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id="toc-Hypothesis-testing_(falsification)_explanation_(Wason)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypothesis-testing_(falsification)_explanation_(Wason)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Hypothesis-testing (falsification) explanation (Wason) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypothesis-testing_(falsification)_explanation_(Wason)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypothesis_testing_(positive_test_strategy)_explanation_(Klayman_and_Ha)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypothesis_testing_(positive_test_strategy)_explanation_(Klayman_and_Ha)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Hypothesis testing (positive test strategy) explanation (Klayman and Ha) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypothesis_testing_(positive_test_strategy)_explanation_(Klayman_and_Ha)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_processing_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_processing_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Information processing explanations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Information_processing_explanations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Information processing explanations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Information_processing_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_versus_motivational" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_versus_motivational"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Cognitive versus motivational </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_versus_motivational-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cost-benefit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost-benefit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Cost-benefit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost-benefit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploratory_versus_confirmatory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploratory_versus_confirmatory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Exploratory versus confirmatory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploratory_versus_confirmatory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Make-believe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Make-believe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Make-believe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Make-believe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optimal_information_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optimal_information_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Optimal information acquisition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optimal_information_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Real-world_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Real-world_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Real-world effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Real-world_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Real-world effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Real-world_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Social media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Science and scientific research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Finance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine_and_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_and_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Medicine and health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine_and_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics,_law_and_policing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics,_law_and_policing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Politics, law and policing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics,_law_and_policing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Social psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_delusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_delusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Mass delusions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_delusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paranormal_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paranormal_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Paranormal beliefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paranormal_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recruitment_and_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recruitment_and_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Recruitment and selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruitment_and_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Associated_effects_and_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associated_effects_and_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Associated effects and outcomes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Associated_effects_and_outcomes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Associated effects and outcomes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Associated_effects_and_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polarization_of_opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polarization_of_opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Polarization of opinion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polarization_of_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Persistence of discredited beliefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preference_for_early_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preference_for_early_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Preference for early information </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preference_for_early_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illusory_association_between_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illusory_association_between_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Illusory association between events </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illusory_association_between_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Confirmation bias</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="انحياز تأكيدي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انحياز تأكيدي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="নিশ্চিতকৰণ পক্ষপাতিতা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নিশ্চিতকৰণ পক্ষপাতিতা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="নিশ্চিতকরণ পক্ষপাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিশ্চিতকরণ পক্ষপাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Склонност за потвърждаване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Склонност за потвърждаване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biaix_de_confirmaci%C3%B3" title="Biaix de confirmació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biaix de confirmació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfirma%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_zkreslen%C3%AD" title="Konfirmační zkreslení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Konfirmační zkreslení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekr%C3%A6ftelsesbias" title="Bekræftelsesbias – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bekræftelsesbias" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best%C3%A4tigungsfehler" title="Bestätigungsfehler – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bestätigungsfehler" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinnituskalduvus" title="Kinnituskalduvus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kinnituskalduvus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B5%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Προκατάληψη επιβεβαίωσης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Προκατάληψη επιβεβαίωσης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesgo_de_confirmaci%C3%B3n" title="Sesgo de confirmación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sesgo de confirmación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biaso_de_konfirmo" title="Biaso de konfirmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biaso de konfirmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berreste_alderako_isuri" title="Berreste alderako isuri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Berreste alderako isuri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A3%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="سوگیری تأییدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سوگیری تأییدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biais_de_confirmation" title="Biais de confirmation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biais de confirmation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%95%EC%A6%9D_%ED%8E%B8%ED%96%A5" title="확증 편향 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="확증 편향" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9" title="पुष्टि पूर्वाग्रह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पुष्टि पूर्वाग्रह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklonost_potvrdi" title="Sklonost potvrdi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sklonost potvrdi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_konfirmasi" title="Bias konfirmasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bias konfirmasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta%C3%B0festingartilhneiging" title="Staðfestingartilhneiging – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Staðfestingartilhneiging" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_di_conferma" title="Bias di conferma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bias di conferma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9" title="הטיית האישוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטיית האישוש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%81%D1%8B%D2%A3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Растау сыңаржақтылығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Растау сыңаржақтылығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_confirmandam_fidem_inclinatio" title="Ad confirmandam fidem inclinatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ad confirmandam fidem inclinatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meger%C5%91s%C3%ADt%C3%A9si_torz%C3%ADt%C3%A1s" title="Megerősítési torzítás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Megerősítési torzítás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bias confirming existing attitudes</div> Confirmation bias (also confirmatory bias, myside bias,<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> or congeniality bias<a href="#cite_note-hart-3">[2]</a>) is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a> People display this bias when they select information that supports their views, ignoring contrary information, or when they interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing attitudes. The effect is strongest for desired outcomes, for <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotionally</a> charged issues, and for deeply entrenched beliefs. Biased search for information, biased interpretation of this information, and biased memory recall, have been invoked to explain four specific effects: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude polarization">attitude polarization</a> (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_perseverance" title="Belief perseverance">belief perseverance</a> (when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false)</li> <li>the irrational <a href="/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">primacy effect</a> (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_correlation" title="Illusory correlation">illusory correlation</a> (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations).</li></ol> A series of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">psychological experiments</a> in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs. Later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way, focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives. Explanations for the observed biases include <a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a> and the limited human capacity to process information. Another proposal is that people show confirmation bias because they are pragmatically assessing the costs of being wrong, rather than investigating in a neutral, scientific way. Flawed <a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decisions</a> due to confirmation bias have been found in a wide range of political, organizational, financial and scientific contexts. These biases contribute to <a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">overconfidence</a> in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. For example, confirmation bias produces systematic errors in scientific research based on <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> (the gradual accumulation of supportive evidence). Similarly, a police detective may identify a suspect early in an investigation, but then may only seek confirming rather than disconfirming evidence. A medical practitioner may prematurely focus on a particular disorder early in a diagnostic session, and then seek only confirming evidence. In <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>, confirmation bias is amplified by the use of <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubbles</a>, or "algorithmic editing", which display to individuals only information they are likely to agree with, while excluding opposing views. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_context">Definition and context</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and context">edit</a>]</div> Confirmation bias, a phrase coined by English psychologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Wason" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Wason">Peter Wason</a>, is the tendency of people to favor information that confirms or strengthens their beliefs or values and is difficult to dislodge once affirmed.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Confirmation biases are effects in <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">information processing</a>. They differ from what is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_confirmation" title="Behavioral confirmation">behavioral confirmation effect</a>, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophecy</a>, in which a person's expectations influence their own behavior, bringing about the expected result.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> Some psychologists restrict the term "confirmation bias" to selective collection of evidence that supports what one already believes while ignoring or rejecting evidence that supports a different conclusion. Others apply the term more broadly to the tendency to preserve one's existing beliefs when searching for evidence, interpreting it, or recalling it from memory.<a href="#cite_note-risen-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a> Confirmation bias is a result of automatic, unintentional strategies rather than deliberate deception.<a href="#cite_note-oswald82-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hergovich_2010-11">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biased_search_for_information">Biased search for information</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biased search for information">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fred_Barnard07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drawing of a man sitting on a stool at a writing desk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Fred_Barnard07.jpg/200px-Fred_Barnard07.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Fred_Barnard07.jpg/300px-Fred_Barnard07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Fred_Barnard07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Confirmation bias has been described as an internal "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/yes_man" class="extiw" title="wikt:yes man">yes man</a>", echoing back a person's beliefs like <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>'s character <a href="/wiki/Uriah_Heep_(character)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uriah Heep (character)">Uriah Heep</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WSJ-12">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> Experiments have found repeatedly that people tend to test hypotheses in a one-sided way, by searching for evidence consistent with their current <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 177–178 <a href="#cite_note-kunda112-13">[11]</a> Rather than searching through all the relevant evidence, they phrase questions to receive an affirmative answer that supports their theory.<a href="#cite_note-baron162-14">[12]</a> They look for the consequences that they would expect if their hypothesis was true, rather than what would happen if it was false.<a href="#cite_note-baron162-14">[12]</a> For example, someone using yes/no questions to find a number they suspect to be the number 3 might ask, "Is it an <a href="/wiki/Odd_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd number">odd number</a>?" People prefer this type of question, called a "positive test", even when a negative test such as "Is it an even number?" would yield exactly the same information.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> However, this does not mean that people seek tests that guarantee a positive answer. In studies where subjects could select either such pseudo-tests or genuinely diagnostic ones, they favored the genuinely diagnostic.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> The preference for positive tests in itself is not a bias, since positive tests can be highly informative.<a href="#cite_note-klaymanha-18">[16]</a> However, in combination with other effects, this strategy can confirm existing beliefs or assumptions, independently of whether they are true.<a href="#cite_note-oswald82-10">[8]</a> In real-world situations, evidence is often complex and mixed. For example, various contradictory ideas about someone could each be supported by concentrating on one aspect of his or her behavior.<a href="#cite_note-kunda112-13">[11]</a> Thus any search for evidence in favor of a hypothesis is likely to succeed.<a href="#cite_note-oswald82-10">[8]</a> One illustration of this is the way the phrasing of a question can significantly change the answer.<a href="#cite_note-kunda112-13">[11]</a> For example, people who are asked, "Are you happy with your social life?" report greater satisfaction than those asked, "Are you unhappy with your social life?"<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> Even a small change in a question's wording can affect how people search through available information, and hence the conclusions they reach. This was shown using a fictional child custody case.<a href="#cite_note-shafir-20">[18]</a> Participants read that Parent A was moderately suitable to be the guardian in multiple ways. Parent B had a mix of salient positive and negative qualities: a close relationship with the child but a job that would take them away for long periods of time. When asked, "Which parent should have custody of the child?" the majority of participants chose Parent B, looking mainly for positive attributes. However, when asked, "Which parent should be denied custody of the child?" they looked for negative attributes and the majority answered that Parent B should be denied custody, implying that Parent A should have custody.<a href="#cite_note-shafir-20">[18]</a> Similar studies have demonstrated how people engage in a biased search for information, but also that this phenomenon may be limited by a preference for genuine diagnostic tests. In an initial experiment, participants rated another person on the <a href="/wiki/Extroversion_and_introversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Extroversion and introversion">introversion–extroversion</a> personality dimension on the basis of an interview. They chose the interview questions from a given list. When the interviewee was introduced as an introvert, the participants chose questions that presumed introversion, such as, "What do you find unpleasant about noisy parties?" When the interviewee was described as extroverted, almost all the questions presumed extroversion, such as, "What would you do to liven up a dull party?" These <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">loaded questions</a> gave the interviewees little or no opportunity to falsify the hypothesis about them.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> A later version of the experiment gave the participants less presumptive questions to choose from, such as, "Do you shy away from social interactions?"<a href="#cite_note-kunda117-22">[20]</a> Participants preferred to ask these more diagnostic questions, showing only a weak bias towards positive tests. This pattern, of a main preference for diagnostic tests and a weaker preference for positive tests, has been replicated in other studies.<a href="#cite_note-kunda117-22">[20]</a> Personality traits influence and interact with biased search processes.<a href="#cite_note-albarracin-23">[21]</a> Individuals vary in their abilities to defend their attitudes from external attacks in relation to <a href="/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory" title="Selective exposure theory">selective exposure</a>. Selective exposure occurs when individuals search for information that is consistent, rather than inconsistent, with their personal beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> An experiment examined the extent to which individuals could refute arguments that contradicted their personal beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-albarracin-23">[21]</a> People with high <a href="/wiki/Confidence" title="Confidence">confidence</a> levels more readily seek out contradictory information to their personal position to form an argument. This can take the form of an oppositional news consumption, where individuals seek opposing partisan news in order to counterargue.