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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Systems engineering</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg/280px-Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg" width="280" height="280" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg/420px-Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg/560px-Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Systems_engineering_application_projects_collage.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Systems engineering techniques are used in complex projects: spacecraft design, computer chip design, robotics, software integration, and bridge building. Systems engineering uses a host of tools that include <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_and_simulation" title="Modeling and simulation">modeling and simulation</a>, requirements analysis and scheduling to manage complexity.</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Systems engineering</b> is an <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary" title="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect">interdisciplinary</a> field of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> that focuses on how to design and manage complex engineering systems over their <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_life_cycle" title="Enterprise life cycle">life cycles</a>. Issues such as <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">requirements engineering</a>, <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reliability" class="extiw" title="wikt:reliability">reliability</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">logistics</a>, coordination of different teams, testing and evaluation, reliability, maintainability and many other disciplines necessary for successful system development, design, implementation, and ultimate decommission become more difficult when dealing with large or complex projects. Systems engineering deals with work-processes, optimization methods, and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a> tools in such projects. It overlaps technical and human-centered disciplines such as <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">control engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_studies" title="Organizational studies">organizational studies</a>, and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>. Systems engineering ensures that all likely aspects of a project or system are considered, and integrated into a whole.</p> <p>The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems engineering process must begin by discovering the real problem that needs to be solved; the biggest failure that can be made in systems engineering is finding an elegant solution to the wrong problem.</p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Concept"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Concept</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Origins_and_traditional_scope"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Origins and traditional scope</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Evolution_to_broader_scope"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Evolution to broader scope</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Holistic_view"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Holistic view</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Interdisciplinary_field"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Interdisciplinary field</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Managing_complexity"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Managing complexity</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Scope"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Scope</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Education"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Education</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Systems_engineering_topics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Systems engineering topics</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#System"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">System</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#The_systems_engineering_process"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">The systems engineering process</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Using_models"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Using models</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Modeling_formalisms_and_graphical_representations"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Modeling formalisms and graphical representations</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Other_tools"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Other tools</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Related_fields_and_sub-fields"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Related fields and sub-fields</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A1_House_of_Quality.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A1_House_of_Quality.png/220px-A1_House_of_Quality.png" width="220" height="285" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A1_House_of_Quality.png/330px-A1_House_of_Quality.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A1_House_of_Quality.png/440px-A1_House_of_Quality.png 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1583"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A1_House_of_Quality.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> QFD <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Quality" title="House of Quality">House of Quality</a> for Enterprise Product Development Processes</div> </div> </div> <p>The term <i>systems engineering</i> can be traced back to <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> The need to identify and manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts' properties, motivated various industries to apply the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>When it was no longer possible to rely on design evolution to improve upon a system and the existing tools were not sufficient to meet growing demands, new methods began to be developed that addressed the complexity directly.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> The continuing evolution of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling techniques. These methods aid in better comprehension of engineering systems as they grow more complex. Popular tools that are often used in the systems engineering context were developed during these times, including <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Systems_Language" title="Universal Systems Language">USL</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">UML</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">QFD</a>, and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDEF" title="IDEF">IDEF</a>0.</p> <p>In 1990, a professional society for systems engineering, the <i>National Council on Systems Engineering</i> (NCOSE), was founded by representatives from a number of U.S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for improvements in systems engineering practices and education. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U.S., the name of the organization was changed to the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Systems_Engineering" title="International Council on Systems Engineering">International Council on Systems Engineering</a> (INCOSE) in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> Schools in several countries offer graduate programs in systems engineering, and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">continuing education</a> options are also available for practicing engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-edu_dir_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edu_dir-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Concept">Concept</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Concept">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; margin-right:2em; font-size:85%; background:#ffc; color:black; width:30%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <th style="background:#ccc;">Some definitions</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">"An interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems"<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> — <i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOSE" title="INCOSE" class="mw-redirect">INCOSE</a> handbook, 2004.</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">"System engineering is a robust approach to the design, creation, and operation of systems. In simple terms, the approach consists of identification and quantification of system goals, creation of alternative system design concepts, performance of design trades, selection and implementation of the best design, verification that the design is properly built and integrated, and post-implementation assessment of how well the system meets (or met) the goals."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> — <i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Systems Engineering Handbook, 1995.</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">"The Art and Science of creating effective systems, using whole system, whole life principles" OR "The Art and Science of creating optimal solution systems to complex issues and problems"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> — <i>Derek Hitchins, Prof. of Systems Engineering, former president of INCOSE (UK), 2007.</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">"The concept from the engineering standpoint is the evolution of the engineering scientist, i.e., the scientific generalist who maintains a broad outlook. The method is that of the team approach. On large-scale-system problems, teams of scientists and engineers, generalists as well as specialists, exert their joint efforts to find a solution and physically realize it...The technique has been variously called the systems approach or the team development method."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> — <i>Harry H. Goode & Robert E. Machol, 1957.