in Ghana"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-018-1691-7">10.1186/s12884-018-1691-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5842514">5842514</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514607">29514607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Initiation+of+traditional+birth+attendants+and+their+traditional+and+spiritual+practices+during+pregnancy+and+childbirth+in+Ghana&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5842514%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29514607&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-018-1691-7&rft.aulast=Aziato&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Omenyo%2C+CN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5842514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Gailani2018" class="citation book cs1">Al-Gailani S (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/reproduction/hospital-birth/E333A8D517E0A5B068C0C4EA7A73744A">"Hospital Birth"</a>. In Kassell L, Hopwood N, Flemming R (eds.). <i>Reproduction</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 553–566. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781107705647.046">10.1017/9781107705647.046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06802-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06802-5"><bdi>978-1-107-06802-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239583227">239583227</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hospital+Birth&rft.btitle=Reproduction&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=553-566&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239583227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781107705647.046&rft.isbn=978-1-107-06802-5&rft.aulast=Al-Gailani&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Freproduction%2Fhospital-birth%2FE333A8D517E0A5B068C0C4EA7A73744A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSialubanjeMassarHamerRuiter2015" class="citation journal cs1">Sialubanje C, Massar K, Hamer DH, Ruiter RA (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4567794">"Reasons for home delivery and use of traditional birth attendants in rural Zambia: a qualitative study"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-015-0652-7">10.1186/s12884-015-0652-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4567794">4567794</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26361976">26361976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Reasons+for+home+delivery+and+use+of+traditional+birth+attendants+in+rural+Zambia%3A+a+qualitative+study&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=216&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4567794%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26361976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-015-0652-7&rft.aulast=Sialubanje&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Massar%2C+K&rft.au=Hamer%2C+DH&rft.au=Ruiter%2C+RA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4567794&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martell2000-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martell2000_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartell2000" class="citation journal cs1">Martell LK (2000). "The hospital and the postpartum experience: a historical analysis". <i>Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 65–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1552-6909.2000.tb02757.x">10.1111/j.1552-6909.2000.tb02757.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10660278">10660278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Obstetric%2C+Gynecologic%2C+and+Neonatal+Nursing&rft.atitle=The+hospital+and+the+postpartum+experience%3A+a+historical+analysis&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-72&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1552-6909.2000.tb02757.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10660278&rft.aulast=Martell&rft.aufirst=LK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAborigoReidpathOduroAllotey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Aborigo RA, Reidpath DD, Oduro AR, Allotey P (January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5749010">"Male involvement in maternal health: perspectives of opinion leaders"</a>. <i>BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12884-017-1641-9">10.1186/s12884-017-1641-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5749010">5749010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291711">29291711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Pregnancy+and+Childbirth&rft.atitle=Male+involvement+in+maternal+health%3A+perspectives+of+opinion+leaders&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5749010%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29291711&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12884-017-1641-9&rft.aulast=Aborigo&rft.aufirst=RA&rft.au=Reidpath%2C+DD&rft.au=Oduro%2C+AR&rft.au=Allotey%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5749010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Midwives' Registration Bill". <i>The Lancet</i>. Originally published as Volume 2, Issue 3602. <b>140</b> (3602): 631–634. 1892-09-10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2801%2986961-0">10.1016/S0140-6736(01)86961-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736">0140-6736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=The+Midwives%27+Registration+Bill&rft.volume=140&rft.issue=3602&rft.pages=631-634&rft.date=1892-09-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2801%2986961-0&rft.issn=0140-6736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250376/9789241510547-eng.pdf"><i>Midwives voices, midwives realities. Findings from a global consultation on providing quality midwifery care</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Switzerland: World Health Organization. 1991. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9241510547" title="Special:BookSources/978-9241510547"><bdi>978-9241510547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midwives+voices%2C+midwives+realities.+Findings+from+a+global+consultation+on+providing+quality+midwifery+care.&rft.place=Switzerland&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization.&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-9241510547&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10665%2F250376%2F9789241510547-eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drife-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drife_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drife_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrife2002" class="citation journal cs1">Drife J (May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1742346">"The start of life: a history of obstetrics"</a>. <i>Postgraduate Medical Journal</i>. <b>78</b> (919): 311–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fpmj.78.919.311">10.1136/pmj.78.919.311</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1742346">1742346</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12151591">12151591</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Postgraduate+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+start+of+life%3A+a+history+of+obstetrics&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=919&rft.pages=311-315&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1742346%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12151591&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fpmj.78.919.311&rft.aulast=Drife&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1742346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinersonHorowitz2007" class="citation journal cs1">Rabinerson D, Horowitz E (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17674557/">"[The evolution of midwifery]"</a>. <i>Harefuah</i>. <b>146</b> (5): 380–4, 405. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17674557">17674557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harefuah&rft.atitle=%5BThe+evolution+of+midwifery%5D&rft.volume=146&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=380-4%2C+405&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17674557&rft.aulast=Rabinerson&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Horowitz%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F17674557%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLow2009" class="citation journal cs1">Low J (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123154808/http://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/full/200912_Obstetrics_2.pdf">"Caesarean section-past and present"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Canada</i>. <b>31</b> (12): 1131–1136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1701-2163%2816%2934373-0">10.1016/S1701-2163(16)34373-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20085678">20085678</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/full/200912_Obstetrics_2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynecology+Canada&rft.atitle=Caesarean+section-past+and+present&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1131-1136&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1701-2163%2816%2934373-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20085678&rft.aulast=Low&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sogc.org%2Fjogc%2Fabstracts%2Ffull%2F200912_Obstetrics_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplan1995" class="citation journal cs1">Caplan CE (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120707205101/http://www.med.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v01n01/fever.html">"The Childbed Fever Mystery and the Meaning of Medical Journalism"</a>. <i>McGill Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>1</b> (1). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.med.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v01n01/fever.html">the original</a> on 2012-07-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Childbed+Fever+Mystery+and+the+Meaning+of+Medical+Journalism&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Caplan&rft.aufirst=CE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.med.mcgill.ca%2Fmjm%2Fissues%2Fv01n01%2Ffever.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roth-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roth_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth" class="citation book cs1">Roth J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/"><i>Pregnancy & Birth: The History of Childbearing Choices in the United States</i></a>. Human Service Solutions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pregnancy+%26+Birth%3A+The+History+of+Childbearing+Choices+in+the+United+States.&rft.pub=Human+Service+Solutions&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ourbodiesourselves.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskett2019" class="citation book cs1">Baskett TF (29 March 2019). "Houstoun, Robert (1678–1734)". <i>Eponyms and Names in Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108421706.154">10.1017/9781108421706.154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-33671-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-33671-0"><bdi>978-1-108-33671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Houstoun%2C+Robert+%281678%E2%80%931734%29&rft.btitle=Eponyms+and+Names+in+Obstetrics+and+Gynaecology&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019-03-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108421706.154&rft.isbn=978-1-108-33671-0&rft.aulast=Baskett&rft.aufirst=TF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lavers_2018-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lavers_2018_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaversYipSunderlandParsons2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lavers A, Yip WS, Sunderland B, Parsons R, Mackenzie S, Seet J, Czarniak P (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6202972">"Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis use and infection prevalence in non-cosmetic breast surgery procedures at a tertiary hospital in Western Australia-a retrospective study"</a>. <i>PeerJ</i>. <b>6</b>: e5724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7717%2Fpeerj.5724">10.7717/peerj.5724</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6202972">6202972</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30386692">30386692</a>. <q>Table 2: Types of procedures and association with surgical site infections (SSI). <i>P</i>-values were obtained from Fisher's Exact test, unless otherwise specified.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PeerJ&rft.atitle=Surgical+antibiotic+prophylaxis+use+and+infection+prevalence+in+non-cosmetic+breast+surgery+procedures+at+a+tertiary+hospital+in+Western+Australia-a+retrospective+study&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=e5724&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6202972%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30386692&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.5724&rft.aulast=Lavers&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Yip%2C+WS&rft.au=Sunderland%2C+B&rft.au=Parsons%2C+R&rft.au=Mackenzie%2C+S&rft.au=Seet%2C+J&rft.au=Czarniak%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6202972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernon2019" class="citation journal cs1">Vernon LF (August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jnma.2019.02.002">"J. Marion Sims, MD: Why He and His Accomplishments Need to Continue to be Recognized a Commentary and Historical Review"</a>. <i>Journal of the National Medical Association</i>. <b>111</b> (4): 436–446. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jnma.2019.02.002">10.1016/j.jnma.2019.02.002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30851980">30851980</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73725863">73725863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+National+Medical+Association&rft.atitle=J.+Marion+Sims%2C+MD%3A+Why+He+and+His+Accomplishments+Need+to+Continue+to+be+Recognized+a+Commentary+and+Historical+Review&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=436-446&rft.date=2019-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73725863%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30851980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jnma.2019.02.002&rft.aulast=Vernon&rft.aufirst=LF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jnma.2019.02.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutkow1999" class="citation journal cs1">Rutkow IM (August 1999). "Ephraim McDowell and the world's first successful ovariotomy". <i>Archives of Surgery</i>. <b>134</b> (8): 902. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchsurg.134.8.902">10.1001/archsurg.134.8.902</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10443816">10443816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Ephraim+McDowell+and+the+world%27s+first+successful+ovariotomy&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=902&rft.date=1999-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Farchsurg.134.8.902&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10443816&rft.aulast=Rutkow&rft.aufirst=IM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Iceman Ötzi may have had tummy trouble when he died". <i>New Scientist</i>. <b>229</b> (3056): 17. January 2016. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NewSc.229...17.">2016NewSc.229...17.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0262-4079%2816%2930115-4">10.1016/s0262-4079(16)30115-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0262-4079">0262-4079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Iceman+%C3%96tzi+may+have+had+tummy+trouble+when+he+died&rft.volume=229&rft.issue=3056&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2016-01&rft.issn=0262-4079&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0262-4079%2816%2930115-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NewSc.229...17.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSieber1970" class="citation journal cs1">Sieber WK (September 1970). "Total prosthetic transplantation of the inferior vena cava, with venous drainage restoration of the one remaining kidney on the graft, successfully performed on a child with Wilms' tumor". <i>Journal of Pediatric Surgery</i>. <b>5</b> (6): 694–695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0022-3468%2870%2980085-9">10.1016/s0022-3468(70)80085-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3468">0022-3468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pediatric+Surgery&rft.atitle=Total+prosthetic+transplantation+of+the+inferior+vena+cava%2C+with+venous+drainage+restoration+of+the+one+remaining+kidney+on+the+graft%2C+successfully+performed+on+a+child+with+Wilms%27+tumor&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=694-695&rft.date=1970-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0022-3468%2870%2980085-9&rft.issn=0022-3468&rft.aulast=Sieber&rft.aufirst=WK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IWF-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IWF_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IWF_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wellnessjourneys.org/2017/12/05/dr-j-marion-sims/">"Dr. J Marion Sims: The Father of Modern Gynecology"</a>. <i>International Wellness Foundation</i>. 12 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Wellness+Foundation.&rft.atitle=Dr.+J+Marion+Sims%3A+The+Father+of+Modern+Gynecology.&rft.date=2014-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwellnessjourneys.org%2F2017%2F12%2F05%2Fdr-j-marion-sims%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiuliano2018" class="citation book cs1">Giuliano P (May 2018). "Gender: A Historical Perspective". In Averett SL, Argys LM, Hoffman SD (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Women and the Economy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190628963.013.29">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190628963.013.29</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gender%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Women+and+the+Economy.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190628963.013.29&rft.aulast=Giuliano&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley-KeighranLohan2016" class="citation journal cs1">O'Malley-Keighran MP, Lohan G (December 2016). "Encourages and guides, or diagnoses and monitors: Woman centred-ness in the discourse of professional midwifery bodies". <i>Midwifery</i>. <b>43</b>: 48–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.midw.2016.10.007">10.1016/j.midw.2016.10.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27846406">27846406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Midwifery&rft.atitle=Encourages+and+guides%2C+or+diagnoses+and+monitors%3A+Woman+centred-ness+in+the+discourse+of+professional+midwifery+bodies&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=48-58&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.midw.2016.10.007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27846406&rft.aulast=O%27Malley-Keighran&rft.aufirst=MP&rft.au=Lohan%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/situation-women-and-children-nigeria">"Situation of women and children in Nigeria"</a>. <i>www.unicef.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unicef.org&rft.atitle=Situation+of+women+and+children+in+Nigeria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Fnigeria%2Fsituation-women-and-children-nigeria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBäcklund2006" class="citation book cs1">Bäcklund I (2006). "Modifiers describing women and men in nineteenth-century English". In Kytö M, Rydén M, Smitterberg E (eds.). <i>Nineteenth-Century English</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511486944.002">10.1017/cbo9780511486944.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511486944" title="Special:BookSources/9780511486944"><bdi>9780511486944</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modifiers+describing+women+and+men+in+nineteenth-century+English&rft.btitle=Nineteenth-Century+English&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=17-55&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511486944.002&rft.isbn=9780511486944&rft.aulast=B%C3%A4cklund&rft.aufirst=I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdaikan2020" class="citation book cs1">Adaikan G (January 2020). "Female sexual dysfunction". In Arulkumaran S, Ledger W, Denny L, Doumouchtsis S (eds.). <i>Oxford Textbook of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 743–752. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780198766360.003.0060">10.1093/med/9780198766360.003.0060</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876636-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876636-0"><bdi>978-0-19-876636-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Female+sexual+dysfunction&rft.btitle=Oxford+Textbook+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynaecology&rft.pages=743-752&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmed%2F9780198766360.003.0060&rft.isbn=978-0-19-876636-0&rft.aulast=Adaikan&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16030-uterine-prolapse">"Uterine Prolapse: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Uterine+Prolapse%3A+Causes%2C+Symptoms%2C+Diagnosis+%26+Treatment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fdiseases%2F16030-uterine-prolapse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObstetrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="x18px_Women&#039;s_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women%27s_health" title="Template:Women's health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women%27s_health" title="Template talk:Women's health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women%27s_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women's