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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Under_Canaris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Before World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1938_reorganisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1938_reorganisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 1938 reorganisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1938_reorganisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ast_/_Abwehrstelle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ast_/_Abwehrstelle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Ast / Abwehrstelle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ast_/_Abwehrstelle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operational_structure_in_neutral_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operational_structure_in_neutral_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Operational structure in neutral countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operational_structure_in_neutral_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-war_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-war_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pre-war operations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-war_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 During World War II </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-During_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle During World War II subsection </button> <ul id="toc-During_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_successes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_successes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Early successes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_successes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underestimating_the_enemy_and_the_Commissar_Order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underestimating_the_enemy_and_the_Commissar_Order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Underestimating the enemy and the Commissar Order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underestimating_the_enemy_and_the_Commissar_Order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 North Africa and the Middle East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Questionable_commitment_and_recruiting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Questionable_commitment_and_recruiting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Questionable commitment and recruiting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questionable_commitment_and_recruiting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agent_Garbo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agent_Garbo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Agent Garbo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agent_Garbo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repression_and_complicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repression_and_complicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Repression and complicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repression_and_complicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CASSIA_spy_ring_(Maier–Messner_group)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CASSIA_spy_ring_(Maier–Messner_group)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 CASSIA spy ring (Maier–Messner group) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CASSIA_spy_ring_(Maier–Messner_group)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Undermining_the_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Undermining_the_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Undermining the regime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Undermining_the_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Eastern Front </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Frau_Solf_Tea_Party_and_the_end_of_the_Abwehr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Frau_Solf_Tea_Party_and_the_end_of_the_Abwehr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 The Frau Solf Tea Party and the end of the Abwehr </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Frau_Solf_Tea_Party_and_the_end_of_the_Abwehr-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Frau Solf Tea Party and the end of the Abwehr subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Frau_Solf_Tea_Party_and_the_end_of_the_Abwehr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Zossen_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Zossen_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 The Zossen documents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Zossen_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Effectiveness and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effectiveness_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chiefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chiefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Chiefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chiefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links and further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Abwehr</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" > 49 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="أبفير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أبفير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abver" title="Abver – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Abver" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amt_Ausland/Abwehr" title="Amt Ausland/Abwehr – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Amt Ausland/Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Άμπβερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άμπβερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1" title="آبور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آبور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%99%B8%EB%B0%A9%EC%B2%A9%EC%B2%AD" title="해외방첩청 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해외방첩청" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A2%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Աբվեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աբվեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%95%D7%94%D7%A8" title="אבווהר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבווהר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="აბვერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აბვერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abv%C4%93rs" title="Abvērs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Abvērs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abveras" title="Abveras – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Abveras" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%97%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%82%A2" title="アプヴェーア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アプヴェーア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehra" title="Abwehra – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Abwehra" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="อัพแวร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อัพแวร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr" title="Abwehr – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Abwehr" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Абвер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Абвер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German Army intelligence service (1920–1944)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Abwehr</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg/220px-Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg/330px-Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg/440px-Bundesministerium_der_Verteidigung_Berlin_Spree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1208" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a>, the headquarters of the Abwehr</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data">1920–1944</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Countries</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Military intelligence</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht" title="Oberkommando der Wehrmacht">Oberkommando der Wehrmacht</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a>, Berlin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Commanders</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Chiefs">See list</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> The Abwehr (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> for resistance or defence, though the word usually means <a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">counterintelligence</a> in a military context) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈapveːɐ̯]</a>) was the German <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military-intelligence</a> service for the <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> from 1920 to 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes20092-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> Although the 1919 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> prohibited the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> from establishing an <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence organization">intelligence organization</a> of their own,<a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a> they formed an espionage group in 1920 within the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Reichswehr" title="Ministry of the Reichswehr">Ministry of Defence</a>, calling it the Abwehr.