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> Individuals with low confidence levels do not seek out contradictory information and prefer information that supports their personal position. People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions.<a href="#cite_note-stanovich-26">[24]</a> Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals' personal beliefs. Another experiment gave participants a complex rule-discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer.<a href="#cite_note-mynatt1978-27">[25]</a> Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws, which the participants had to figure out. So, participants could "fire" objects across the screen to test their hypotheses. Despite making many attempts over a ten-hour session, none of the participants figured out the rules of the system. They typically attempted to confirm rather than falsify their hypotheses, and were reluctant to consider alternatives. Even after seeing objective evidence that refuted their working hypotheses, they frequently continued doing the same tests. Some of the participants were taught proper hypothesis-testing, but these instructions had almost no effect.<a href="#cite_note-mynatt1978-27">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biased_interpretation_of_information">Biased interpretation of information</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biased interpretation of information">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Smart people believe weird things because they are skilled at defending beliefs they arrived at for non-smart reasons. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></cite> </div> Confirmation biases are not limited to the collection of evidence. Even if two individuals have the same information, the way they interpret it can be biased. A team at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> conducted an experiment involving participants who felt strongly about capital punishment, with half in favor and half against it.<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-baron201-30">[28]</a> Each participant read descriptions of two studies: a comparison of <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> with and without the death penalty, and a comparison of murder rates in a state before and after the introduction of the death penalty. After reading a quick description of each study, the participants were asked whether their opinions had changed. Then, they read a more detailed account of each study's procedure and had to rate whether the research was well-conducted and convincing.<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a> In fact, the studies were fictional. Half the participants were told that one kind of study supported the <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (psychology)">deterrent</a> effect and the other undermined it, while for other participants the conclusions were swapped.<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-baron201-30">[28]</a> The participants, whether supporters or opponents, reported shifting their attitudes slightly in the direction of the first study they read. Once they read the more detailed descriptions of the two studies, they almost all returned to their original belief regardless of the evidence provided, pointing to details that supported their viewpoint and disregarding anything contrary. Participants described studies supporting their pre-existing view as superior to those that contradicted it, in detailed and specific ways.<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-vyse122-31">[29]</a> Writing about a study that seemed to undermine the deterrence effect, a death penalty proponent wrote, "The research didn't cover a long enough period of time," while an opponent's comment on the same study said, "No strong evidence to contradict the researchers has been presented."<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a> The results illustrated that people set higher standards of evidence for hypotheses that go against their current expectations. This effect, known as "disconfirmation bias", has been supported by other experiments.<a href="#cite_note-taber_political-32">[30]</a> Another study of biased interpretation occurred during the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 U.S. presidential election</a> and involved participants who reported having strong feelings about the candidates. They were shown apparently contradictory pairs of statements, either from Republican candidate <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> or a politically neutral public figure. They were also given further statements that made the apparent contradiction seem reasonable. From these three pieces of information, they had to decide whether each individual's statements were inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-westen2006-33">[31]</a>: 1948  There were strong differences in these evaluations, with participants much more likely to interpret statements from the candidate they opposed as contradictory.<a href="#cite_note-westen2006-33">[31]</a>: 1951  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MRI-Philips.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large round machine with a hole in the middle, with a platter for a person to lie on so that their head can fit into the hole" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/MRI-Philips.JPG/220px-MRI-Philips.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/MRI-Philips.JPG/330px-MRI-Philips.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/MRI-Philips.JPG/440px-MRI-Philips.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2254" data-file-height="2056" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI scanner</a> allowed researchers to examine how the human brain deals with dissonant information.</figcaption></figure> In this experiment, the participants made their judgments while in a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) scanner which monitored their brain activity. As participants evaluated contradictory statements by their favored candidate, <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a> centers of their brains were aroused. This did not happen with the statements by the other figures. The experimenters inferred that the different responses to the statements were not due to passive reasoning errors. Instead, the participants were actively reducing the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive dissonance</a> induced by reading about their favored candidate's irrational or <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocritical</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-westen2006-33">[31]</a>: 1956  Biases in belief interpretation are persistent, regardless of intelligence level. Participants in an experiment took the <a href="/wiki/SAT" title="SAT">SAT</a> test (a college admissions test used in the United States) to assess their intelligence levels. They then read information regarding safety concerns for vehicles, and the experimenters manipulated the national origin of the car. American participants provided their opinion if the car should be banned on a six-point scale, where one indicated "definitely yes" and six indicated "definitely no". Participants firstly evaluated if they would allow a dangerous German car on American streets and a dangerous American car on German streets. Participants believed that the dangerous German car on American streets should be banned more quickly than the dangerous American car on German streets. There was no difference among intelligence levels at the rate participants would ban a car.<a href="#cite_note-stanovich-26">[24]</a> Biased interpretation is not restricted to emotionally significant topics. In another experiment, participants were told a story about a theft. They had to rate the evidential importance of statements arguing either for or against a particular character being responsible. When they hypothesized that character's guilt, they rated statements supporting that hypothesis as more important than conflicting statements.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biased_recall_of_information">Biased recall of information</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biased recall of information">edit</a>]</div> People may remember evidence selectively to reinforce their expectations, even if they gather and interpret evidence in a neutral manner. This effect is called "selective recall", "confirmatory memory", or "access-biased memory".<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> Psychological theories differ in their predictions about selective recall. <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schema theory</a> predicts that information matching prior expectations will be more easily stored and recalled than information that does not match.<a href="#cite_note-oswald88-36">[34]</a> Some alternative approaches say that surprising information stands out and so is memorable.<a href="#cite_note-oswald88-36">[34]</a> Predictions from both these theories have been confirmed in different experimental contexts, with no theory winning outright.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> In one study, participants read a profile of a woman which described a mix of introverted and extroverted behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-snydercantor-38">[36]</a> They later had to recall examples of her introversion and extroversion. One group was told this was to assess the woman for a job as a librarian, while a second group were told it was for a job in real estate sales. There was a significant difference between what these two groups recalled, with the "librarian" group recalling more examples of introversion and the "sales" groups recalling more extroverted behavior.<a href="#cite_note-snydercantor-38">[36]</a> A selective memory effect has also been shown in experiments that manipulate the desirability of personality types.<a href="#cite_note-oswald88-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> In one of these, a group of participants were shown evidence that extroverted people are more successful than introverts. Another group were told the opposite. In a subsequent, apparently unrelated study, participants were asked to recall events from their lives in which they had been either introverted or extroverted. Each group of participants provided more memories connecting themselves with the more desirable personality type, and recalled those memories more quickly.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> Changes in emotional states can also influence memory recall.<a href="#cite_note-levine-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-safer-42">[40]</a> Participants rated how they felt when they had first learned that <a href="/wiki/O._J._Simpson" title="O. J. Simpson">O. J. Simpson</a> had been acquitted of murder charges.<a href="#cite_note-levine-41">[39]</a> They described their emotional reactions and confidence regarding the verdict one week, two months, and one year after the trial. Results indicated that participants' assessments for Simpson's guilt changed over time. The more that participants' opinion of the verdict had changed, the less stable were the participant's memories regarding their initial emotional reactions. When participants recalled their initial emotional reactions two months and a year later, past appraisals closely resembled current appraisals of emotion. People demonstrate sizable myside bias when discussing their opinions on controversial topics.<a href="#cite_note-stanovich-26">[24]</a> Memory recall and construction of experiences undergo revision in relation to corresponding emotional states. Myside bias has been shown to influence the accuracy of memory recall.<a href="#cite_note-safer-42">[40]</a> In an experiment, widows and widowers rated the intensity of their experienced grief six months and five years after the deaths of their spouses. Participants noted a higher experience of grief at six months rather than at five years. Yet, when the participants were asked after five years how they had felt six months after the death of their significant other, the intensity of grief participants recalled was highly <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlated</a> with their current level of grief. Individuals appear to utilize their current emotional states to analyze how they must have felt when experiencing past events.<a href="#cite_note-levine-41">[39]</a> Emotional memories are reconstructed by current emotional states. One study showed how selective memory can maintain belief in <a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">extrasensory perception</a> (ESP).<a href="#cite_note-russell_jones-43">[41]</a> Believers and disbelievers were each shown descriptions of ESP experiments. Half of each group were told that the experimental results supported the existence of ESP, while the others were told they did not. In a subsequent test, participants recalled the material accurately, apart from believers who had read the non-supportive evidence. This group remembered significantly less information and some of them incorrectly remembered the results as supporting ESP.<a href="#cite_note-russell_jones-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_differences">Individual differences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Individual differences">edit</a>]</div> Myside bias was once believed to be correlated with intelligence; however, studies have shown that myside bias can be more influenced by ability to rationally think as opposed to level of intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-stanovich-26">[24]</a> Myside bias can cause an inability to effectively and logically evaluate the opposite side of an argument. Studies have stated that myside bias is an absence of "active open-mindedness", meaning the active search for why an initial idea may be wrong.<a href="#cite_note-Baron_1995-44">[42]</a> Typically, myside bias is operationalized in empirical studies as the quantity of evidence used in support of their side in comparison to the opposite side.<a href="#cite_note-Wolfe_2008-45">[43]</a> A study has found individual differences in myside bias. This study investigates individual differences that are acquired through learning in a cultural context and are mutable. The researcher found important individual difference in argumentation. Studies have suggested that individual differences such as deductive reasoning ability, ability to overcome belief bias, epistemological understanding, and thinking disposition are significant predictors of the reasoning and generating arguments, counterarguments, and rebuttals.<a href="#cite_note-Mason_2006-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weinstock_2009-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weinstock_2004-48">[46]</a> A study by Christopher Wolfe and Anne Britt also investigated how participants' views of "what makes a good argument?" can be a source of myside bias that influences the way a person formulates their own arguments.<a href="#cite_note-Wolfe_2008-45">[43]</a> The study investigated individual differences of argumentation schema and asked participants to write essays. The participants were randomly assigned to write essays either for or against their preferred side of an argument and were given research instructions that took either a balanced or an unrestricted approach. The balanced-research instructions directed participants to create a "balanced" argument, i.e., that included both pros and cons; the unrestricted-research instructions included nothing on how to create the argument.<a href="#cite_note-Wolfe_2008-45">[43]</a> Overall, the results revealed that the balanced-research instructions significantly increased the incidence of opposing information in arguments. These data also reveal that personal belief is not a source of myside bias; however, that those participants, who believe that a good argument is one that is based on facts, are more likely to exhibit myside bias than other participants. This evidence is consistent with the claims proposed in Baron's article—that people's opinions about what makes good thinking can influence how arguments are generated.<a href="#cite_note-Wolfe_2008-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery">Discovery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Discovery">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informal_observations">Informal observations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Informal observations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Engraved head-and-shoulders portrait of Francis Bacon wearing a hat and ruff." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/170px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/255px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg/340px-Somer_Francis_Bacon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1629" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></figcaption></figure> Before psychological research on confirmation bias, the phenomenon had been observed throughout history. Beginning with the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 460 BC – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 395 BC), who wrote of misguided reason in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">The Peloponnesian War</a>; "... for it is a habit of mankind to entrust to careless hope what they long for, and to use sovereign reason to thrust aside what they do not fancy".<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Italian poet <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> (1265–1321) noted it in the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Thomas Aquinas">St. Thomas Aquinas</a> cautions Dante upon meeting in Paradise, "opinion—hasty—often can incline to the wrong side, and then affection for one's own opinion binds, confines the mind".<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> noticed the same effect in his <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a>:<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Untruth naturally afflicts historical information. There are various reasons that make this unavoidable. One of them is partisanship for opinions and schools. ... if the soul is infected with partisanship for a particular opinion or sect, it accepts without a moment's hesitation the information that is agreeable to it. Prejudice and partisanship obscure the critical faculty and preclude critical investigation. The result is that falsehoods are accepted and transmitted.</blockquote> In the <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a>, English philosopher and scientist <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> (1561–1626)<a href="#cite_note-baron195-52">[50]</a> noted that biased assessment of evidence drove "all superstitions, whether in astrology, dreams, omens, divine judgments or the like".<a href="#cite_note-bacon-53">[51]</a> He wrote:<a href="#cite_note-bacon-53">[51]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The human understanding when it has once adopted an opinion ... draws all things else to support and agree with it. And though there be a greater number and weight of instances to be found on the other side, yet these it either neglects or despises, or else by some distinction sets aside or rejects[.]</blockquote> In the second volume of his <a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1844), German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> observed that "An adopted hypothesis gives us lynx-eyes for everything that confirms it and makes us blind to everything that contradicts it."<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> In his essay (1897) <a href="/wiki/What_Is_Art%3F" title="What Is Art?">What Is Art?</a>, Russian novelist <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> wrote:<a href="#cite_note-:1-55">[53]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I know that most men—not only those considered clever, but even those who are very clever, and capable of understanding most difficult scientific, mathematical, or philosophic problems—can very seldom discern even the simplest and most obvious truth if it be such as to oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions they have formed, perhaps with much difficulty—conclusions of which they are proud, which they have taught to others, and on which they have built their lives.</blockquote> In his essay (1894) <a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a>, Tolstoy had earlier written:<a href="#cite_note-:2-56">[54]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The most difficult subjects can be explained to the most slow-witted man if he has not formed any idea of them already; but the simplest thing cannot be made clear to the most intelligent man if he is firmly persuaded that he knows already, without a shadow of doubt, what is laid before him.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypothesis-testing_(falsification)_explanation_(Wason)">Hypothesis-testing (falsification) explanation (Wason)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hypothesis-testing (falsification) explanation (Wason)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></div> In Peter Wason's initial experiment published in 1960 (which does not mention the term "confirmation bias"), he repeatedly challenged participants to identify a rule applying to triples of numbers. They were told that (2,4,6) fits the rule. They generated triples, and the experimenter told them whether each triple conformed to the rule.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 179  The actual rule was simply "any ascending sequence", but participants had great difficulty in finding it, often announcing rules that were far more specific, such as "the middle number is the average of the first and last".<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> The participants seemed to test only positive examples—triples that obeyed their hypothesized rule. For example, if they thought the rule was, "Each number is two greater than its predecessor," they would offer a triple that fitted (confirmed) this rule, such as (11,13,15) rather than a triple that violated (falsified) it, such as (11,12,19).<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Wason interpreted his results as showing a preference for confirmation over falsification, hence he coined the term "confirmation bias".