</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">"The systems engineering method recognizes each system is an integrated whole even though composed of diverse, specialized structures and sub-functions. It further recognizes that any system has a number of objectives and that the balance between them may differ widely from system to system. The methods seek to optimize the overall system functions according to the weighted objectives and to achieve maximum compatibility of its parts."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> — <i>Systems Engineering Tools by Harold Chestnut, 1965.</i></td> </tr> </table> <p>Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more recently, a discipline in engineering. The aim of education in systems engineering is to simply formalize the approach and in doing so, identify new methods and research opportunities similar to the way it occurs in other fields of engineering. As an approach, systems engineering is holistic and interdisciplinary in flavour.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Origins_and_traditional_scope">Origins and traditional scope</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins and traditional scope">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The traditional scope of engineering embraces the design, development, production and operation of physical systems, and systems engineering, as originally conceived, falls within this scope. "Systems engineering", in this sense of the term, refers to the distinctive set of concepts, methodologies, organizational structures (and so on) that have been developed to meet the challenges of engineering functional physical systems of unprecedented complexity. The <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> is a leading example of a systems engineering project.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Evolution_to_broader_scope">Evolution to broader scope</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evolution to broader scope">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems" and of engineering processes. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> and the term continues to apply to both the narrower and broader scope.</p> <p>Traditional systems engineering was seen as a branch of engineering in the classical sense, that is, as applied only to physical system, such as space craft and aircraft. More recently, systems engineering has evolved to a take on a broader meaning especially when humans were seen as an essential component of a system. Checkland, for example, captures the broader meaning of systems engineering by stating that 'engineering' "can be read in its general sense; you can engineer a meeting or a political agreement." <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK) <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> has defined three types of systems engineering: (1) Product Systems Engineering (PSE) is the traditional systems engineering focused on the design of physical systems consisting of hardware and software. (2) Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, as systems. (3) Service Systems Engineering (SSE) has to do with the engineering of service systems. Checkland <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> defines a service system as a system which is conceived as serving another system. Most civil infrastructure systems are service systems.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Holistic_view">Holistic view</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Holistic view">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and eliciting customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem, the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_lifecycle" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a>. This includes fully understanding all of the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_stakeholders" title="Project stakeholders" class="mw-redirect">stakeholders</a> involved. Oliver <i>et al.</i> claim that the systems engineering process can be decomposed into</p> <ul> <li>a <i>Systems Engineering Technical Process</i>, and</li> <li>a <i>Systems Engineering Management Process</i>.</li> </ul> <p>Within Oliver's model, the goal of the Management Process is to organize the technical effort in the lifecycle, while the Technical Process includes <i>assessing available information</i>, <i>defining effectiveness measures</i>, to <i>create a behavior model</i>, <i>create a structure model</i>, <i>perform trade-off analysis</i>, and <i>create sequential build & test plan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Okk_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okk-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Depending on their application, although there are several models that are used in the industry, all of them aim to identify the relation between the various stages mentioned above and incorporate feedback. Examples of such models include the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a> and the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VEE_model" title="VEE model" class="mw-redirect">VEE model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Interdisciplinary_field">Interdisciplinary field</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary field">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>System development often requires contribution from diverse technical disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> By providing a systems (<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a>) view of the development effort, systems engineering helps mold all the technical contributors into a unified team effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and, in some cases, to termination and disposal.</p> <p>This perspective is often replicated in educational programs, in that systems engineering courses are taught by faculty from other engineering departments, which helps create an interdisciplinary environment.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Managing_complexity">Managing complexity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Managing complexity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> in turn exponentially increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this context, complexity incorporates not only engineering systems, but also the logical human organization of data. At the same time, a system can become more complex due to an increase in size as well as with an increase in the amount of data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the design. The <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> is an example of such a system.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg/300px-STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg" width="300" height="199" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg/450px-STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg/600px-STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> is an example of a largely complex system requiring Systems Engineering.</div> </div> </div> <p>The development of smarter control algorithms, microprocessor design, and analysis of environmental systems also come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to better comprehend and manage complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools can be seen here:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <ul> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_model" title="System model">System model</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Modeling</a>, and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">Simulation</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_architecture" title="System architecture" class="mw-redirect">System architecture</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_analysis" title="Statistical analysis" class="mw-redirect">Statistical analysis</a></i>,</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability analysis</a></i>, and</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making" title="Decision making" class="mw-redirect">Decision making</a></i></li> </ul> <p>Taking an <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary" title="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect">interdisciplinary</a> approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> of and interaction among system components is not always immediately <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well_defined" title="Well defined" class="mw-redirect">well defined</a> or understood. Defining and characterizing such <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System" title="System">systems</a> and subsystems and the interactions among them is one of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so, the gap that exists between informal requirements from users, operators, marketing organizations, and technical specifications is successfully bridged.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scope">Scope</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scope">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SE_Activities.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/SE_Activities.jpg/400px-SE_Activities.jpg" width="400" height="288" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/SE_Activities.jpg/600px-SE_Activities.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/SE_Activities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="494"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SE_Activities.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The scope of systems engineering activities<sup id="cite_ref-SEF01_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEF01-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></div> </div> </div> <p>One way to understand the motivation behind systems engineering is to see it as a method, or practice, to identify and improve common rules that exist within a wide variety of systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Keeping this in mind, the principles of systems engineering – holism, emergent behavior, boundary, et al. – can be applied to any system, complex or otherwise, provided <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">systems thinking</a> is employed at all levels.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Besides defense and aerospace, many information and technology based companies, software development firms, and industries in the field of electronics & communications require systems engineers as part of their team.