health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="x18px_Women&#039;s_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Women%27s_health_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/12px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/18px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/24px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="412" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Reproductive <br />health</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Reproductive <br />tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">External female genitalia (vulva)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">Clitoris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">Clitoral hood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">Labia minora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">Labia majora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal <br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenatal care">Antenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolescent pregnancy">Adolescent pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperemesis_gravidarum" title="Hyperemesis gravidarum">Hyperemesis gravidarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">Miscarriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Obstetrical bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">Gestational diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preeclampsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Preeclampsia">Preeclampsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclampsia" title="Eclampsia">Eclampsia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_births" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple births">Multiple births</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstructed_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstructed labor">Obstructed labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesarian_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarian section">Cesarian section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">Retained placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_fistulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical fistulae">Obstetrical fistulae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">Rectovaginal fistula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal deaths">Maternal deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillbirths" class="mw-redirect" title="Stillbirths">Stillbirths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother-to-child transmission">Mother-to-child transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sterilization">Sterilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_life_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive life plan">Reproductive <br />life plan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">Childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fostering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fostering">Fostering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Oral contraceptive pill">Oral contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive prevalence">Contraceptive prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_parenthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned parenthood">Planned parenthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_hygiene" title="Feminine hygiene">Feminine hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_aids" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual aids">Menstrual aids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_menstrual_pad" title="Cloth menstrual pad">Cloth menstrual pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cup" title="Menstrual cup">Menstrual cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampon" title="Tampon">Tampon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_napkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary napkin">Sanitary pad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Dysmenorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorrhagia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorrhagia">Menorrhagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenorrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenorrhoea">Amenorrhoea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">Hormone replacement therapy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sexual <br />health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sexually_transmittedinfections" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">Sexually transmitted<br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papilloma_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papilloma virus">Human papilloma virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV vaccine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">Clitoridectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_binding" title="Breast binding">Breast binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast health">Breast health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ironing" title="Breast ironing">Breast ironing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecological disorders">Gynaecological disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginitis" title="Vaginitis">Vaginitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leblouh" title="Leblouh">Leblouh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences">Sex differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Non-reproductive<br /> health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Violence_against_women" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence <br />against women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_during_childbirth" title="Abuse during childbirth">Abuse during childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">Intimate partner violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">Gender discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">Non-communicable <br />diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cancer" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cancer" title="Uterine cancer">Uterine cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">Endometrial cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">Cervical cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papanicolaou_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Papanicolaou test">Papanicolaou test</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">Ovarian cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">Hip fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">Anaemia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract">Urinary tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Urinary incontinence</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sociocultural <br />factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disadvantaged" title="Disadvantaged">Disadvantaged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare inequality">Healthcare inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">Gender disparities in health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Politics, research<br />and advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_elimination_of_violence_against_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration on the elimination of violence against women">Declaration on the elimination of violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">International Day of the Girl Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission on the Status of Women">Commission on the Status of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">UN Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Research_on_Women%27s_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Research on Women's Health">Office of Research on Women's Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative" title="Women's Health Initiative">Women's Health Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Research_on_Women" title="International Center for Research on Women">International Center for Research on Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurses%27_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Health_Study" title="Black Women's Health Study">Black Women's Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartwright_Inquiry" title="Cartwright Inquiry">Cartwright Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Women%27s_Health_Research" title="Society for Women's Health Research">Society for Women's Health Research</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Women's health<br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_Ethiopia" title="Women's health in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_India" title="Women's health in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">Family planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_Russia" title="Women's reproductive health in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control in the United States</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" title="Category:Women's health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Women's health">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Women%27s_Health" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Women's Health">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pregnancy" title="Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pregnancy" title="Template talk:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pregnancy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pregnancy_and_childbirth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_family_planning" title="Natural family planning">Natural family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Conception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">fertility medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">partner-assisted reproduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HCG_pregnancy_strip_test" class="mw-redirect" title="HCG pregnancy strip test">home testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">Prenatal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Medical imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_pregnancy" title="Cervical pregnancy">Cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptic_pregnancy" title="Cryptic pregnancy">Cryptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy" title="Abdominal pregnancy">Abdominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotopic_pregnancy" title="Heterotopic pregnancy">Heterotopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molar_pregnancy" title="Molar pregnancy">Molar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_pregnancy" title="Ovarian pregnancy">Ovarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_pregnancy" title="Interstitial pregnancy">Interstitial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudimentary_horn_pregnancy" title="Rudimentary horn pregnancy">Rudimentary horn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_method_of_natural_childbirth" title="Bradley method of natural childbirth">Bradley method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy_in_childbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnotherapy in childbirth">Hypnobirthing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamaze_technique" title="Lamaze technique">Lamaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Nesting instinct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Newborn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy" title="Postterm pregnancy">Postterm pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_attendant" title="Birth attendant">Birth attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_role_in_childbirth" title="Men's role in childbirth">Men's roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_nurse_midwife" title="Auxiliary nurse midwife">Auxiliary nurse midwife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Perinatal nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_birth_attendant" title="Traditional birth attendant">Traditional birth attendant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delivery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvimetry" title="Pelvimetry">Pelvimetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_score" title="Bishop score">Bishop score</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_effacement" title="Cervical effacement">cervical effacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_(obstetrics)" title="Position (obstetrics)">position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_show" title="Bloody show">Bloody show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_delivery" title="Vaginal delivery">Vaginal delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation_(obstetrics)" title="Presentation (obstetrics)">Presentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breech_birth" title="Breech birth">breech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalic_presentation" title="Cephalic presentation">cephalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_presentation" title="Shoulder presentation">shoulder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupture_of_membranes" title="Rupture of membranes">Rupture of membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth_positions" title="Childbirth positions">Childbirth positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_birth" title="Home birth">Home birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_induction" title="Labor induction">Labor induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">Multiple birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_childbirth" title="Natural childbirth">Natural childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_birth" title="Silent birth">Silent birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassisted_childbirth" title="Unassisted childbirth">Unassisted childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_birth" title="Water birth">Water birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_expulsion" title="Placental expulsion">Placental expulsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prenatal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">Amniotic fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amniotic_sac" title="Amniotic sac">Amniotic sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryonic_development" title="Human embryonic development">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">Fetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundal_height" title="Fundal height">Fundal height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Care</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li>Nutrition <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_nutrition" title="Prenatal nutrition">prenatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_depression" title="Antenatal depression">Prenatal depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization_during_pregnancy" title="Immunization during pregnancy">Immunization</a></li> <li>Concomitant conditions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemia_in_pregnancy" title="Anemia in pregnancy">Anemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercoagulability_in_pregnancy" title="Hypercoagulability in pregnancy">Hypercoagulability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Substance use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_pregnancy" title="Cannabis in pregnancy">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioids_and_pregnancy" title="Opioids and pregnancy">Opioids</a></li></ul></li> <li>Endocrine diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Thyroid disease in pregnancy">Thyroid disease</a></li></ul></li> <li>Liver diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_fatty_liver_of_pregnancy" title="Acute fatty liver of pregnancy">Acute fatty liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrahepatic_cholestasis_of_pregnancy" title="Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy">Intrahepatic cholestasis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV_and_pregnancy" title="HIV and pregnancy">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy" title="COVID-19 in pregnancy">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCV_in_children_and_pregnancy" title="HCV in children and pregnancy">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Skin diseases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_and_pregnancy" title="Lupus and pregnancy">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruritic_folliculitis_of_pregnancy" title="Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy">Pruritic folliculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatoses_of_pregnancy" title="Dermatoses of pregnancy">Dermatoses</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">Vaginal flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy">Motor vehicle emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">Pre-existing disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_and_sleep" title="Pregnancy and sleep">Sleep</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">Amniocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">Chorionic villus sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstress_test" title="Nonstress test">Nonstress test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maternal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lochia" title="Lochia">Lochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_after_pregnancy" title="Sex after pregnancy">Sex after pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Psychiatric disorders of childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_physiological_changes" title="Postpartum physiological changes">Postpartum physiological changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_visitor" title="Health visitor">Health visitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">Lactation consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_nurse" title="Monthly nurse">Monthly nurse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny#Maternity_nurse_/_newborn_care_specialists_/_confinement_nanny" title="Nanny">Confinement nanny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life" title="Adaptation to extrauterine life">Adaptation to extrauterine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">Congenital disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obstetric history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template talk:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive Justice">Reproductive Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion-rights movements">Abortion-rights movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity#Genital_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Genital integrity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversies" title="Circumcision controversies">Circumcision controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Childfreeness</a>/<a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_spacing" title="Birth spacing">Birth spacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">foster care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm theft">Sperm theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Birth_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth Control">Contraception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">Sterilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">ICSI</a></li> <li>Gamete Cryopreservation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">Sperm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_health" title="Men's health">Men's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulvovaginal_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulvovaginal health">vulvovaginal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Research <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_sexual_risk_behaviors" title="Self-report sexual risk behaviors">self-report sexual risk behaviors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_options_counseling" title="Pregnancy options counseling">Options counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape" title="Pregnancy from rape">Pregnancy from rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnant_patients%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnant patients' rights">Pregnant patients' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy" title="Teenage pregnancy">Teenage pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Precocious_puberty_and_pregnancy" title="Category:Precocious puberty and pregnancy">Precocious puberty and pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Genitourinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">Disorders of sex development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_health_clinic" title="Sexual health clinic">clinic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Iran" title="Family planning in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraception_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Contraception in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Pakistan" title="Family planning in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_Parenthood_and_Reproductive_Health_Act_of_2012" title="Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_planning_in_Singapore" title="Population planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom">teen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_the_United_States" title="Family planning in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_States" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United States">teen pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">birth control</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control movement in the United States">Birth control movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_condoms" title="History of condoms">History of condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_reproductive_rights_legislation" title="Timeline