<a href="#cite_note-60">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-oswald-61">[58]</a> Wason also used confirmation bias to explain the results of his <a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">selection task</a> experiment.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> Participants repeatedly performed badly on various forms of this test, in most cases ignoring information that could potentially refute (falsify) the specified rule.<a href="#cite_note-sutherland-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypothesis_testing_(positive_test_strategy)_explanation_(Klayman_and_Ha)">Hypothesis testing (positive test strategy) explanation (Klayman and Ha)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hypothesis testing (positive test strategy) explanation (Klayman and Ha)">edit</a>]</div> Klayman and Ha's 1987 paper argues that the Wason experiments do not actually demonstrate a bias towards confirmation, but instead a tendency to make tests consistent with the working hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-klaymanha-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> They called this the "positive test strategy".<a href="#cite_note-kunda112-13">[11]</a> This strategy is an example of a <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision making">heuristic</a>: a reasoning shortcut that is imperfect but easy to compute.<a href="#cite_note-plous233-66">[63]</a> Klayman and Ha used <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a> as their standard of hypothesis-testing, rather than the falsificationism used by Wason. According to these ideas, each answer to a question yields a different amount of information, which depends on the person's prior beliefs. Thus a scientific test of a hypothesis is one that is expected to produce the most information. Since the information content depends on initial probabilities, a positive test can either be highly informative or uninformative. Klayman and Ha argued that when people think about realistic problems, they are looking for a specific answer with a small initial probability. In this case, positive tests are usually more informative than negative tests.<a href="#cite_note-klaymanha-18">[16]</a> However, in Wason's rule discovery task the answer—three numbers in ascending order—is very broad, so positive tests are unlikely to yield informative answers. Klayman and Ha supported their analysis by citing an experiment that used the labels "DAX" and "MED" in place of "fits the rule" and "doesn't fit the rule". This avoided implying that the aim was to find a low-probability rule. Participants had much more success with this version of the experiment.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> <table style="margin:auto"> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klayman_Ha1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Within the universe of all possible triples, those that fit the true rule are shown schematically as a circle. The hypothesized rule is a smaller circle enclosed within it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Klayman_Ha1.svg/220px-Klayman_Ha1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Klayman_Ha1.svg/330px-Klayman_Ha1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Klayman_Ha1.svg/440px-Klayman_Ha1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>If the true rule (T) encompasses the current hypothesis (H), then positive tests (examining an H to see if it is T) will not show that the hypothesis is false.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klayman_Ha2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two overlapping circles represent the true rule and the hypothesized rule. Any observation falling in the non-overlapping parts of the circles shows that the two rules are not exactly the same. In other words, those observations falsify the hypothesis." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Klayman_Ha2.svg/220px-Klayman_Ha2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Klayman_Ha2.svg/330px-Klayman_Ha2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Klayman_Ha2.svg/440px-Klayman_Ha2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>If the true rule (T) overlaps the current hypothesis (H), then either a negative test or a positive test can potentially falsify H.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The triples fitting the hypothesis are represented as a circle within the universe of all triples. The true rule is a smaller circle within this." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg/220px-Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg/330px-Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg/440px-Klayman_ha3_annotations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>When the working hypothesis (H) includes the true rule (T) then positive tests are the only way to falsify H.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> In light of this and other critiques, the focus of research moved away from confirmation versus falsification of an hypothesis, to examining whether people test hypotheses in an informative way, or an uninformative but positive way. The search for "true" confirmation bias led psychologists to look at a wider range of effects in how people process information.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Information_processing_explanations">Information processing explanations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Information processing explanations">edit</a>]</div> There are currently three main <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a> explanations of confirmation bias, plus a recent addition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_versus_motivational">Cognitive versus motivational</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cognitive versus motivational">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg/250px-Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg/375px-Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg/500px-Felicidade_A_very_happy_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1798" data-file-height="1286" /></a><figcaption>Happy events are more likely to be remembered.</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_MacCoun" title="Robert MacCoun">Robert MacCoun</a>, most biased evidence processing occurs through a combination of "cold" (cognitive) and "hot" (motivated) mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> Cognitive explanations for confirmation bias are based on limitations in people's ability to handle complex tasks, and the shortcuts, called <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision making">heuristics</a>, that they use.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> For example, people may judge the reliability of evidence by using the <a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">availability heuristic</a> that is, how readily a particular idea comes to mind.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> It is also possible that people can only focus on one thought at a time, so find it difficult to test alternative hypotheses in parallel.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 198–199  Another heuristic is the positive test strategy identified by Klayman and Ha, in which people test a hypothesis by examining cases where they expect a property or event to occur. This heuristic avoids the difficult or impossible task of working out how diagnostic each possible question will be. However, it is not universally reliable, so people can overlook challenges to their existing beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-klaymanha-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 200  Motivational explanations involve an effect of <a href="/wiki/Desire_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Desire (emotion)">desire</a> on <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 197 <a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> It is known that people prefer positive thoughts over negative ones in a number of ways: this is called the "<a href="/wiki/Pollyanna_principle" title="Pollyanna principle">Pollyanna principle</a>".<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> Applied to <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> or sources of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, this could explain why desired conclusions are more likely to be believed true. According to experiments that manipulate the desirability of the conclusion, people demand a high standard of evidence for unpalatable ideas and a low standard for preferred ideas. In other words, they ask, "Can I believe this?" for some suggestions and, "Must I believe this?" for others.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistency</a> is a desirable feature of attitudes, an excessive drive for consistency is another potential source of bias because it may prevent people from neutrally evaluating new, surprising information. Social psychologist <a href="/wiki/Ziva_Kunda" title="Ziva Kunda">Ziva Kunda</a> combines the cognitive and motivational theories, arguing that motivation creates the bias, but cognitive factors determine the size of the effect.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 198  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cost-benefit">Cost-benefit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cost-benefit">edit</a>]</div> Explanations in terms of <a href="/wiki/Cost-benefit_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-benefit analysis">cost-benefit analysis</a> assume that people do not just test hypotheses in a disinterested way, but assess the costs of different errors.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> Using ideas from <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>, James Friedrich suggests that people do not primarily aim at <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> in testing hypotheses, but try to avoid the most costly errors. For example, employers might ask one-sided questions in job interviews because they are focused on weeding out unsuitable candidates.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yaacov_Trope" title="Yaacov Trope">Yaacov Trope</a> and Akiva Liberman's refinement of this theory assumes that people compare the two different kinds of error: accepting a false hypothesis or rejecting a true hypothesis. For instance, someone who underestimates a friend's honesty might treat him or her suspiciously and so undermine the friendship. Overestimating the friend's honesty may also be costly, but less so. In this case, it would be rational to seek, evaluate or remember evidence of their honesty in a biased way.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> When someone gives an initial impression of being introverted or extroverted, questions that match that impression come across as more <a href="/wiki/Empathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Empathic">empathic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dardenne-80">[77]</a> This suggests that when talking to someone who seems to be an introvert, it is a sign of better <a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">social skills</a> to ask, "Do you feel awkward in social situations?" rather than, "Do you like noisy parties?" The connection between confirmation bias and social skills was corroborated by a study of how college students get to know other people. Highly <a href="/wiki/Self-monitoring" title="Self-monitoring">self-monitoring</a> students, who are more sensitive to their environment and to <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a>, asked more matching questions when interviewing a high-status staff member than when getting to know fellow students.<a href="#cite_note-dardenne-80">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploratory_versus_confirmatory">Exploratory versus confirmatory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Exploratory versus confirmatory">edit</a>]</div> Psychologists <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Lerner" title="Jennifer Lerner">Jennifer Lerner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Tetlock" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Tetlock">Philip Tetlock</a> distinguish two different kinds of thinking process. <a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a> neutrally considers multiple points of view and tries to anticipate all possible objections to a particular position, while confirmatory thought seeks to justify a specific point of view. Lerner and Tetlock say that when people expect to justify their position to others whose views they already know, they will tend to adopt a similar position to those people, and then use confirmatory thought to bolster their own credibility. However, if the external parties are overly aggressive or critical, people will disengage from thought altogether, and simply assert their personal opinions without justification. Lerner and Tetlock say that people only push themselves to think critically and logically when they know in advance they will need to explain themselves to others who are well-informed, genuinely interested in the truth, and whose views they do not already know. Because those conditions rarely exist, they argue, most people are using confirmatory thought most of the time.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Make-believe">Make-believe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Make-believe">edit</a>]</div> Developmental psychologist Eve Whitmore has argued that beliefs and biases involved in confirmation bias have their roots in childhood coping through make-believe, which becomes "the basis for more complex forms of self-deception and illusion into adulthood." The friction brought on by questioning as an adolescent with developing critical thinking can lead to the rationalization of false beliefs, and the habit of such rationalization can become unconscious over the years.<a href="#cite_note-apa-84">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimal_information_acquisition">Optimal information acquisition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Optimal information acquisition">edit</a>]</div> Recent research in economics has challenged the traditional view of confirmation bias as purely a cognitive flaw.<a href="#cite_note-oi-85">[82]</a> Under conditions where acquiring and processing information is costly, seeking confirmatory evidence can actually be an optimal strategy. Instead of pursuing contrarian or disconfirming evidence, it may be more efficient to focus on sources likely to align with one's existing beliefs, given the constraints on time and resources. Economist Weijie Zhong has developed a model demonstrating that individuals who must make decisions under time pressure, and who face costs for obtaining more information, will often prefer confirmatory signals. According to this model, when individuals believe strongly in a certain hypothesis, they optimally seek information that confirms it, allowing them to build confidence more efficiently. If the expected confirmatory signals are not received, their confidence in the initial hypothesis will gradually decline, leading to belief updating. This approach shows that seeking confirmation is not necessarily biased but may be a rational allocation of limited attention and resources.<a href="#cite_note-zhong-86">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Real-world_effects">Real-world effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Real-world effects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_media">Social media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Social media">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>, confirmation bias is amplified by the use of <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubbles</a>, or "algorithmic editing", which displays to individuals only information they are likely to agree with, while excluding opposing views.<a href="#cite_note-:0-87">[84]</a> Some have argued that confirmation bias is the reason why society can never escape from filter bubbles, because individuals are psychologically hardwired to seek information that agrees with their preexisting values and beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> Others have further argued that the mixture of the two is degrading <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>—claiming that this "algorithmic editing" removes diverse viewpoints and information—and that unless filter bubble algorithms are removed, voters will be unable to make fully informed political decisions.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-87">[84]</a> The rise of social media has contributed greatly to the rapid spread of <a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">fake news</a>, that is, false and misleading information that is presented as credible news from a seemingly reliable source. Confirmation bias (selecting or reinterpreting evidence to support one's beliefs) is one of three main hurdles cited as to why critical thinking goes astray in these circumstances. The other two are shortcut heuristics (when overwhelmed or short of time, people rely on simple rules such as group consensus or trusting an expert or role model) and social goals (social motivation or peer pressure can interfere with objective analysis of facts at hand).<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> In combating the spread of fake news, social media sites have considered turning toward "digital nudging".<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> This can currently be done in two different forms of nudging. This includes nudging of information and nudging of presentation. Nudging of information entails social media sites providing a disclaimer or label questioning or warning users of the validity of the source while nudging of presentation includes exposing users to new information which they may not have sought out but could introduce them to viewpoints that may combat their own confirmation biases.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_scientific_research">Science and scientific research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Science and scientific research">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Planck%27s_principle" title="Planck's principle">Planck's principle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Escalation of commitment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">Replication crisis</a></div> A distinguishing feature of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific thinking</a> is the search for confirming or supportive evidence (<a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>) as well as falsifying evidence (<a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a>).<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> Many times in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, scientists have resisted new discoveries by selectively interpreting or ignoring unfavorable data.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 192–194  Several studies have shown that scientists rate studies that report findings consistent with their prior beliefs more favorably than studies reporting findings inconsistent with their previous beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Hergovich_2010-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koehler_1993-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahoney_1977-96">[93]</a> However, assuming that the research question is relevant, the experimental design adequate and the data are clearly and comprehensively described, the empirical data obtained should be important to the scientific community and should not be viewed prejudicially, regardless of whether they conform to current theoretical predictions.<a href="#cite_note-Mahoney_1977-96">[93]</a> In practice, researchers may misunderstand, misinterpret, or not read at all studies that contradict their preconceptions, or wrongly cite them anyway as if they actually supported their claims.<a href="#cite_note-Letrud_&_Hernes_2019-97">[94]</a> Further, confirmation biases can sustain scientific theories or research programs in the face of inadequate or even contradictory evidence.<a href="#cite_note-sutherland-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> The discipline of <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychology</a> is often cited as an example.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> An experimenter's confirmation bias can potentially affect which data are reported. Data that conflict with the experimenter's expectations may be more readily discarded as unreliable, producing the so-called <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">file drawer effect</a>. To combat this tendency, scientific training teaches ways to prevent bias.<a href="#cite_note-shadish-100">[97]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a> of <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> (coupled with their <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a>) aims to minimize sources of bias.<a href="#cite_note-shadish-100">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> The social process of <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> aims to mitigate the effect of individual scientists' biases, even though the peer review process itself may be susceptible to such biases<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahoney_1977-96">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett_2011-105">[102]</a> Confirmation bias may thus be especially harmful to objective evaluations regarding nonconforming results since biased individuals may regard opposing evidence to be weak in principle and give little serious thought to revising their beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Koehler_1993-95">[92]</a> Scientific innovators often meet with resistance from the scientific community, and research presenting controversial results frequently receives harsh peer review.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finance">Finance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Finance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Escalation of commitment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost" title="Sunk cost">Sunk cost</a></div> Confirmation bias can lead investors to be overconfident, ignoring evidence that their strategies will lose money.