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>An analysis by the INCOSE Systems Engineering center of excellence (SECOE) indicates that optimal effort spent on systems engineering is about 15-20% of the total project effort.<sup id="cite_ref-SEvalue_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEvalue-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> At the same time, studies have shown that systems engineering essentially leads to reduction in costs among other benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-SEvalue_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEvalue-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> However, no quantitative survey at a larger scale encompassing a wide variety of industries has been conducted until recently. Such studies are underway to determine the effectiveness and quantify the benefits of systems engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Systems engineering encourages the use of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_and_simulation" title="Modeling and simulation">modeling and simulation</a> to validate assumptions or theories on systems and the interactions within them.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Use of methods that allow early detection of possible failures, in <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a>, are integrated into the design process. At the same time, decisions made at the beginning of a project whose consequences are not clearly understood can have enormous implications later in the life of a system, and it is the task of the modern systems engineer to explore these issues and make critical decisions. No method guarantees today's decisions will still be valid when a system goes into service years or decades after first conceived. However, there are techniques that support the process of systems engineering. Examples include soft systems methodology, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a>'s <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a> method, and the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">Unified Modeling Language</a> (UML)—all currently being explored, evaluated, and developed to support the engineering decision process.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Education">Education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_engineering_at_universities" title="List of systems engineering at universities" class="mw-redirect">List of systems engineering at universities</a></div> <p>Education in systems engineering is often seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> reflecting the industry attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in one of the traditional engineering disciplines (e.g., <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">automotive engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a>)—plus practical, real-world experience to be effective as systems engineers. Undergraduate university programs in systems engineering are rare. Typically, systems engineering is offered at the graduate level in combination with interdisciplinary study.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOSE" title="INCOSE" class="mw-redirect">INCOSE</a> maintains a continuously updated Directory of Systems Engineering Academic Programs worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-edu_dir_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edu_dir-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> As of 2009, there are about 80 institutions in United States that offer 165 undergraduate and graduate programs in systems engineering. Education in systems engineering can be taken as <i>Systems-centric</i> or <i>Domain-centric</i>.</p> <ul> <li><i>Systems-centric</i> programs treat systems engineering as a separate discipline and most of the courses are taught focusing on systems engineering principles and practice.</li> <li><i>Domain-centric</i> programs offer systems engineering as an option that can be exercised with another major field in engineering.</li> </ul> <p>Both of these patterns strive to educate the systems engineer who is able to oversee interdisciplinary projects with the depth required of a core-engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Systems_engineering_topics">Systems engineering topics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Systems engineering topics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Systems engineering tools are <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">strategies</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedure_(term)" title="Procedure (term)">procedures</a>, and <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technique" class="extiw" title="wikt:technique">techniques</a> that aid in performing systems engineering on a <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project" title="Project">project</a> or <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a>. The purpose of these tools vary from database management, graphical browsing, simulation, and reasoning, to document production, neutral import/export and more.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="System">System</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: System">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>There are many definitions of what a <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> is in the field of systems engineering. Below are a few authoritative definitions:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI" title="ANSI" class="mw-redirect">ANSI</a>/<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Industries_Alliance" title="Electronic Industries Alliance">EIA</a>-632-1999: "An aggregation of end products and enabling products to achieve a given purpose."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>DAU Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an integrated composite of people, products, and processes that provide a capability to satisfy a stated need or objective."</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE" title="IEEE" class="mw-redirect">IEEE</a> Std 1220-1998: "A set or arrangement of elements and processes that are related and whose behavior satisfies customer/operational needs and provides for life cycle sustainment of the products."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC" title="ISO/IEC" class="mw-redirect">ISO/IEC</a> 15288:2008: "A combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Systems Engineering Handbook: "(1) The combination of elements that function together to produce the capability to meet a need. The elements include all hardware, software, equipment, facilities, personnel, processes, and procedures needed for this purpose. (2) The end product (which performs operational functions) and enabling products (which provide life-cycle support services to the operational end products) that make up a system."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Systems_Engineering" title="International Council on Systems Engineering">INCOSE</a> Systems Engineering Handbook: "homogeneous entity that exhibits predefined behavior in the real world and is composed of heterogeneous parts that do not individually exhibit that behavior and an integrated configuration of components and/or subsystems."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Systems_Engineering" title="International Council on Systems Engineering">INCOSE</a>: "A system is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, and documents; that is, all things required to produce systems-level results. The results include system level qualities, properties, characteristics, functions, behavior and performance. The value added by the system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is primarily created by the relationship among the parts; that is, how they are interconnected."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup></li> </ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_systems_engineering_process">The systems engineering process</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The systems engineering process">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Depending on their application, tools are used for various stages of the systems engineering process:<sup id="cite_ref-SEF01_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEF01-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <dl> <dd> <div class="center"> <div class="floatnone"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Systems_Engineering_Process.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Systems Engineering Process.jpg" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Systems_Engineering_Process.jpg/600px-Systems_Engineering_Process.jpg" width="600" height="413" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Systems_Engineering_Process.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Systems_Engineering_Process.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="550"/></a></div> </div> </dd> </dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Using_models">Using models</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Using models">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_model" title="Abstract model" class="mw-redirect">Models</a> play important and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model can be defined in several ways, including:<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <ul> <li>An abstraction of reality designed to answer specific questions about the real world</li> <li>An imitation, analogue, or representation of a real world process or structure; or</li> <li>A conceptual, mathematical, or physical tool to assist a decision maker.</li> </ul> <p>Together, these definitions are broad enough to encompass physical engineering models used in the verification of a system design, as well as schematic models like a <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_flow_block_diagram" title="Functional flow block diagram">functional flow block diagram</a> and mathematical (i.e., quantitative) models used in the trade study process. This section focuses on the last.