of reproductive rights legislation">Timeline of reproductive rights legislation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-child_policy" title="Three-child policy">Three-child policy</a></li> <li>Financial <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_bonus" title="Baby bonus">baby bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_tax" title="Bachelor tax">bachelor tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_benefit" title="Child benefit">child benefit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_childlessness" title="Tax on childlessness">tax on childlessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Signs_and_symptoms_in_obstetrics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Obstetric_signs_and_symptoms" title="Template:Obstetric signs and symptoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Obstetric_signs_and_symptoms" title="Template talk:Obstetric signs and symptoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Obstetric_signs_and_symptoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Obstetric signs and symptoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Signs_and_symptoms_in_obstetrics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Signs and symptoms</a> in <a class="mw-selflink selflink">obstetrics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abderhalden_reaction" title="Abderhalden reaction">Abderhalden reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadwick%27s_sign" title="Chadwick's sign">Chadwick sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodell%27s_sign" title="Goodell's sign">Goodell's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegar%27s_sign" title="Hegar's sign">Hegar's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladin%27s_sign" title="Ladin's sign">Ladin's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piskacek%27s_sign" title="Piskacek's sign">Piskacek's sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Braun-Fernwald%27s_sign" title="Von Braun-Fernwald's sign">Von Braun-Fernwald's sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apgar_score" title="Apgar score">Apgar score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Hicks_contractions" title="Braxton Hicks contractions">Braxton Hicks contractions</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hydrops_fetalis" title="Hydrops fetalis">hydrops fetalis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin_Barts" title="Hemoglobin Barts">Hemoglobin Barts</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">ectopic pregnancy</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Spiegelberg_criteria" title="Spiegelberg criteria">Spiegelberg criteria</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fetal_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal death">fetal death</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Spalding%27s_sign" title="Spalding's sign">Spalding's sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold%27s_maneuvers" title="Leopold's maneuvers">Leopold's maneuvers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5284418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5284418#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5284418#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1042994/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4019604-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85093768">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Obstétrique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932879f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Obstétrique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932879f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00940388">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="porodnictví"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124365&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Obstetricia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX524424">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541117605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640944">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&oldid=1242607826">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&oldid=1242607826</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Obstetrics" title="Category:Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_pregnancy" title="Category:Human pregnancy">Human pregnancy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" title="Category:Women's health">Women's health</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_ODNB" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_that_are_too_technical_from_September_2010" title="Category:Wikipedia articles that are too technical from September 2010">Wikipedia articles that are too technical from September 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_are_too_technical" title="Category:All articles that are too technical">All articles that are too technical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_geographic_scope_from_May_2018" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from May 2018">Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from May 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 August 2024, at 18:19<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstetrics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-c8xbz","wgBackendResponseTime":188,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.768","walltime":"2.036","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11819,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":409026,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7338,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":464350,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1752.098 1 -total"," 43.80% 767.374 1 Template:Reflist"," 16.64% 291.537 43 Template:Cite_web"," 13.39% 234.667 45 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.24% 161.932 15 Template:Navbox"," 8.23% 144.245 15 Template:Rp"," 7.60% 133.143 15 Template:R/superscript"," 7.09% 124.252 3 Template:Sister_project"," 6.94% 121.534 3 Template:Side_box"," 6.71% 117.568 20 Template:Cite_book"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.034","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10417926,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","23.2"],["?","180","16.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","8.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","60","5.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","40","3.6"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","3.6"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","40","3.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","40","3.6"],["loader \u003Cpackage.lua:57\u003E","40","3.6"],["[others]","280","25.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-dbxfc","timestamp":"20241122141247","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Obstetrics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Obstetrics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5284418","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5284418","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-05-22T17:32:44Z","dateModified":"2024-08-27T18:19:26Z","headline":"field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period"}</script> </body> </html>