<a href="#cite_note-WSJ-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> In studies of <a href="/wiki/Election_stock_market" title="Election stock market">political stock markets</a>, investors made more profit when they resisted bias. For example, participants who interpreted a candidate's debate performance in a neutral rather than partisan way were more likely to profit.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> To combat the effect of confirmation bias, investors can try to adopt a contrary viewpoint "for the sake of argument".<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> In one technique, they imagine that their investments have collapsed and ask themselves why this might happen.<a href="#cite_note-WSJ-12">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine_and_health">Medicine and health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medicine and health">edit</a>]</div> Cognitive biases are important variables in clinical decision-making by medical general practitioners (GPs) and medical specialists. Two important ones are confirmation bias and the overlapping availability bias. A GP may make a diagnosis early on during an examination, and then seek confirming evidence rather than falsifying evidence. This cognitive error is partly caused by the availability of evidence about the supposed disorder being diagnosed. For example, the client may have mentioned the disorder, or the GP may have recently read a much-discussed paper about the disorder. The basis of this cognitive shortcut or heuristic (termed anchoring) is that the doctor does not consider multiple possibilities based on evidence, but prematurely latches on (or anchors to) a single cause.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> In emergency medicine, because of time pressure, there is a high density of decision-making, and shortcuts are frequently applied. The potential failure rate of these cognitive decisions needs to be managed by education about the 30 or more cognitive biases that can occur, so as to set in place proper debiasing strategies.<a href="#cite_note-croskerry-111">[108]</a> Confirmation bias may also cause doctors to perform unnecessary medical procedures due to pressure from adamant patients.<a href="#cite_note-hospitalbias-112">[109]</a> Raymond Nickerson, a psychologist, blames confirmation bias for the ineffective medical procedures that were used for centuries before the <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">arrival of scientific medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 192  If a patient recovered, medical authorities counted the treatment as successful, rather than looking for alternative explanations such as that the disease had run its natural course. Biased assimilation is a factor in the modern appeal of <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</a>, whose proponents are swayed by positive <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a> but treat <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a> hyper-critically.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_therapy" title="Cognitive therapy">Cognitive therapy</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="Aaron T. Beck">Aaron T. Beck</a> in the early 1960s and has become a popular approach.<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> According to Beck, biased information processing is a factor in <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> His approach teaches people to treat evidence impartially, rather than selectively reinforcing negative outlooks.<a href="#cite_note-baron195-52">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phobias" class="mw-redirect" title="Phobias">Phobias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochondria">hypochondria</a> have also been shown to involve confirmation bias for threatening information.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics,_law_and_policing">Politics, law and policing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Politics, law and policing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Witness_impeachment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A woman and a man reading a document in a courtroom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Witness_impeachment.jpg/220px-Witness_impeachment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Witness_impeachment.jpg/330px-Witness_impeachment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Witness_impeachment.jpg/440px-Witness_impeachment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mock_trial" title="Mock trial">Mock trials</a> allow researchers to examine confirmation biases in a realistic setting.</figcaption></figure> Nickerson argues that reasoning in judicial and political contexts is sometimes subconsciously biased, favoring conclusions that judges, juries or governments have already committed to.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 191–193  Since the evidence in a jury trial can be complex, and jurors often reach decisions about the verdict early on, it is reasonable to expect an attitude polarization effect. The prediction that jurors will become more extreme in their views as they see more evidence has been borne out in experiments with <a href="/wiki/Mock_trial" title="Mock trial">mock trials</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-halpern-120">[117]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">adversarial</a> criminal justice systems are affected by confirmation bias.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> Confirmation bias can be a factor in creating or extending conflicts, from emotionally charged debates to wars: by interpreting the evidence in their favor, each opposing party can become overconfident that it is in the stronger position.<a href="#cite_note-baron191-122">[119]</a> On the other hand, confirmation bias can result in people ignoring or misinterpreting the signs of an imminent or incipient conflict. For example, psychologists <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Sutherland" title="Stuart Sutherland">Stuart Sutherland</a> and Thomas Kida have each argued that <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Husband_E._Kimmel" title="Husband E. Kimmel">Husband E. Kimmel</a> showed confirmation bias when playing down the first signs of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sutherland-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> A two-decade study of political pundits by <a href="/wiki/Philip_E._Tetlock" title="Philip E. Tetlock">Philip E. Tetlock</a> found that, on the whole, their predictions were not much better than chance. Tetlock divided experts into "foxes" who maintained multiple hypotheses, and "hedgehogs" who were more dogmatic. In general, the hedgehogs were much less accurate. Tetlock blamed their failure on confirmation bias, and specifically on their inability to make use of new information that contradicted their existing theories.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> In police investigations, a detective may identify a suspect early in an investigation, but then sometimes largely seek supporting or confirming evidence, ignoring or downplaying falsifying evidence.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_psychology">Social psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Social psychology">edit</a>]</div> Social psychologists have identified two tendencies in the way people seek or interpret information about themselves. <a href="/wiki/Self-verification" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-verification">Self-verification</a> is the drive to reinforce the existing <a href="/wiki/Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-enhancement" title="Self-enhancement">self-enhancement</a> is the drive to seek positive feedback. Both are served by confirmation biases.<a href="#cite_note-reconciling-126">[123]</a> In experiments where people are given feedback that conflicts with their self-image, they are less likely to attend to it or remember it than when given self-verifying feedback.<a href="#cite_note-swannread_jesp-127">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> They reduce the impact of such information by interpreting it as unreliable.<a href="#cite_note-swannread_jesp-127">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-swannread_jpsp-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> Similar experiments have found a preference for positive feedback, and the people who give it, over negative feedback.<a href="#cite_note-reconciling-126">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_delusions">Mass delusions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mass delusions">edit</a>]</div> Confirmation bias can play a key role in the propagation of <a href="/wiki/Mass_delusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass delusion">mass delusions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Witch_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch trial">Witch trials</a> are frequently cited as an example.<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> For another example, in the <a href="/wiki/Seattle_windshield_pitting_epidemic" title="Seattle windshield pitting epidemic">Seattle windshield pitting epidemic</a>, there seemed to be a "pitting epidemic" in which windshields were damaged due to an unknown cause. As news of the apparent wave of damage spread, more and more people checked their windshields, discovered that their windshields too had been damaged, thus confirming belief in the supposed epidemic. In fact, the windshields were previously damaged, but the damage went unnoticed until people checked their windshields as the delusion spread.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paranormal_beliefs">Paranormal beliefs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Paranormal beliefs">edit</a>]</div> One factor in the appeal of alleged <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> readings is that listeners apply a confirmation bias which fits the psychic's statements to their own lives.<a href="#cite_note-toolkit-135">[132]</a> By making a large number of ambiguous statements in each sitting, the psychic gives the client more opportunities to find a match. This is one of the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">cold reading</a>, with which a psychic can deliver a subjectively impressive reading without any prior information about the client.<a href="#cite_note-toolkit-135">[132]</a> Investigator <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a> compared the transcript of a reading to the client's report of what the psychic had said, and found that the client showed a strong selective recall of the "hits".<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> As a striking illustration of confirmation bias in the real world, Nickerson mentions numerological <a href="/wiki/Pyramidology" title="Pyramidology">pyramidology</a>: the practice of finding meaning in the proportions of the Egyptian pyramids.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 190  There are many different length measurements that can be made of, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a> and many ways to combine or manipulate them. Hence it is almost inevitable that people who look at these numbers selectively will find superficially impressive correspondences, for example with the dimensions of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 190  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recruitment_and_selection">Recruitment and selection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Recruitment and selection">edit</a>]</div> Unconscious cognitive bias (including confirmation bias) in <a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">job recruitment</a> affects hiring decisions and can potentially prohibit a diverse and inclusive workplace. There are a variety of unconscious biases that affects recruitment decisions but confirmation bias is one of the major ones, especially during the interview stage.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> The interviewer will often select a candidate that confirms their own beliefs, even though other candidates are equally or better qualified. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Associated_effects_and_outcomes">Associated effects and outcomes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Associated effects and outcomes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polarization_of_opinion">Polarization of opinion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Polarization of opinion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attitude_polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude polarization">Attitude polarization</a></div> When people with opposing views interpret new information in a biased way, their views can move even further apart. This is called "attitude polarization".<a href="#cite_note-kuhn_lao-138">[135]</a> The effect was demonstrated by an experiment that involved drawing a series of red and black balls from one of two concealed "bingo baskets". Participants knew that one basket contained 60 percent black and 40 percent red balls; the other, 40 percent black and 60 percent red. The experimenters looked at what happened when balls of alternating color were drawn in turn, a sequence that does not favor either basket. After each ball was drawn, participants in one group were asked to state out loud their judgments of the probability that the balls were being drawn from one or the other basket. These participants tended to grow more confident with each successive draw—whether they initially thought the basket with 60 percent black balls or the one with 60 percent red balls was the more likely source, their estimate of the probability increased. Another group of participants were asked to state probability estimates only at the end of a sequence of drawn balls, rather than after each ball. They did not show the polarization effect, suggesting that it does not necessarily occur when people simply hold opposing positions, but rather when they openly commit to them.<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> A less abstract study was the Stanford biased interpretation experiment, in which participants with strong opinions about the death penalty read about mixed experimental evidence. Twenty-three percent of the participants reported that their views had become more extreme, and this self-reported shift correlated strongly with their initial attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-lord1979-29">[27]</a> In later experiments, participants also reported their opinions becoming more extreme in response to ambiguous information. However, comparisons of their attitudes before and after the new evidence showed no significant change, suggesting that the self-reported changes might not be real.<a href="#cite_note-taber_political-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-kuhn_lao-138">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> Based on these experiments, Deanna Kuhn and Joseph Lao concluded that polarization is a real phenomenon but far from inevitable, only happening in a small minority of cases, and it was prompted not only by considering mixed evidence, but by merely thinking about the topic.<a href="#cite_note-kuhn_lao-138">[135]</a> Charles Taber and Milton Lodge argued that the Stanford team's result had been hard to replicate because the arguments used in later experiments were too abstract or confusing to evoke an emotional response. The Taber and Lodge study used the emotionally charged topics of <a href="/wiki/Gun_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun politics">gun control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>.<a href="#cite_note-taber_political-32">[30]</a> They measured the attitudes of their participants towards these issues before and after reading arguments on each side of the debate. Two groups of participants showed attitude polarization: those with strong prior opinions and those who were politically knowledgeable. In part of this study, participants chose which information sources to read, from a list prepared by the experimenters. For example, they could read arguments on gun control from the <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="National Rifle Association of America">National Rifle Association of America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brady_Campaign" title="Brady Campaign">Brady Anti-Handgun Coalition</a>. Even when instructed to be even-handed, participants were more likely to read arguments that supported their existing attitudes than arguments that did not. This biased search for information correlated well with the polarization effect.<a href="#cite_note-taber_political-32">[30]</a> The <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>backfire effect is a name for the finding that given evidence against their beliefs, people can reject the evidence and believe even more strongly.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-CJR_backfire-142">[139]</a> The phrase was coined by <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Nyhan" title="Brendan Nyhan">Brendan Nyhan</a> and Jason Reifler in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> However, subsequent research has since failed to replicate findings supporting the backfire effect.<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> One study conducted out of the Ohio State University and George Washington University studied 10,100 participants with 52 different issues expected to trigger a backfire effect. While the findings did conclude that individuals are reluctant to embrace facts that contradict their already held ideology, no cases of backfire were detected.<a href="#cite_note-wood-145">[142]</a> The backfire effect has since been noted to be a rare phenomenon rather than a common occurrence<a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a> (compare the <a href="/wiki/Boomerang_effect_(psychology)" title="Boomerang effect (psychology)">boomerang effect</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs">Persistence of discredited beliefs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Persistence of discredited beliefs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belief_perseverance" title="Belief perseverance">Belief perseverance</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monty_Hall_problem" title="Monty Hall problem">Monty Hall problem</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Beliefs can survive potent logical or empirical challenges. They can survive and even be bolstered by evidence that most uncommitted observers would agree logically demands some weakening of such beliefs. They can even survive the total destruction of their original evidential bases. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Lee Ross and Craig Anderson<a href="#cite_note-shortcomings-147">[144]</a></cite> </div> Confirmation biases provide one plausible explanation for the persistence of beliefs when the initial evidence for them is removed or when they have been sharply contradicted.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 187  This belief perseverance effect has been first demonstrated experimentally by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Festinger</a>, Riecken, and Schachter. These psychologists <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">spent time with</a> a cult whose members were convinced that the world would end on 21 December 1954. After the prediction failed, most believers still clung to their faith. Their book describing this research is aptly named <a href="/wiki/When_Prophecy_Fails" title="When Prophecy Fails">When Prophecy Fails</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> The term belief perseverance, however, was coined in a series of experiments using what is called the "debriefing paradigm": participants read fake evidence for a hypothesis, their <a href="/wiki/Attitude_change" title="Attitude change">attitude change</a> is measured, then the fakery is exposed in detail. Their attitudes are then measured once more to see if their belief returns to its previous level.<a href="#cite_note-shortcomings-147">[144]</a> A common finding is that at least some of the initial belief remains even after a full debriefing.<a href="#cite_note-kunda99-149">[146]</a> In one experiment, participants had to distinguish between real and fake suicide notes. The feedback was random: some were told they had done well while others were told they had performed badly. Even after being fully debriefed, participants were still influenced by the feedback. They still thought they were better or worse than average at that kind of task, depending on what they had initially been told.<a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> In another study, participants read <a href="/wiki/Job_performance" title="Job performance">job performance</a> ratings of two firefighters, along with their responses to a <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">risk aversion</a> test.<a href="#cite_note-shortcomings-147">[144]</a> This fictional data was arranged to show either a negative or positive association: some participants were told that a risk-taking firefighter did better, while others were told they did less well than a risk-averse colleague.<a href="#cite_note-socialperseverance-151">[148]</a> Even if these two case studies were true, they would have been scientifically poor evidence for a conclusion about firefighters in general. However, the participants found them subjectively persuasive.<a href="#cite_note-socialperseverance-151">[148]</a> When the case studies were shown to be fictional, participants' belief in a link diminished, but around half of the original effect remained.<a href="#cite_note-shortcomings-147">[144]</a> Follow-up interviews established that the participants had understood the debriefing and taken it seriously. Participants seemed to trust the debriefing, but regarded the discredited information as irrelevant to their personal belief.<a href="#cite_note-socialperseverance-151">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Continued_influence_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continued influence effect">continued influence effect</a> is the tendency for misinformation to continue to influence memory and reasoning about an event, despite the misinformation having been retracted or corrected. This occurs even when the individual believes the correction.