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The main reason for using <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">diagrams</a> in trade studies is to provide estimates of system effectiveness, performance or technical attributes, and cost from a set of known or estimable quantities. Typically, a collection of separate models is needed to provide all of these outcome variables. The heart of any mathematical model is a set of meaningful quantitative relationships among its inputs and outputs. These relationships can be as simple as adding up constituent quantities to obtain a total, or as complex as a set of differential equations describing the trajectory of a spacecraft in a gravitational field. Ideally, the relationships express causality, not just correlation.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA95_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA95-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, key to successful systems engineering activities are also the methods with which these models are efficiently and effectively managed and used to simulate the systems. However, diverse domains often present recurring problems of modeling and simulation for systems engineering, and new advancements are aiming to crossfertilize methods among distinct scientific and engineering communities, under the title of 'Modeling & Simulation-based Systems Engineering'.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modeling_formalisms_and_graphical_representations">Modeling formalisms and graphical representations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modeling formalisms and graphical representations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex problem, graphic representations of a system are used to communicate a system's functional and data requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup> Common graphical representations include:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_flow_block_diagram" title="Functional flow block diagram">Functional flow block diagram</a> (FFBD)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-based_design" title="Model-based design">Model-based design</a>, for example <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulink" title="Simulink">Simulink</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisSim" title="VisSim">VisSim</a>, etc.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Flow_Diagram" title="Data Flow Diagram" class="mw-redirect">Data Flow Diagram</a> (DFD)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N2_Chart" title="N2 Chart" class="mw-redirect">N2 Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDEF0" title="IDEF0">IDEF0 Diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_case" title="Use case">Use case diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_diagram" title="Sequence diagram">Sequence diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_diagram" title="Block diagram">Block diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-flow_graph" title="Signal-flow graph">Signal-flow graph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Systems_Language#Universal_primitive_control_structures" title="Universal Systems Language">USL Function Maps and Type Maps</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture_framework" title="Enterprise Architecture framework" class="mw-redirect">Enterprise Architecture frameworks</a>, like <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOGAF" title="TOGAF" class="mw-redirect">TOGAF</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MODAF" title="MODAF">MODAF</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zachman_Framework" title="Zachman Framework">Zachman Frameworks</a> etc.</li> </ul> <p>A graphical representation relates the various subsystems or parts of a system through functions, data, or interfaces. Any or each of the above methods are used in an industry based on its requirements. For instance, the N2 chart may be used where interfaces between systems is important. Part of the design phase is to create structural and behavioral models of the system.</p> <p>Once the requirements are understood, it is now the responsibility of a systems engineer to refine them, and to determine, along with other engineers, the best technology for a job. At this point starting with a trade study, systems engineering encourages the use of weighted choices to determine the best option. A <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_matrix" title="Decision matrix">decision matrix</a>, or Pugh method, is one way (<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">QFD</a> is another) to make this choice while considering all criteria that are important. The trade study in turn informs the design, which again affects graphic representations of the system (without changing the requirements). In an SE process, this stage represents the iterative step that is carried out until a feasible solution is found. A decision matrix is often populated using techniques such as statistical analysis, reliability analysis, system dynamics (feedback control), and optimization methods.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_tools">Other tools</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other tools">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_Modeling_Language" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a> (SysML), a modeling language used for systems engineering applications, supports the specification, analysis, design, verification and validation of a broad range of complex systems.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifecycle_Modeling_Language" title="Lifecycle Modeling Language">Lifecycle Modeling Language</a> (LML), is an open-standard modeling language designed for systems engineering that supports the full lifecycle: conceptual, utilization, support and retirement stages.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Related_fields_and_sub-fields">Related fields and sub-fields</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Related fields and sub-fields">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Many related fields may be considered tightly coupled to systems engineering. These areas have contributed to the development of systems engineering as a distinct entity.</p> <dl> <dt>Cognitive Systems Engineering </dt> <dd>Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the description and analysis of human-machine systems or <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnical_systems" title="Sociotechnical systems" class="mw-redirect">sociotechnical systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is accomplished by the use of artifacts, and how human-machine systems and socio-technical systems can be described as joint cognitive systems. CSE has since its beginning become a recognized scientific discipline, sometimes also referred to as <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_engineering" title="Cognitive engineering" class="mw-redirect">cognitive engineering</a>. The concept of a Joint Cognitive System (JCS) has in particular become widely used as a way of understanding how complex socio-technical systems can be described with varying degrees of resolution. The more than 20 years of experience with CSE has been described extensively.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Configuration management</dt> <dd>Like systems engineering, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">configuration management</a> as practiced in the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_industry" title="Defence industry" class="mw-redirect">defense</a> and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_industry" title="Aerospace industry" class="mw-redirect">aerospace industry</a> is a broad systems-level practice. The field parallels the taskings of systems engineering; where systems engineering deals with requirements development, allocation to development items and verification, configuration management deals with requirements capture, traceability to the development item, and audit of development item to ensure that it has achieved the desired functionality that systems engineering and/or Test and Verification Engineering have proven out through objective testing.</dd> <dt>Control engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> and its design and implementation of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_systems" title="Control systems" class="mw-redirect">control systems</a>, used extensively in nearly every industry, is a large sub-field of systems engineering. The cruise control on an automobile and the guidance system for a ballistic missile are two examples. Control systems theory is an active field of applied mathematics involving the investigation of solution spaces and the development of new methods for the analysis of the control process.</dd> <dt>Industrial engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a> is a branch of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integrated_systems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrated systems (page does not exist)">integrated systems</a> of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained from such systems.</dd> <dt>Interface design</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_design" title="Interface design">Interface design</a> and its specification are concerned with assuring that the pieces of a system connect and inter-operate with other parts of the system and with external systems as necessary. Interface design also includes assuring that system interfaces be able to accept new features, including mechanical, electrical and logical interfaces, including reserved wires, plug-space, command codes and bits in communication protocols. This is known as <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensibility" title="Extensibility">extensibility</a>. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-Computer_Interaction" title="Human-Computer Interaction" class="mw-redirect">Human-Computer Interaction</a> (HCI) or Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is another aspect of interface design, and is a critical aspect of modern systems engineering. Systems engineering principles are applied in the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocol_design_principles" title="Network protocol design principles" class="mw-redirect">design of network protocols</a> for <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local-area_networks" title="Local-area networks" class="mw-redirect">local-area networks</a> and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-area_networks" title="Wide-area networks" class="mw-redirect">wide-area networks</a>.