<a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preference_for_early_information">Preference for early information</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Preference for early information">edit</a>]</div> Experiments have shown that information is weighted more strongly when it appears early in a series, even when the order is unimportant. For example, people form a more positive impression of someone described as "intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious" than when they are given the same words in reverse order.<a href="#cite_note-baron197-153">[150]</a> This irrational primacy effect is independent of the <a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">primacy effect in memory</a> in which the earlier items in a series leave a stronger memory trace.<a href="#cite_note-baron197-153">[150]</a> Biased interpretation offers an explanation for this effect: seeing the initial evidence, people form a working hypothesis that affects how they interpret the rest of the information.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 187  One demonstration of irrational primacy used colored chips supposedly drawn from two urns. Participants were told the color distributions of the urns, and had to estimate the probability of a chip being drawn from one of them.<a href="#cite_note-baron197-153">[150]</a> In fact, the colors appeared in a prearranged order. The first thirty draws favored one urn and the next thirty favored the other.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 187  The series as a whole was neutral, so rationally, the two urns were equally likely. However, after sixty draws, participants favored the urn suggested by the initial thirty.<a href="#cite_note-baron197-153">[150]</a> Another experiment involved a slide show of a single object, seen as just a blur at first and in slightly better focus with each succeeding slide.<a href="#cite_note-baron197-153">[150]</a> After each slide, participants had to state their best guess of what the object was. Participants whose early guesses were wrong persisted with those guesses, even when the picture was sufficiently in focus that the object was readily recognizable to other people.<a href="#cite_note-nickerson-4">[3]</a>: 187  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illusory_association_between_events">Illusory association between events</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Illusory association between events">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Illusory_correlation" title="Illusory correlation">Illusory correlation</a></div> Illusory correlation is the tendency to see non-existent correlations in a set of data.<a href="#cite_note-fine-154">[151]</a> This tendency was first demonstrated in a series of experiments in the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-plous164-155">[152]</a> In one experiment, participants read a set of psychiatric case studies, including responses to the <a href="/wiki/Rorschach_inkblot_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Rorschach inkblot test">Rorschach inkblot test</a>. The participants reported that the homosexual men in the set were more likely to report seeing buttocks, anuses or sexually ambiguous figures in the inkblots. In fact the fictional case studies had been constructed so that the homosexual men were no more likely to report this imagery or, in one version of the experiment, were less likely to report it than heterosexual men.<a href="#cite_note-fine-154">[151]</a> In a survey, a group of experienced psychoanalysts reported the same set of illusory associations with homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-fine-154">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-plous164-155">[152]</a> Another study recorded the symptoms experienced by arthritic patients, along with weather conditions over a 15-month period. Nearly all the patients reported that their pains were correlated with weather conditions, although the real correlation was zero.<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="width:250px;text-align:center;margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Example </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Days</th> <th>Rain</th> <th>No rain </th></tr> <tr> <th>Arthritis </th> <td>14</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>No arthritis </th> <td>7</td> <td>2 </td></tr></tbody></table> This effect is a kind of biased interpretation, in that objectively neutral or unfavorable evidence is interpreted to support existing beliefs. It is also related to biases in hypothesis-testing behavior.<a href="#cite_note-kunda127-157">[154]</a> In judging whether two events, such as illness and bad weather, are correlated, people rely heavily on the number of positive-positive cases: in this example, instances of both pain and bad weather. They pay relatively little attention to the other kinds of observation (of no pain and/or good weather).<a href="#cite_note-plous162-158">[155]</a> This parallels the reliance on positive tests in hypothesis testing.<a href="#cite_note-kunda127-157">[154]</a> It may also reflect selective recall, in that people may have a sense that two events are correlated because it is easier to recall times when they happened together.<a href="#cite_note-kunda127-157">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophenia" title="Apophenia">Apophenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_(belief_revision)" title="Conservatism (belief revision)">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy effect">Observer-expectancy effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semmelweis_reflex" title="Semmelweis reflex">Semmelweis reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnum_effect" title="Barnum effect">Barnum effect</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Perkins_(geneticist)" title="David Perkins (geneticist)">David Perkins</a>, a professor and researcher at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, coined the term "myside bias" referring to a preference for "my" side of an issue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron2000195-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> "Assimilation bias" is another term used for biased interpretation of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERisenGilovich2007113-8">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Wason also used the term "verification bias".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoletiek200173-59">[57]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron2000195-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaron2000195_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron2000">Baron 2000</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-hart-3"><a href="#cite_ref-hart_3-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHartAlbarracinEaglyBrechan2009" class="citation cs2">Hart, William; Albarracin, D.; Eagly, A. 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(eds.), The World as Will and Presentation, vol. 2, New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, p. 246</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+as+Will+and+Presentation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Schopenhauer&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-55"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-0">^</a> Tolstoy, Leo (1896). What Is Art? ch. 14 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/43302/43302-h/43302-h.htm">p. 143</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817153200/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/43302/43302-h/43302-h.htm">Archived</a> 17 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Translated from Russian by Constance Garnett, New York, 1894. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/43302/43302-h/43302-h.htm">Project Gutenberg edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817153200/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/43302/43302-h/43302-h.htm">Archived</a> 17 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> released 26 July 2013. 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(2001), "The psychology of financial decision-making: Applications to trading, dealing, and investment analysis", Journal of Behavioral Finance, 2 (1): 37–39, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2FS15327760JPFM0201_4">10.1207/S15327760JPFM0201_4</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1542-7579">1542-7579</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153379653">153379653</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Behavioral+Finance&rft.atitle=The+psychology+of+financial+decision-making%3A+Applications+to+trading%2C+dealing%2C+and+investment+analysis&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-39&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153379653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1542-7579&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2FS15327760JPFM0201_4&rft.aulast=Hilton&rft.aufirst=Denis+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruegerMann2009" class="citation cs2">Krueger, David; 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Dryden, Windy (2004), Cognitive therapy: 100 key points and techniques, Psychology Press, p. ix, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58391-858-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58391-858-6"><bdi>978-1-58391-858-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/474568621">474568621</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+therapy%3A+100+key+points+and+techniques&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F474568621&rft.isbn=978-1-58391-858-6&rft.aulast=Neenan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Dryden%2C+Windy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburnDavidson1995" class="citation cs2">Blackburn, Ivy-Marie; 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(1995), Cognitive therapy for depression & anxiety: a practitioner's guide (2 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, p. 19, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-03986-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-03986-9"><bdi>978-0-632-03986-9</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32699443">32699443</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+therapy+for+depression+%26+anxiety%3A+a+practitioner%27s+guide&rft.pages=19&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32699443&rft.isbn=978-0-632-03986-9&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Ivy-Marie&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Kate+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarveyWatkinsMansell2004" class="citation cs2">Harvey, Allison G.; Watkins, Edward; Mansell, Warren (2004), Cognitive behavioural processes across psychological disorders: a transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment, Oxford University Press, pp. 172–173, 176, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852888-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852888-3"><bdi>978-0-19-852888-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/602015097">602015097</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+behavioural+processes+across+psychological+disorders%3A+a+transdiagnostic+approach+to+research+and+treatment&rft.pages=172-173%2C+176&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F602015097&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852888-3&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Allison+G.&rft.au=Watkins%2C+Edward&rft.au=Mansell%2C+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyersLamm1976" class="citation cs2">Myers, D.G.; Lamm, H. (1976), "The group polarization phenomenon", Psychological Bulletin, 83 (4): 602–527, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.83.4.602">10.1037/0033-2909.83.4.602</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+group+polarization+phenomenon&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=602-527&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.83.4.602&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=D.G.&rft.au=Lamm%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> via <a href="#CITEREFNickerson1998">Nickerson 1998</a>, pp. 193–194 </li> <li id="cite_note-halpern-120"><a href="#cite_ref-halpern_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpern1987" class="citation cs2">Halpern, Diane F. (1987), Critical thinking across the curriculum: A brief edition of thought and knowledge, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 194, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-2731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-2731-6"><bdi>978-0-8058-2731-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37180929">37180929</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+thinking+across+the+curriculum%3A+A+brief+edition+of+thought+and+knowledge&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37180929&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-2731-6&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Diane+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2010" class="citation cs2">Roach, Kent (2010), "Wrongful convictions: Adversarial and inquisitorial themes", North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation, 35: 387–446, <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1619124">1619124</a>, <q>Quote: Both adversarial and inquisitorial systems seem subject to the dangers of tunnel vision or confirmation bias.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=North+Carolina+Journal+of+International+Law+and+Commercial+Regulation&rft.atitle=Wrongful+convictions%3A+Adversarial+and+inquisitorial+themes&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=387-446&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1619124%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-baron191-122"><a href="#cite_ref-baron191_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron2000">Baron 2000</a>, pp. 191, 195 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKida2006">Kida 2006</a>, p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTetlock2005" class="citation cs2">Tetlock, Philip E. (2005), Expert political judgment: How good is it? 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(1989), "Agreeable fancy or disagreeable truth? 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href="#CITEREFPlous1993">Plous 1993</a>, pp. 162–164 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaron2000" class="citation cs2">Baron, Jonathan (2000), Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65030-4"><bdi>978-0-521-65030-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/316403966">316403966</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+and+deciding&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F316403966&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65030-4&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Cordelia_Fine" title="Cordelia Fine">Fine, Cordelia</a> (2006), A Mind of its Own: how your brain distorts and deceives, Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Icon_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Icon Books">Icon Books</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-678-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-678-2"><bdi>978-1-84046-678-2</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60668289">60668289</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Mind+of+its+Own%3A+how+your+brain+distorts+and+deceives&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Icon+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60668289&rft.isbn=978-1-84046-678-2&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=Cordelia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich1993" class="citation cs2">Friedrich, James (1993), "Primary error detection and minimization (PEDMIN) strategies in social cognition: a reinterpretation of confirmation bias phenomena", Psychological Review, 100 (2): 298–319, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.100.2.298">10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.298</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-295X">0033-295X</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8483985">8483985</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Primary+error+detection+and+minimization+%28PEDMIN%29+strategies+in+social+cognition%3A+a+reinterpretation+of+confirmation+bias+phenomena&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=298-319&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0033-295X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8483985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.100.2.298&rft.aulast=Friedrich&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldacre2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Goldacre" title="Ben Goldacre">Goldacre, Ben</a> (2008), Bad science, London: Fourth Estate, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-724019-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-724019-7"><bdi>978-0-00-724019-7</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/259713114">259713114</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bad+science&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F259713114&rft.isbn=978-0-00-724019-7&rft.aulast=Goldacre&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHergovichSchottBurger2010" class="citation cs2">Hergovich, Andreas; Schott, Reinhard; Burger, Christoph (2010), "Biased evaluation of abstracts depending on topic and conclusion: Further evidence of a confirmation bias within scientific psychology", Current Psychology, 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Psychology&rft.atitle=Biased+evaluation+of+abstracts+depending+on+topic+and+conclusion%3A+Further+evidence+of+a+confirmation+bias+within+scientific+psychology&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=188-209&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12144-010-9087-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145497196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hergovich&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Schott%2C+Reinhard&rft.au=Burger%2C+Christoph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKida2006" class="citation cs2">Kida, Thomas E. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dontbelieveevery00kida">Don't believe everything you think: The 6 basic mistakes we make in thinking</a>, Amherst, NY: <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-408-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-408-8"><bdi>978-1-59102-408-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63297791">63297791</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Don%27t+believe+everything+you+think%3A+The+6+basic+mistakes+we+make+in+thinking&rft.place=Amherst%2C+NY&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63297791&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-408-8&rft.aulast=Kida&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdontbelieveevery00kida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoehler1993" class="citation cs2">Koehler, Jonathan J. (1993), "The influence of prior beliefs on scientific judgments of evidence quality", Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56: 28–55, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1993.1044">10.1006/obhd.1993.1044</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Decision+Processes&rft.atitle=The+influence+of+prior+beliefs+on+scientific+judgments+of+evidence+quality&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=28-55&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fobhd.1993.1044&rft.aulast=Koehler&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunda1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ziva_Kunda" title="Ziva Kunda">Kunda, Ziva</a> (1999), Social cognition: Making sense of people, <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-61143-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-61143-5"><bdi>978-0-262-61143-5</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40618974">40618974</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+cognition%3A+Making+sense+of+people&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40618974&rft.isbn=978-0-262-61143-5&rft.aulast=Kunda&rft.aufirst=Ziva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewicka1998" class="citation cs2">Lewicka, Maria (1998), "Confirmation bias: Cognitive error or adaptive strategy of action control?", in Kofta, Mirosław; Weary, Gifford; Sedek, Grzegorz (eds.), Personal control in action: Cognitive and motivational mechanisms, Springer, pp. 233–255, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45720-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45720-3"><bdi>978-0-306-45720-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39002877">39002877</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confirmation+bias%3A+Cognitive+error+or+adaptive+strategy+of+action+control%3F&rft.btitle=Personal+control+in+action%3A+Cognitive+and+motivational+mechanisms&rft.pages=233-255&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39002877&rft.isbn=978-0-306-45720-3&rft.aulast=Lewicka&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacCoun1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_MacCoun" title="Robert MacCoun">MacCoun, Robert J.</a> (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~maccoun/MacCoun_AnnualReview98.pdf">"Biases in the interpretation and use of research results"</a> (PDF), Annual Review of Psychology, 49: 259–287, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.49.1.259">10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.259</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15012470">15012470</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809063236/http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~maccoun/MacCoun_AnnualReview98.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017, retrieved 10 October 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Biases+in+the+interpretation+and+use+of+research+results&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=259-287&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.49.1.259&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15012470&rft.aulast=MacCoun&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocrates.berkeley.edu%2F~maccoun%2FMacCoun_AnnualReview98.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahoney1977" class="citation cs2">Mahoney, Michael J. (1977), "Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system", Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1 (2): 161–175, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01173636">10.1007/BF01173636</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7350256">7350256</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Therapy+and+Research&rft.atitle=Publication+prejudices%3A+An+experimental+study+of+confirmatory+bias+in+the+peer+review+system&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-175&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01173636&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7350256%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mahoney&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickerson1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_S._Nickerson" title="Raymond S. Nickerson">Nickerson, Raymond S.</a> (1998), "Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises", Review of General Psychology, 2 (2): 175–220, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.2.2.175">10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8508954">8508954</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=Confirmation+bias%3A+A+ubiquitous+phenomenon+in+many+guises&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-220&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.2.2.175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8508954%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nickerson&rft.aufirst=Raymond+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOswaldGrosjean2004" class="citation cs2">Oswald, Margit E.; Grosjean, Stefan (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/79">"Confirmation bias"</a>, in Pohl, Rüdiger F. (ed.), Cognitive illusions: A handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgement and memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/79">79–96</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55124398">55124398</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confirmation+bias&rft.btitle=Cognitive+illusions%3A+A+handbook+on+fallacies+and+biases+in+thinking%2C+judgement+and+memory&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pages=79-96&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55124398&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Oswald&rft.aufirst=Margit+E.&rft.au=Grosjean%2C+Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse%2Fpage%2F79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlous1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Plous" title="Scott Plous">Plous, Scott</a> (1993), The psychology of judgment and decision making, McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050477-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050477-6"><bdi>978-0-07-050477-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26931106">26931106</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+psychology+of+judgment+and+decision+making&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26931106&rft.isbn=978-0-07-050477-6&rft.aulast=Plous&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoletiek2001" class="citation cs2">Poletiek, Fenna (2001), Hypothesis-testing behaviour, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-159-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-159-6"><bdi>978-1-84169-159-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44683470">44683470</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypothesis-testing+behaviour&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44683470&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-159-6&rft.aulast=Poletiek&rft.aufirst=Fenna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisenGilovich2007" class="citation cs2">Risen, Jane; Gilovich, Thomas (2007), "Informal logical fallacies", in Sternberg, Robert J.; Roediger III, Henry L.; Halpern, Diane F. (eds.), Critical thinking in psychology, Cambridge University Press, pp. 110–130, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60834-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60834-3"><bdi>978-0-521-60834-3</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/69423179">69423179</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Informal+logical+fallacies&rft.btitle=Critical+thinking+in+psychology&rft.pages=110-130&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F69423179&rft.isbn=978-0-521-60834-3&rft.aulast=Risen&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Gilovich%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVyse1997" class="citation cs2">Vyse, Stuart A. (1997), Believing in magic: The psychology of superstition, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513634-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513634-0"><bdi>978-0-19-513634-0</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35025826">35025826</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Believing+in+magic%3A+The+psychology+of+superstition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35025826&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513634-0&rft.aulast=Vyse&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWason1960" class="citation cs2">Wason, Peter C. (1960), "On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task", <a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_Experimental_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology">Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology</a>, 12 (3): 129–140, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17470216008416717">10.1080/17470216008416717</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1747-0226">1747-0226</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19237642">19237642</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=On+the+failure+to+eliminate+hypotheses+in+a+conceptual+task&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=129-140&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19237642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1747-0226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17470216008416717&rft.aulast=Wason&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeavitt2015" class="citation cs2">Leavitt, Fred (2015), Dancing with absurdity: Your most cherished beliefs (and all your others) are probably wrong, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Lang Publishers">Peter Lang Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781453914908" title="Special:BookSources/9781453914908"><bdi>9781453914908</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/908685982">908685982</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dancing+with+absurdity%3A+Your+most+cherished+beliefs+%28and+all+your+others%29+are+probably+wrong&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F908685982&rft.isbn=9781453914908&rft.aulast=Leavitt&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanovich2009" class="citation cs2">Stanovich, Keith (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatintelligence00stan">What intelligence tests miss: The psychology of rational thought</a> (Lay), New Haven (CT): <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12385-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12385-2"><bdi>978-0-300-12385-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+intelligence+tests+miss%3A+The+psychology+of+rational+thought&rft.place=New+Haven+%28CT%29&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12385-2&rft.aulast=Stanovich&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatintelligence00stan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesten2007" class="citation cs2">Westen, Drew (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalbrainro00west">The political brain: The role of emotion in deciding the fate of the nation</a>, <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-425-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-425-5"><bdi>978-1-58648-425-5</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/86117725">86117725</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+brain%3A+The+role+of+emotion+in+deciding+the+fate+of+the+nation&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F86117725&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-425-5&rft.aulast=Westen&rft.aufirst=Drew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalbrainro00west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConfirmation+bias" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Meppelink, Corine S., Edith G. Smit, Marieke L. Fransen, and Nicola Diviani. “‘I Was Right about Vaccination’: Confirmation Bias and Health Literacy in Online Health Information Seeking.” Journal of Health Communication 24, no. 2 (2019): 129–40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2019.1583701">https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2019.1583701</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Pearson, George David Hooke, and Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick. “Is the Confirmation Bias Bubble Larger Online? Pre-Election Confirmation Bias in Selective Exposure to Online versus Print Political Information.” Mass Communication & Society 22, no. 4 (2019): 466–86. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2019.1599956">https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2019.1599956</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Confirmation_bias" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/confirmbias.html">Skeptic's Dictionary: confirmation bias</a> – Robert T. Carroll</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/method/confirmation_bias.html">Teaching about confirmation bias</a> – class handout and instructor's notes by K.H. Grobman</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/06/23/confirmation-bias/">Confirmation bias at You Are Not So Smart</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hosted.xamai.ca/confbias/">Confirmation bias learning object</a> – interactive number triples exercise by Rod McFarland for Simon Fraser University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/soc_psych/lord_death_pen.html">Brief summary of the 1979 Stanford assimilation bias study</a> – Keith Rollag, Babson College</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biases" title="Template:Biases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biases" title="Template talk:Biases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conspiracy_theories" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conspiracy_theories" title="Template:Conspiracy theories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conspiracy_theories" title="Template talk:Conspiracy theories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conspiracy_theories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conspiracy theories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conspiracy_theories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theories</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">List of conspiracy theories</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabal" title="Cabal">Cabals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_state" title="Deep state">deep state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89minence_grise" title="Éminence grise">éminence grise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_behind_the_throne" title="Power behind the throne">power behind the throne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_conspiracy" title="Civil conspiracy">Civil</a> / <a href="/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy" title="Criminal conspiracy">Criminal</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_conspiracies" title="List of political conspiracies">Political conspiracies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_actor" title="Crisis actor">Crisis actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">Dystopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophe_scenarios" title="Global catastrophe scenarios">Global catastrophe scenarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_message" title="Hidden message">Hidden message</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secrecy" title="Secrecy">Secrecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">Secret societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legends and myths</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization#Attitude_polarization" title="Group polarization">Attitude polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confirmation bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_of_control" title="Locus of control">Locus of control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">Paranoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Astronomy_and_outer_space" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Astronomy and outer space</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Apollo Moon landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_flat_Earth_beliefs" title="Modern flat Earth beliefs">Flat Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Moon" title="Hollow Moon">Hollow Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="UFOs" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories" title="UFO conspiracy theories">UFOs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_abduction" title="Alien abduction">Alien abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_51" title="Area 51">Area 51</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Knight_satellite_conspiracy_theory" title="Black Knight satellite conspiracy theory">Black Knight satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_Tonnies#Cryptoterrestrial_hypothesis" title="Mac Tonnies">Cryptoterrestrial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Extraterrestrial hypothesis">Extraterrestrial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Interdimensional_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdimensional hypothesis">Interdimensional hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulce_Base" title="Dulce Base">Dulce Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Sign" title="Project Sign">Estimate of the Situation</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Michigan_Triangle" title="Lake Michigan Triangle">Lake Michigan Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majestic_12" title="Majestic 12">MJ-12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_black" title="Men in black">Men in black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_UFOs" title="Nazi UFOs">Nazi UFOs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_Glocke_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)">Die Glocke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_objects_proposed_in_religion,_astrology,_ufology_and_pseudoscience#Serpo" title="Planetary objects proposed in religion, astrology, ufology and pseudoscience">Project Serpo</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hoaxes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_UFO-related_hoaxes" title="List of UFO-related hoaxes">Hoaxes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dundy_County_UFO_hoax" title="Dundy County UFO hoax">Dundy County</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maury_Island_incident" title="Maury Island incident">Maury Island</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roswell_incident#Roswell_in_UFO_conspiracy_theories_(1978–present)" title="Roswell incident">Roswell</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_Falls_saucer_hoax" title="Twin Falls saucer hoax">Twin Falls</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec,_New_Mexico_crashed_saucer_hoax" title="Aztec, New Mexico crashed saucer hoax">Aztec, New Mexico</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_British_flying_saucer_hoax" title="1967 British flying saucer hoax">Southern England</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UFO-related_hoaxes#Photograph_of_"an_alien"_taken_at_Ilkley_Moor_(1987)" title="List of UFO-related hoaxes">Ilkley Moor</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Breeze_UFO_incident" title="Gulf Breeze UFO incident">Gulf Breeze</a> (1987–88)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_Autopsy_(1995_film)" title="Alien Autopsy (1995 film)">Alien autopsy</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morristown_UFO_hoax" title="Morristown UFO hoax">Morristown</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Deaths_and_disappearances" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Deaths and disappearances</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a> / <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Assassination_theories" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Le_Prince#Disappearance" title="Louis Le Prince">Louis Le Prince</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener,_1st_Earl_Kitchener#Death" title="Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener">Lord Kitchener</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_legacy_of_Tom_Thomson#Alternative_theories" title="Death and legacy of Tom Thomson">Tom Thomson</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski%27s_death_controversy" title="Władysław Sikorski's death controversy">Władysław Sikorski</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini#Post-war_controversy" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_Adolf_Hitler%27s_death" title="Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death">Adolf Hitler</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Death of Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Johnny_Stompanato#Legacy_and_conspiracy_theories" title="Killing of Johnny Stompanato">Johnny Stompanato</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Marilyn_Monroe#Conspiracy_theories" title="Death of Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">John F. Kennedy</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald#Foreign_involvement_in_his_murder" title="Lee Harvey Oswald">Lee Harvey Oswald</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastri#Death" title="Lal Bahadur Shastri">Lal Bahadur Shastri</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Harold_Holt#Conspiracy_theories" title="Disappearance of Harold Holt">Harold Holt</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Robert F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories">Robert F. Kennedy</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Salvador_Allende" title="Death of Salvador Allende">Salvador Allende</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_kidnapping_and_murder_of_Aldo_Moro" title="Conspiracy theories about the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro">Aldo Moro</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renny_Ottolina#Death_and_legacy" title="Renny Ottolina">Renny Ottolina</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I_conspiracy_theories" title="Pope John Paul I conspiracy theories">Pope John Paul I</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airey_Neave#Conspiracy_theories" title="Airey Neave">Airey Neave</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Olof_Palme#Murder_theories" title="Assassination of Olof Palme">Olof Palme</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq#Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Death and state funeral of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq">Zia-ul-Haq</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEC-Marconi_scientist_deaths_conspiracy_theory" title="GEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory">GEC-Marconi scientists</a> (1980s–90s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgut_%C3%96zal#Death_and_exhumation" title="Turgut Özal">Turgut Özal</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Vince_Foster" title="Suicide of Vince Foster">Vince Foster</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Kurt_Cobain" title="Suicide of Kurt Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin_assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories">Yitzhak Rabin</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_death_of_Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales">Diana, Princess of Wales</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alois_Estermann" title="Alois Estermann">Alois Estermann</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_royal_massacre#Conspiracy_theories" title="Nepalese royal massacre">Nepalese royal family</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_Yasser_Arafat%27s_death#Theories_about_the_cause_of_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cause of Yasser Arafat's death">Yasser Arafat</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Benazir_Bhutto#United_Nations_inquiry" title="Assassination of Benazir Bhutto">Benazir Bhutto</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden_death_conspiracy_theories" title="Osama bin Laden death conspiracy theories">Osama bin Laden</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Death of Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Seth_Rich" title="Murder of Seth Rich">Seth Rich</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Castro_(activist)" title="Alejandro Castro (activist)">Alejandro Castro</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jeffrey_Epstein#Homicide_suspicions_and_conspiracy_theories" title="Death of Jeffrey Epstein">Jeffrey Epstein</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Chan_Yin-lam" title="Death of Chan Yin-lam">Chan Yin-lam</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sushant_Singh_Rajput#Public_reactions" title="Death of Sushant Singh Rajput">Sushant Singh Rajput</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McAfee#Death" title="John McAfee">John McAfee</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accidents / disasters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Celeste#Myths_and_false_histories" title="Mary Celeste">Mary Celeste</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanic_conspiracy_theories" title="Titanic conspiracy theories">RMS Titanic</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake#Ensuing_violence" title="1923 Great Kantō earthquake">Great Kantō earthquake</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynmouth_Flood#Conspiracy_theory" title="Lynmouth