</dd> <dt>Mechatronic engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronic_engineering" title="Mechatronic engineering" class="mw-redirect">Mechatronic engineering</a>, like systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that uses dynamical systems modeling to express tangible constructs. In that regard it is almost indistinguishable from Systems Engineering, but what sets it apart is the focus on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships. As such, both fields are distinguished by the scope of their projects rather than the methodology of their practice.</dd> <dt>Operations research</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a> supports systems engineering. The tools of operations research are used in systems analysis, decision making, and trade studies. Several <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_engineering_at_universities" title="List of systems engineering at universities" class="mw-redirect">schools teach SE courses</a> within the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a> or <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a> department<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, highlighting the role systems engineering plays in complex projects. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a>, briefly, is concerned with the optimization of a process under multiple constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Performance engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_engineering" title="Performance engineering">Performance engineering</a> is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain operation is executed, or the capability of executing a number of such operations in a unit of time. Performance may be degraded when an operations queue to execute is throttled by limited system capacity. For example, the performance of a <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet-switched_network" title="Packet-switched network" class="mw-redirect">packet-switched network</a> is characterized by the end-to-end packet transit delay, or the number of packets switched in an hour. The design of high-performance systems uses analytical or simulation modeling, whereas the delivery of high-performance implementation involves thorough performance testing. Performance engineering relies heavily on <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">queueing theory</a> and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> for its tools and processes.</dd> <dt>Program management and project management.</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_management" title="Program management">Program management</a> (or programme management) has many similarities with systems engineering, but has broader-based origins than the engineering ones of systems engineering. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a> is also closely related to both program management and systems engineering.</dd> <dt>Proposal engineering</dt> <dd>Proposal engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, construct, and operate a cost-effective proposal development system. Basically, proposal engineering uses the "<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering_process" title="Systems engineering process" class="mw-redirect">systems engineering process</a>" to create a cost effective proposal and increase the odds of a successful proposal.</dd> <dt>Reliability engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a> is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for reliability throughout its life; i.e., it does not fail more frequently than expected. Reliability engineering applies to all aspects of the system. It is closely associated with <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintainability" title="Maintainability">maintainability</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability" title="Availability">availability</a> (<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">dependability</a> or <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAMS" title="RAMS">RAMS</a> preferred by some), and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_engineering" title="Logistic engineering" class="mw-redirect">logistics engineering</a>. Reliability engineering is always a critical component of safety engineering, as in <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis" title="Failure mode and effects analysis">failure modes and effects analysis</a> (FMEA) and <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree" title="Fault tree" class="mw-redirect">hazard fault tree</a> analysis, and of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">security engineering</a>.</dd> <dt>Risk Management</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_Management" title="Risk Management" class="mw-redirect">Risk Management</a>, the practice of assessing and dealing with <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> is one of the interdisciplinary parts of Systems Engineering. In development, acquisition, or operational activities, the inclusion of risk in tradeoff with cost, schedule, and performance features, involves the iterative complex configuration management of traceability and evaluation to the scheduling and requirements management across domains and for the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_lifecycle" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a> that requires the interdisciplinary technical approach of systems engineering.</dd> <dt>Safety engineering</dt> <dd>The techniques of <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a> may be applied by non-specialist engineers in designing complex systems to minimize the probability of safety-critical failures. The "System Safety Engineering" function helps to identify "safety hazards" in emerging designs, and may assist with techniques to "mitigate" the effects of (potentially) hazardous conditions that cannot be designed out of systems.</dd> <dt>Scheduling</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling" title="Scheduling" class="mw-redirect">Scheduling</a> is one of the systems engineering support tools as a practice and item in assessing interdisciplinary concerns under configuration management. In particular the direct relationship of resources, performance features, and risk to duration of a task or the dependency links among tasks and impacts across the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_lifecycle" title="System lifecycle">system lifecycle</a> are systems engineering concerns.</dd> <dt>Security engineering</dt> <dd><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security engineering</a> can be viewed as an <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary" title="Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect">interdisciplinary</a> field that integrates the <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">community of practice</a> for control systems design, reliability, safety and systems engineering. It may involve such sub-specialties as <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> of system users, system targets and others: people, objects and processes.</dd> <dt>Software engineering</dt> <dd>From its beginnings, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> has helped shape modern systems engineering practice. The techniques used in the handling of complexes of large software-intensive systems have had a major effect on the shaping and reshaping of the tools, methods and processes of SE.</dd> </dl> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em"> <table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px"> <tr style="vertical-align:middle"> <td style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Complex-adaptive-system.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/32px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg" width="32" height="23" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/48px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/64px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500"/></a></td> <td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Systems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></td> </tr> <tr style="vertical-align:middle"> <td style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></td> <td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></td> </tr> </table> </div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_systems_engineering" title="Enterprise systems engineering">Enterprise systems engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_production_topics" title="List of production topics" class="mw-redirect">List of production topics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_engineers" title="List of systems engineers">List of systems engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_systems_engineering" title="List of types of systems engineering">List of types of systems engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_systems_analysis_and_design_method" title="Structured systems analysis and design method">Structured systems analysis and design method</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_systems_engineering" title="System of systems engineering">System of systems engineering</a> (SoSE)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_Thinking" title="Systems Thinking" class="mw-redirect">Systems Thinking</a> (e.g. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Constraints" title="Theory of Constraints" class="mw-redirect">Theory of Constraints</a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_Stream_Mapping" title="Value Stream Mapping" class="mw-redirect">Value Stream Mapping</a>)</li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Schlager, J. (July 1956). 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Van Nostrand Reinhold. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-03046-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-03046-0">0-442-03046-0</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+engineering&rft.au=Arthur+D.+Hall&rft.aulast=Arthur+D.+Hall&rft.btitle=A+Methodology+for+Systems+Engineering&rft.date=1962&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-442-03046-0&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand+Reinhold&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Andrew Patrick Sage (1992). <i>Systems Engineering</i>. 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CRC Press. p. 513. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466571457" title="Special:BookSources/9781466571457">9781466571457</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+engineering&rft.btitle=Modeling+and+Simulation-Based+Systems+Engineering+Handbook&rft.date=04-12-2014&rft.edition=1st&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcpress.com%2Fproduct%2Fisbn%2F9781466571457&rft.isbn=9781466571457&rft.pages=513&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|date=</code> (<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Long, Jim (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.vitechcorp.com/resources/technical_papers/200701031634430.CommonGraphicalRepresentations_2002.pdf">"Relationships between Common Graphical Representations in System Engineering"</a> (PDF). Vitech Corporation.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+engineering&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft.aulast=Long&rft.au=Long%2C+Jim&rft.btitle=Relationships+between+Common+Graphical+Representations+in+System+Engineering&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vitechcorp.com%2Fresources%2Ftechnical_papers%2F200701031634430.CommonGraphicalRepresentations_2002.pdf&rft.pub=Vitech+Corporation&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.sysml.org/docs/specs/OMGSysML-FAS-06-05-04.pdf">"OMG SysML Specification"</a> (PDF). SysML Open Source Specification Project. p. 23<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-05</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+engineering&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lifecyclemodeling.org%2Fspec%2FLML_Specification_1_0.pdf&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=LML+Steering+Committee&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|title=</code> (<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollnagel E. & Woods D. D. (1983). Cognitive systems engineering: New wine in new bottles. 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Taylor & Francis.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(see articles for discussion: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/reprints/operationeverything062704.html">[7]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.sas.com/news/sascom/2004q4/feature_tech.html">[8]</a>)</span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Chestnut" title="Harold Chestnut">Harold Chestnut</a>, <i>Systems Engineering Methods</i>. Wiley, 1967.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_H._Goode" title="Harry H. Goode">Harry H. Goode</a>, Robert E. Machol <i>System Engineering: An Introduction to the Design of Large-scale Systems</i>, McGraw-Hill, 1957.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Hitchins" title="Derek Hitchins">Derek Hitchins</a> (1997) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.hitchins.net/WCSE.html">World Class Systems Engineering</a> at hitchins.net.</i></li> <li>NASA (2007) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://education.ksc.nasa.gov/esmdspacegrant/Documents/NASA%20SP-2007-6105%20Rev%201%20Final%2031Dec2007.pdf">Systems Engineering Handbook</a></i>. NASA/SP-2007-6105 Rev1, December 2007.</li> <li>NASA (2013) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/N_PR_7123_001B_/N_PR_7123_001B_.doc">NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements</a></i> NPR 7123.1B, April 2013 NASA Procedural Requirements</li> <li>David W. Oliver, Timothy P. Kelliher & James G. Keegan, Jr. <i>Engineering Complex Systems with Models and Objects. McGraw-Hill</i>, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a>, Robin K. St.Clair, <i>The Systems Approach: Fresh Solutions to Complex Problems Through Combining Science and Practical Common Sense</i>, Anaheim, CA: KNI, Inc, 1998.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_P._Sage" title="Andrew P. Sage">Andrew P. Sage</a>, <i>Systems Engineering</i>. Wiley IEEE, 1992. <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471536393" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-471-53639-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_P._Sage" title="Andrew P. Sage">Andrew P. Sage</a>, Stephen R. Olson, <i>Modeling and Simulation in Systems Engineering</i>, 2001.</li> <li>Dale Shermon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.gowerpublishing.com/isbn/978056688612"><i>Systems Cost Engineering</i></a>, <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gower_publishing" title="Gower publishing" class="mw-redirect">Gower publishing</a>, 2009</li> <li>Robert Shishko et al. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://openlibrary.org/books/OL23710690M/NASA_systems_engineering_handbook">NASA Systems Engineering Handbook</a>. NASA Center for AeroSpace Information, 2005.</i></li> <li>Richard Stevens, Peter Brook, Ken Jackson & Stuart Arnold. <i>Systems Engineering: Coping with Complexity</i>. Prentice Hall, 1998.</li> <li>US DoD Systems Management College (2001) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.dau.mil/publications/publicationsDocs/SEFGuide%2001-01.pdf">Systems Engineering Fundamentals</a>.</i> Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001</li> <li>Malakooti, B. (2013). Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives. John Wiley & Sons.<a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118585375" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-118-58537-5</a></li> <li>Daniele Gianni, Andrea D'Ambrogio, and Andreas Tolk (editors), Modeling and Simulation-Based Systems Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2014 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466571457">[9]</a></i></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systems_engineering&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" 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href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_Modeling_Language" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems modeling</a></li> <li><a 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Albus">James S. Albus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Chestnut" title="Harold Chestnut">Harold Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_David_Hall_III" title="Arthur David Hall III">Arthur David Hall III</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Hitchins" title="Derek Hitchins">Derek Hitchins</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Machol" title="Robert E. Machol">Robert E. Machol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Francis_Shea" title="Joseph Francis Shea">Joseph Francis Shea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related fields</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management" title="Project 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class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Systems engineering">Commons</a></b></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Software_engineering" title="Template:Software engineering"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Software_engineering" title="Template talk:Software engineering"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a 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engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">Software testing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_specification" title="Functional specification">Functional specification</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality_(programming)" title="Orthogonality (programming)">Orthogonality</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_archaeology" title="Software archaeology">Software archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_methodology" title="Software development methodology" class="mw-redirect">Software development methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_verification_and_validation" title="Software verification and validation">Software verification and validation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_analysis" title="Structured analysis">Structured analysis</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Orientations</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect-oriented_software_development" title="Aspect-oriented software development">Aspect-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture" title="Service-oriented architecture">Service orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_development_life_cycle" title="Systems development life cycle">SDLC</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Models</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;font-weight:normal;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Developmental</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Unified_Process" title="Enterprise Unified Process">EUP</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_UML" title="Executable UML">Executable UML</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incremental_build_model" title="Incremental build model">Incremental model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_and_incremental_development" title="Iterative and incremental development">Iterative model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Prototype model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_application_development" title="Rapid application development">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Process" title="Unified Process">UP</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;font-weight:normal;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Other</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">SPICE</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capability_Maturity_Model_Integration" title="Capability Maturity Model Integration">CMMI</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">ER model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_model" title="Information model">Information model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodeling" title="Metamodeling">Metamodeling</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_model" title="View model">View model</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;font-weight:normal;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Languages</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDEF" title="IDEF">IDEF</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">UML</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_Modeling_Language" title="Systems Modeling Language">SysML</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Software<br/> engineers</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Beck" title="Kent Beck">Kent Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grady_Booch" title="Grady Booch">Grady Booch</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks">Fred Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Boehm" title="Barry Boehm">Barry Boehm</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Cunningham" title="Ward Cunningham">Ward Cunningham</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_DeMarco" title="Tom DeMarco">Tom DeMarco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Fowler" title="Martin Fowler">Martin Fowler</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hoare" title="Tony Hoare">C. A. R. Hoare</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_Humphrey" title="Watts Humphrey">Watts Humphrey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_A._Jackson" title="Michael A. Jackson">Michael A. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivar_Jacobson" title="Ivar Jacobson">Ivar Jacobson</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_J._Mellor" title="Stephen J. Mellor">Stephen J. Mellor</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Meyer" title="Bertrand Meyer">Bertrand Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Parnas" title="David Parnas">David Parnas</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_W._Royce" title="Winston W. Royce">Winston W. Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rumbaugh" title="James Rumbaugh">James Rumbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Yourdon" title="Edward Yourdon">Edward Yourdon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Basili" title="Victor Basili">Victor Basili</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related fields</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">Systems engineering</strong></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"> <div> <ul> <li><img alt="Category" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31"/> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_engineering" title="Category:Software engineering">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="12" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" class="extiw" title="commons:Software engineering">Commons</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Template:Engineering fields"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Engineering_fields" title="Template talk:Engineering fields"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Engineering_fields&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio Frequency</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_phenomena" title="Transport phenomena">Transport phenomena</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_and_Computing_Engineering" title="Mathematics and Computing Engineering">Mathematics and Computing Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">Systems</strong></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li> <li> <img alt="Category" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31"/> <b><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Engineering" title="Category:Engineering">Category:Engineering</a></b></li> <li> <img alt="Portal" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28"/> <b><span class="metadata"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></span> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></b></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Systems_science&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System" title="System">Systems</a> <span style="font-weight:normal;"> <b>·</b></span>  <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Types of systems</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">Complex adaptive</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_system" title="Conceptual system">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">Dynamical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holon_(philosophy)" title="Holon (philosophy)">Holarchic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_measurement" title="System of measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system" title="Nonlinear system">Nonlinear</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_system" title="Physical system">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_system" title="Sensory system">Sensory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems_theory" title="Category:Systems theory">Theoretical fields</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systems" title="Complex systems">Complex systems</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.5em;">Systems ...</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">biology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">ecology</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">engineering</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">theory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">thinking</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems_scientists" title="Category:Systems scientists">Systems scientists</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_A_S_Hall" title="Charles A S Hall">Charles A S Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><img alt="Category" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31"/> Categories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems" title="Category:Systems">Systems</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Conceptual_systems" title="Category:Conceptual systems">conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_systems" title="Category:Physical systems">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_systems" title="Category:Social systems">social</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems_science" title="Category:Systems science">Systems science</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold"> <div> <ul> <li><span class="metadata"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Complex-adaptive-system.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/16px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg" width="16" height="11" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/24px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/32px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500"/></a></span> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Systems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Technology" title="Template:Technology"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Technology" title="Template talk:Technology"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Technology&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science" title="Outline of applied science">Outline of applied science</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Fields</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_technology" title="Food technology">Food technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_use_restriction_technology" title="Genetic use restriction technology">GURT</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_in_agriculture" title="ICT in agriculture">ICT</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_technology" title="Biomedical technology">Biomedical</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechatronics" title="Biomechatronics">Biomechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_science" title="Healthcare science" class="mw-redirect">Healthcare science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">Medical research</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_technology" title="Medical technology" class="mw-redirect">Medical technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Buildings</a> and<br/> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_technology" title="Domestic technology">Domestic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facade_engineering" title="Facade engineering">Facade engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire protection engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_software" title="Educational software">Educational software</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_technologies_in_education" title="Digital technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">Digital technologies in education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies_in_education" title="Information and communication technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">ICT in education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_technology_on_the_educational_system" title="Impact of technology on the educational system" class="mw-redirect">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_learning" title="Multimedia learning" class="mw-redirect">Multimedia learning</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_campus" title="Virtual campus">Virtual campus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_education" title="Virtual education" class="mw-redirect">Virtual education</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_technology" title="Energy technology">Energy</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_energy_technology" title="Soft energy technology">Soft energy technology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_coal_technology" title="Clean coal technology">Clean coal technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotechnology" title="Ecotechnology">Ecotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering_science" title="Environmental engineering science">Environmental engineering science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_nanotechnology" title="Green nanotechnology">Green nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_engineering" title="Landscape engineering">Landscape engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_technology" title="Industrial technology">Industrial</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_informatics" title="Business informatics">Business informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_engineering" title="Enterprise engineering">Enterprise engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_finance" title="Computational finance">Financial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" title="Industrial biotechnology" class="mw-redirect">Industrial biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)" title="Productivity improving technologies (historical)">Productivity improving technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">IT and communications</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology" title="Music technology">Music technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_engineering" title="RF engineering" class="mw-redirect">RF engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_technology" title="Visual technology">Visual technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_engineering_maintenance" title="Army engineering maintenance">Army engineering maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Military communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology" title="Stealth technology">Stealth technology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology" class="mw-redirect">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_engineering" title="Transport engineering" class="mw-redirect">Transport engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied sciences</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-optics" title="Electro-optics">Electro-optics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">Hydraulics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">Microfabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoengineering" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> <a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">fields</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering" title="Audio engineering" class="mw-redirect">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_technology" title="Entertainment technology">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_engineering" title="Protein engineering">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_technology" title="Quantum technology">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><strong class="selflink">Systems</strong></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Components</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">Craft</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">Tool</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadget" title="Gadget">Gadget</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Scales</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">Picotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">Microtechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-engineering" title="Macro-engineering">Macro-engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megascale_engineering" title="Megascale engineering">Megascale engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">Theories</a> and<br/> concepts</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_technology" title="Critique of technology">Critique of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-use_technology" title="Dual-use technology">Dual-use technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">High tech</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_cycle" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-technology" title="Low-technology" class="mw-redirect">Low-technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_technology" title="Mature technology">Mature technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technicism" title="Technicism">Technicism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technocapitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocentrism" title="Technocentrism">Technocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism" title="Technocriticism">Technocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoetic" title="Technoetic">Technoetic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoethics" title="Technoethics">Technoethics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_alliance" title="Technological alliance">Technological alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_apartheid" title="Technological apartheid">Technological apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_escalation" title="Technological escalation">Technological escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_fix" title="Technological fix">Technological fix</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">Technological innovation system</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_momentum" title="Technological momentum">Technological momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_nationalism" title="Technological nationalism">Technological nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_rationality" title="Technological rationality">Technological rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revival" title="Technological revival">Technological revival</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_self-efficacy" title="Technological self-efficacy">Technological self-efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularitarianism" title="Singularitarianism">Singularitarianism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_somnambulism" title="Technological somnambulism">Technological somnambulism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">Technological transitions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">Technological utopianism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_lifecycle" title="Technology lifecycle" class="mw-redirect">Technology lifecycle</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model" title="Technology acceptance model">Technology acceptance model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_adoption_lifecycle" title="Technology adoption lifecycle">Technology adoption lifecycle</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technomancy" title="Technomancy">Technomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism" title="Technorealism">Technorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoromanticism" title="Technoromanticism">Technoromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_technology" title="Fictional technology">Fictional technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technopaganism" title="Technopaganism">Technopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:High-technology_business_districts" title="Category:High-technology business districts">High-technology business districts</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale" title="Kardashev scale">Kardashev scale</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technologies" title="List of technologies">List of technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_technology" title="Platform technology">Platform technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">Technology dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_by_country" title="Category:Science and technology by country">Science and technology by country</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_fields" title="STEM fields">STEM fields</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-STEM" title="Pre-STEM">Pre-STEM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">women</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_fields" title="STEAM fields">STEAM fields</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_alignment" title="Technology alignment">Technology alignment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_brokering" title="Technology brokering" class="mw-redirect">Technology brokering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Technology_companies" title="Category:Technology companies">Technology companies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_demonstration" title="Technology demonstration">Technology demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Technical_universities_and_colleges" title="Category:Technical universities and colleges">Technical universities and colleges</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_evangelist" title="Technology evangelist">Technology evangelist</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_fusion" title="Technology fusion">Technology fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_governance" title="Technology governance">Technology governance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_integration" title="Technology integration">Technology integration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_journalism" title="Technology journalism">Technology journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_museum" title="Technology museum">Technology museum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_shock" title="Technology shock">Technology shock</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_strategy" title="Technology strategy">Technology strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">Technology and society</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoself" title="Technoself">Technoself</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosexual" title="Technosexual">Technosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosignature" title="Technosignature">Technosignature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technostress" title="Technostress">Technostress</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150323113217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terotechnology" title="Terotechnology">Terotechnology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><img alt="Wikipedia book" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150323113217im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" title="Wikipedia book" width="16" height="16" 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