Flood">Lynmouth Flood</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyatlov_Pass_incident" title="Dyatlov Pass incident">Dyatlov Pass</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cosmonauts" title="Lost Cosmonauts">Lost Cosmonauts</a> (1950s–60s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAT_Flight_367#Shootdown_conspiracy_theory" title="JAT Flight 367">JAT Flight 367</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553#Conspiracy_theories" title="United Air Lines Flight 553">United Air Lines Flight 553</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Airways_Flight_295#Theories_regarding_the_cause_of_the_fire" title="South African Airways Flight 295">South African Airways Flight 295</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamar-Daban_incident" title="Khamar-Daban incident">Khamar-Daban</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_MS_Estonia" title="Sinking of the MS Estonia">MS Estonia</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TWA_Flight_800_conspiracy_theories" title="TWA Flight 800 conspiracy theories">TWA Flight 800</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EgyptAir_Flight_990#Media_coverage" title="EgyptAir Flight 990">EgyptAir Flight 990</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370_disappearance_theories" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappearance theories">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_historical_interpretations_of_Joan_of_Arc" title="Alternative historical interpretations of Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> (1431)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Children_Affair" title="Yemenite Children Affair">Yemenite children</a> (1948–54)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvis_sightings" title="Elvis sightings">Elvis Presley</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonestown#Conspiracy_theories" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a> (1978)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Body double hoax</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_is_dead" title="Paul is dead">Paul McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avril_Lavigne_replacement_conspiracy_theory" title="Avril Lavigne replacement conspiracy theory">Avril Lavigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory_about_Vladimir_Putin%27s_body_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theory about Vladimir Putin's body doubles">Vladimir Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melania_Trump_replacement_conspiracy_theory" title="Melania Trump replacement conspiracy theory">Melania Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Energy,_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Energy, environment</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_21#Opposition" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_drought_manipulation_conspiracy_theory" title="California drought manipulation conspiracy theory"> California drought manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change conspiracy theory">false theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program#Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program">HAARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="False_flag_allegations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a> allegations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)#False_flag_operation_conspiracy_theories" title="USS Maine (1889)">USS Maine</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania#Controversies" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS Lusitania</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire#Dispute_about_Van_der_Lubbe's_role" title="Reichstag fire">Reichstag fire</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theory" title="Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory">Pearl Harbor</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Liberty_incident#Ongoing_controversy_and_unresolved_questions" title="USS Liberty incident">USS Liberty</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lufthansa_Flight_615#Allegations_of_West_German_government_involvement" title="Lufthansa Flight 615">Lufthansa Flight 615</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wider%C3%B8e_Flight_933" title="Widerøe Flight 933">Widerøe Flight 933</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007_alternative_theories" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007 alternative theories">KAL Flight 007</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Mozambican_Tupolev_Tu-134_crash" title="1986 Mozambican Tupolev Tu-134 crash">Mozambican presidential jet</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Am_Flight_103_conspiracy_theories" title="Pan Am Flight 103 conspiracy theories">Pan Am Flight 103</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing_conspiracy_theories" title="Oklahoma City bombing conspiracy theories">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 attacks</a> (2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theories" title="September 11 attacks advance-knowledge conspiracy theories">advance knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories" title="World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories">WTC collapse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_about_the_2004_Madrid_train_bombings" title="Controversies about the 2004 Madrid train bombings">Madrid train bombing</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_July_2005_London_bombings#Conspiracy_theories" title="7 July 2005 London bombings">London bombings</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_air_disaster" title="Smolensk air disaster">Smolensk air disaster</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17#Russian_media_coverage" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight 17</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_7_October_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of the 7 October attacks">Denial of the 7 October attacks</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Gender_and_sexuality" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Gender and sexuality</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_and_beta_male" title="Alpha and beta male">Alpha / beta males</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_chemicals_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBT chemicals conspiracy theory">Chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_panic" title="Drag panic">drag panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_agenda" title="Gay agenda">gay agenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_Nazis_myth" title="Gay Nazis myth">gay Nazis myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS#1981–1982:_From_GRID_to_AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_the_United_States#Public_perception" title="HIV/AIDS in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric#Homintern" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Homintern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric#Recruitment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_grooming_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT grooming conspiracy theory">Grooming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">litter box hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvestigation" title="Transvestigation">Transvestigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_pinching_conspiracy_theory" title="Finger pinching conspiracy theory">Finger pinching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamergate_(harassment_campaign)" title="Gamergate (harassment campaign)">GamerGate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incel#Ideology_present_in_incel_communities" title="Incel">Ideology in incel communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larries" title="Larries">Larries</a> / <a href="/wiki/Swifties#Gaylor" title="Swifties">Gaylors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanic_panic" title="Satanic panic">Satanic panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soy_boy" title="Soy boy">Soy and masculinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Health</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G_misinformation" title="5G misinformation">5G misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">Anti-vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines" title="Thiomersal and vaccines">Thiomersal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccinationism_in_chiropractic" title="Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic">in chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">misinformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">Aspartame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theories" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theories">Big Pharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic">Ivermectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_lab_leak_theory" title="COVID-19 lab leak theory">lab leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">vaccines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_cancer" title="Turbo cancer">turbo cancer</a></li> <li>in <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_Canada" title="COVID-19 misinformation in Canada">Canada</a> / <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">Philippines</a> / <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_harassment" title="Electronic harassment">Electronic harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories" title="GMO conspiracy theories">GMOs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discredited_HIV/AIDS_origins_theories" title="Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories">origins theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_polio_vaccine_AIDS_hypothesis" title="Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis">oral polio AIDS hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1321_lepers%27_plot" title="1321 lepers' plot">Lepers' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medbed" title="Medbed">Medbeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS_conspiracy_theory" title="SARS conspiracy theory">SARS</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1951_Pont-Saint-Esprit_mass_poisoning" title="1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning">Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Race,_religion_and/or_ethnicity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Race, religion and/or ethnicity</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagwa_Love_Trap_conspiracy_theory" title="Bhagwa Love Trap conspiracy theory">Bhagwa Love Trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax" title="CERN ritual hoax">CERN ritual hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 and xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonic_conspiracy_theories" title="Masonic conspiracy theories">Freemasons</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Masonic_conspiracy_theories_in_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Masonic conspiracy theories in the French Revolution (page does not exist)">French Revolution</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9ories_du_complot_ma%C3%A7onnique_dans_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Théories du complot maçonnique dans la Révolution française">fr</a>]</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp#Discredited_extermination_camp_story" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Gas chambers for Poles in Warsaw</a> (1940s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Losses" title="Other Losses">German POWs post-WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priory_of_Sion" title="Priory of Sion">Priory of Sion</a></li> <li>Product labeling <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halal_conspiracy_theories" title="Halal conspiracy theories">Halal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_tax_conspiracy_theory" title="Kosher tax conspiracy theory">Kosher</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartarian_Empire_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartarian Empire (conspiracy theory)">Tartarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_Islam_controversy" title="War on Islam controversy">War against Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">Antisemitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_Plan" title="Cohen Plan">Cohen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">during the Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epsilon_Team" title="Epsilon Team">Epsilon Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Soros_conspiracy_theories" title="George Soros conspiracy theories">George Soros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_300" title="Committee of 300">Committee of 300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Jewish Bolshevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory" title="Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory">Judeo-Masonic plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Occupation_Government_conspiracy_theory" title="Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory">Z.O.G.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeopolonia" title="Judeopolonia">Judeopolonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_deicide" title="Jewish deicide">Killing of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalergi_Plan" title="Kalergi Plan">Kalergi Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Christian / <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories#Anti-Catholic_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">Anti-Catholic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_conspiracy_theories" title="Jesuit conspiracy theories">Jesuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_conspiracy_theories" title="Vatican conspiracy theories">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_conspiracy_theory" title="Bible conspiracy theory">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_election_of_Giuseppe_Siri_theory" title="Papal election of Giuseppe Siri theory">Giuseppe Siri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia#Bihar_human_sacrifice_claims" title="OpIndia">Bihar human sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurabia_conspiracy_theory" title="Eurabia conspiracy theory">Eurabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Replacement">Great Replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_jihad_conspiracy_theory" title="Love jihad conspiracy theory">Love jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamo-leftism#2021_proposed_Vidal_inquiry" title="Islamo-leftism">Proposed "Islamo-leftism" inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse_scandal" title="Trojan Horse scandal">Trojan Horse scandal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Denial_of_mass_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Denial of mass killings">Denial of mass killings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide#Views_in_Pakistan" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_denial" title="Nanjing Massacre denial">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo#Denial_and_justification" title="Sayfo">Sayfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs during WWII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Regional" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Regional</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cow_vigilante_violence_in_India" title="Cow vigilante violence in India">Cow vigilante violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Bangladesh" title="Greater Bangladesh">Greater Bangladesh</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pakistan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinnahpur" title="Jinnahpur">Jinnahpur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Philippines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tallano_gold" title="Tallano gold">Tallano gold</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Korea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finger-pinching_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Finger-pinching conspiracy theory">Finger-pinching</a></li></ul></li> <li>Thailand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finland_Plot" title="Finland Plot">Finland Plot</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas (outside the United States)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Argentina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avro_Canada_CF-105_Arrow#Cancellation" title="Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow">Avro Arrow cancellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuchter_report" title="Leuchter report">Leuchter report</a></li></ul></li> <li>Peru <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Matusita" title="Casa Matusita">Casa Matusita</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venezuela <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daktari_Ranch_affair" title="Daktari Ranch affair">Daktari Ranch affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golpe_Azul" title="Golpe Azul">Golpe Azul</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East / North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_the_Arab_world" title="Conspiracy theories in the Arab world">In the Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10_agorot_controversy" title="10 agorot controversy">10 agorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_fire#Conspiracy_theories" title="Cairo fire">Cairo fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissinger_Plan_in_Lebanon" title="Kissinger Plan in Lebanon">Kissinger Plan in Lebanon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel-related_animal_conspiracy_theories" title="Israel-related animal conspiracy theories">Israel-related animal theories</a></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_about_the_overthrow_of_Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories about the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Western-backed Iranian Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li>Israel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallywood" title="Pallywood">Pallywood</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_payment_conspiracy" title="Alaska payment conspiracy">Alaska payment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulles%27_Plan" title="Dulles' Plan">Dulles' Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_billion" title="Golden billion">Golden billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagantsev_conspiracy" title="Tagantsev conspiracy">Petrograd Military Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigori_Rasputin" title="Grigori Rasputin">Rasputin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_bioweapons_conspiracy_theory" title="Ukraine bioweapons conspiracy theory">Ukraine bioweapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Turkey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt#Staged_coup_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt">2016 coup attempt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergenekon_(organization)" title="Ergenekon (organization)">Ergenekon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sledgehammer_(alleged_coup_plan)" title="Sledgehammer (alleged coup plan)">Operation Sledgehammer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gezi_Park_protests#Conspiracy_claims" title="Gezi Park protests">Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A8vres_syndrome" title="Sèvres syndrome">Sèvres syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories#Üst_akıl" title="List of conspiracy theories">Üst akıl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_War_Party" title="Global War Party">Global War Party</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ireland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Plot_(Ireland)" title="German Plot (Ireland)">German Plot</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itavia_Flight_870" title="Itavia Flight 870">Itavia Flight 870</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lithuania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statesmen_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Statesmen (conspiracy theory)">Statesmen</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman Republic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="First Catilinarian conspiracy">First Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mano_Negra_affair" title="Mano Negra affair">Mano Negra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lilla_Saltsj%C3%B6badsavtalet" title="Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet">Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet</a></li></ul></li> <li>UK <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elm_Guest_House_hoax" title="Elm Guest House hoax">Elm Guest House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson_plot_allegations" title="Harold Wilson plot allegations">Harold Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_pencil_conspiracy_theory" title="Voting pencil conspiracy theory">Voting pencil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barack Obama <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_citizenship_conspiracy_theories" title="Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories">citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_religion_conspiracy_theories" title="Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories">religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreams_from_My_Real_Father" title="Dreams from My Real Father">parentage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_Barack_Obama_spying_on_Donald_Trump" title="Allegations of Barack Obama spying on Donald Trump">"Obamagate"</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spygate_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Spygate (conspiracy theory)">Spygate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biden%E2%80%93Ukraine_conspiracy_theory" title="Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory">Biden–Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_helicopter" title="Black helicopter">Black helicopters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA and JFK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_CIA_assistance_to_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden">CIA assistance to bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_body_count_conspiracy_theory" title="Clinton body count conspiracy theory">Clinton body count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Marxism_conspiracy_theory" title="Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory">Cultural Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBI_secret_society_conspiracy_theory" title="FBI secret society conspiracy theory">FBI secret society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEMA_camps_conspiracy_theory" title="FEMA camps conspiracy theory">FEMA camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Guidestones#Conspiracy_theories" title="Georgia Guidestones">Georgia Guidestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Helm_15_conspiracy_theories" title="Jade Helm 15 conspiracy theories">Jade Helm 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montauk_Project" title="Montauk Project">Montauk Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Experiment" title="Philadelphia Experiment">Philadelphia Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory" title="Pizzagate conspiracy theory">Pizzagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Plan_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="The Plan (Washington, D.C.)">The Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Azorian" title="Project Azorian">Project Azorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_QAnon" title="Pastel QAnon">Pastel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_incidents_involving_QAnon" title="Timeline of incidents involving QAnon">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam%E2%80%93al-Qaeda_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory">Saddam–al-Qaeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_pet-eating_hoax" title="Springfield pet-eating hoax">Springfield pet-eating hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_related_to_the_Trump%E2%80%93Ukraine_scandal" title="Conspiracy theories related to the Trump–Ukraine scandal">Trump–Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vast_right-wing_conspiracy_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vast right-wing conspiracy (term)">"Vast right-wing conspiracy"</a></li> <li>Vietnam War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War_POW/MIA_issue" title="Vietnam War POW/MIA issue">POW/MIA issue</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="2020_election" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Conspiracy_allegations" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">2020 election</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italygate" title="Italygate">Italygate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Pence_Card" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">"Pence Card"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Maricopa_County_presidential_ballot_audit" title="2021 Maricopa County presidential ballot audit">Maricopa County ballot audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election#Stop_the_Steal" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Stop the Steal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory" title="Dead Internet theory">Dead Internet theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NESARA" title="NESARA">NESARA/GESARA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Coke#Conspiracy_theories" title="New Coke">New Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_time_conspiracy_theory" title="Phantom time conspiracy theory">Phantom time</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_chronology_(Fomenko)" title="New chronology (Fomenko)">New chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_government_(conspiracy_theory)" title="Shadow government (conspiracy theory)">Shadow government claims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilderberg_Meeting#Conspiracy_theories" title="Bilderberg Meeting">Bilderberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synarchism" title="Synarchism">synarchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question" title="Shakespeare authorship question">Shakespearean authorship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law#Conspiracy_theory" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_on_the_land_movement" title="Freeman on the land movement">Freeman on the land movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemption_movement" title="Redemption movement">Redemption movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_citizen_movement" title="Sovereign citizen movement">Sovereign citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawman_theory" title="Strawman theory">Strawman theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_conspiracy_arguments" title="Tax protester conspiracy arguments">Tax protesters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satirical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acre_conspiracy" title="Acre conspiracy">Acre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bielefeld_conspiracy" title="Bielefeld conspiracy">Bielefeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birds_Aren%27t_Real" title="Birds Aren't Real">Birds Aren't Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%27s_field" title="Li's field">Li's field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz%E2%80%93Zodiac_Killer_meme" title="Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme">Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="See_also" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">See also</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_Encyclopedia" title="Conspiracy Encyclopedia">Conspiracy Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_fiction" title="Conspiracy fiction">Conspiracy fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspirituality" title="Conspirituality">Conspirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoskepticism" title="Pseudoskepticism">pseudoskepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_youth_radicalization" title="Online youth radicalization">Online youth radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">hate speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicalization" title="Radicalization">Radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" title="Science by press conference">Science by press conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_and_human_factors" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_and_human_factors" title="Template:Media and human factors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_and_human_factors" title="Template talk:Media and human factors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_and_human_factors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media and human factors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_and_human_factors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">human factors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betteridge%27s_law_of_headlines" title="Betteridge's law of headlines">Betteridge's law of headlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeping_(communication)" title="Gatekeeping (communication)">Gatekeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human-interest_story" title="Human-interest story">Human-interest story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_food_news" title="Junk food news">Junk food news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_objectionable_program" title="Least objectionable program">Least objectionable program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_media" title="Soft media">Soft media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pink-slime_journalism" title="Pink-slime journalism">Pink-slime journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_white_woman_syndrome" title="Missing white woman syndrome">Missing white woman syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_values" title="News values">News values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hot_take" title="Hot take">Hot take</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spike_(journalism)" title="Spike (journalism)">Spiking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_television" title="Tabloid television">Tabloid television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_inequality" title="Attention inequality">Attention inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_management" title="Attention management">Attention management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_span" title="Attention span">Attention span</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumbox" title="Chumbox">Chumbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">Clickbait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_miser" title="Cognitive miser">Cognitive miser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_information_voter" title="Low information voter">Low information voter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_zombie" title="Digital zombie">Digital zombie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phubbing" title="Phubbing">Phubbing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomscrolling" title="Doomscrolling">Doomscrolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Human multitasking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_multitasking" title="Media multitasking">Media multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence-for-hire" title="Influence-for-hire">Influence-for-hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_explosion" title="Information explosion">Information explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">Information overload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information%E2%80%93action_ratio" title="Information–action ratio">Information–action ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Rage farming">Rage farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binge-watching" title="Binge-watching">Binge-watching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_consumption" title="Television consumption">Television consumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sticky_content" title="Sticky content">Sticky content</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_cascade" title="Availability cascade">Availability cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability heuristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Confirmation bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social-desirability bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Political_polarization" title="Political polarization">Political polarization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_youth_radicalization" title="Online youth radicalization">Youth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">Fake news website</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_divide" title="Knowledge divide">Knowledge divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis" title="Knowledge gap hypothesis">Knowledge gap hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_polarization_in_the_United_States" title="Political polarization in the United States">Political polarization in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_use_in_politics" title="Social media use in politics">Social media use in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_and_political_communication_in_the_United_States" title="Social media and political communication in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_in_the_2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_in_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Social media in the 2020 United States presidential election">2020 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_rage" title="Computer rage">Computer rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Facebook" title="Criticism of Facebook">Criticism of Facebook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Facebook_leak" title="2021 Facebook leak">2021 Facebook company files leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facebook%E2%80%93Cambridge_Analytica_data_scandal" title="Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal">Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Netflix" title="Criticism of Netflix">Criticism of Netflix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_TikTok" title="Cultural impact of TikTok">Cultural impact of TikTok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_violence_in_mass_media" title="Effects of violence in mass media">Effects of violence in mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascination_with_death" title="Fascination with death">Fascination with death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griefer" title="Griefer">Griefer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shooting_contagion" title="Mass shooting contagion">Mass shooting contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_impact_of_YouTube" title="Social impact of YouTube">Social impact of YouTube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neophile" title="Neophile">Neophile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_and_video_games" title="Violence and video games">Violence and video games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&oldid=1253173197">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_bias&oldid=1253173197</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Barriers_to_critical_thinking" title="Category:Barriers to critical thinking">Barriers to critical thinking</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_biases" title="Category:Cognitive biases">Cognitive biases</a></li><li><a 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113.870 18 Template:Rp"," 5.49% 104.583 18 Template:R/superscript"," 5.06% 96.396 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.77% 90.868 1 Template:Biases"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.164","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8661357,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAgarwal2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbarracinMitchell,_A.L.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Psychological_Association2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonLepperRoss1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtwood2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkowCosmidesTooby1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackburnDavidson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurtt1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCacciatore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrisler,_Mark2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroskerry2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDahlgren2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDardenneLeyens1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarleyGross2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawsonGilovichRegan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevineHirtGehrke1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDittoLopez1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmersonWarmeWolfHeckman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFestinger1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFine2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischerFischer,_Julia_K.Aydin,_NilüferFrey,_Dieter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiskeGilbertLindzey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrich1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGadenneOswald1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldacre2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroopman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaidt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalpern1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartAlbarracinEaglyBrechan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarveyWatkinsMansell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastiePark2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHergovichSchottBurger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilton2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrobin1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Khaldun1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJüniAltmanEgger2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKendrickCohenNeubergCialdini2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKida2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaymanHa1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoehler1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruegerMann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhnLao1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKunda1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKundaFongSanitosoReber1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeavitt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeSugimotoZhangCronin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLetrudHernes2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevineProhaska,_V.Burgess,_S.L.Rice,_J.A.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewicka1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLidén2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLordRossLepper1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCoun1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahoney1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahoneyDeMonbreun1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasonScirica,_Fabio2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatlin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerMcHoskeyBaneDowd1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitroff1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyersLamm1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMynattDohertyTweney1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeenanDryden2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNickerson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOswaldGrosjean2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPage2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPangBleetmanBleetmanWynne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPariser2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPariser2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlous1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoletiek2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPompian2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandi1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedelmeirTversky1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRisenGilovich2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossAnderson1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossLepperHubbard1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussellJones1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaferBonanno,_G.A.Field,_N.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanitiosoKundaFong1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopenhauer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelf2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShadish2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShafir1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanteau,_James2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShermer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShraugerLund1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghErnst2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyderCantor1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyderSwann1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStangorMcMillan1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanovich2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanovichWest,_R.F.Toplak,_M.E.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSternberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStory1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwannPelhamKrull1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwannRead1981\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTaberLodge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTetlock2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThornhillMeeusPeperkampBerendt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor-Roper1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTropeBassok1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTropeLiberman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTweneyDoherty1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVyse1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWason1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWason1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinmannSchneidervom_Brocke2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinstock2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinstockNeuman,_YairTabak,_Iris2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWesten2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestenBlagovHarenskiKilts2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteBrockettOverstreet1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfeAnne_Britt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodPorter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhong2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZweig2009\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Biases\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 4,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 113,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite podcast\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 3,\n [\"Conspiracy theories\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 51,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"Media and human factors\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 18,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Thucydides\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vanchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 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