<a href="#cite_note-6">[c]</a> The initial purpose of the Abwehr was defense against foreign espionage: an organizational role that later evolved considerably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearFoot19951-7">[4]</a> Under General <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a> (prominent in running the Reichswehr from 1926 onwards) the individual military services' intelligence units were combined and, in 1929, centralized under Schleicher's Ministeramt within the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Reichswehr" title="Ministry of the Reichswehr">Ministry of Defence</a>, forming the foundation for the more commonly understood manifestation of the Abwehr. Each Abwehr station throughout Germany was based on the local army district (Wehrkreis); more offices opened in amenable neutral countries and (as the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"> greater Reich</a> expanded) in the <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe"> occupied territories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorShaw199711-8">[5]</a> On 4 February 1938, the Ministry of Defence—renamed the Ministry of War in 1935—was dissolved and became the <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht" title="Oberkommando der Wehrmacht">Oberkommando der Wehrmacht</a> (OKW) with Hitler in direct command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewsome2014950–951-9">[6]</a> The OKW formed part of the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrer" title="Führer">Führer</a>'s personal "working staff" from June 1938 and the Abwehr became its intelligence agency under Vice-Admiral <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1995165-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a> The Abwehr had its <a href="/wiki/Headquarters" title="Headquarters">headquarters</a> at 76/78 Tirpitzufer (the present-day Reichpietschufer) in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, adjacent to the offices of the OKW.<a href="#cite_note-12">[e]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_Canaris">Before Canaris</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Before Canaris">edit</a>]</div> The Abwehr was created in 1920 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Reichswehr" title="Ministry of the Reichswehr">German Ministry of Defence</a> when the German government was allowed to form the <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces">military organization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>. The first head of the Abwehr was Major <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gempp" title="Friedrich Gempp">Friedrich Gempp</a>, a former deputy to Colonel <a href="/wiki/Walter_Nicolai" title="Walter Nicolai">Walter Nicolai</a>, the head of German intelligence during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, who proved mostly ineffectual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaine19847-3">[2]</a> At that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers, plus a clerical staff. When Gempp became a general, he was promoted out of the job as chief, to be followed by Major Günther Schwantes, whose term as the organization's leader was also brief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978224–225-13">[8]</a> Many members of the Reichswehr (a significant portion of them Prussian) declined when asked to consider intelligence work, since for them, it was outside the realm of actual military service and the act of spying clashed with their Prussian military sensibilities of always showing themselves direct, loyal, and sincere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201144-14">[9]</a> By the 1920s, the slowly growing Abwehr was organised into three sections: <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman"><li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Reconnaissance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cipher" title="Cipher">Cipher</a> and Radio Monitoring</li><li><a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">Counterespionage</a></li></ol></div> The <a href="/wiki/Reichsmarine" title="Reichsmarine">Reichsmarine</a> intelligence staff merged with the Abwehr in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978225-15">[10]</a> While the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany from engaging in any form of espionage or spying, during the Nazi era the Abwehr disregarded this prohibition, as they saw it as hypocritical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018573-16">[11]</a> In the 1930s, with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> movement, the Ministry of Defence was reorganized; surprisingly, on 7 June 1932, a naval officer, Captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conrad_Patzig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conrad Patzig (page does not exist)">Conrad Patzig</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Patzig" class="extiw" title="de:Conrad Patzig">de</a>], was named chief of the Abwehr, even though it was staffed largely by army officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201193-17">[12]</a> Proving himself quite a capable chief, Patzig swiftly assured the military of his intentions and worked to earn their respect; he established good connections with the Lithuanian clandestine service against the Soviets, forged relations with other foreign agencies—except for Italy, whose cipher he distrusted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201194-18">[13]</a> His successes did not stop the other branches of the military services from developing their intelligence staff. After the Nazis seized power, the Abwehr began sponsoring reconnaissance flights across the border with <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, under the direction of Patzig, but this led to confrontations with <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>, head of the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a>. Army leaders also feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on Poland. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> ordered the termination of the overflights in 1934 after he signed a <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact">nonaggression treaty with Poland</a> since these reconnaissance missions might be discovered and jeopardize the treaty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199596-19">[14]</a> Patzig was fired in January 1935 as a result, and sent to command the new <a href="/wiki/Deutschland-class_cruiser" title="Deutschland-class cruiser">pocket battleship</a> <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Graf_Spee" title="German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee"> Admiral Graf Spee</a>; he later became Chief of Naval Personnel. His replacement was another Reichsmarine captain, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201197–99-20">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Under_Canaris">Under Canaris</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Under Canaris">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_World_War_II">Before World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Before World War II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43,_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a></figcaption></figure> Before he took over the Abwehr on 1 January 1935, the soon-to-be Admiral <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Canaris</a> was warned by Patzig of attempts by Himmler and <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a> to take over all German intelligence organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201196–99-21">[16]</a> Heydrich, who headed the <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD) from 1931, had a negative attitude towards the Abwehr—shaped in part by his belief that Germany's defeat in the First World War was primarily attributable to failures of military intelligence,<a href="#cite_note-23">[f]</a> and by his ambitions to control all political intelligence-gathering for Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201285-24">[18]</a> Canaris, a master of backroom dealings, thought he knew how to deal with Heydrich and Himmler. Though he tried to maintain a cordial relationship with them, the antagonism between the Abwehr and the SS did not stop when Canaris took over. Not only was competition with Heydrich and Himmler's intelligence operations a hindrance but so too were the redundant attempts by multiple organizations to control <a href="/wiki/Communications_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications intelligence">communications intelligence</a> (COMINT) for the Reich. For instance, Canaris's Abwehr controlled the Armed Forces Deciphering operation, while the navy maintained its listening service, known as the B-Dienst. Further complicating COMINT matters, the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Office_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Office (Germany)">Foreign Office</a> also had its own communications security branch, the <a href="/wiki/Pers_Z_S" title="Pers Z S">Pers Z S</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199586-25">[19]</a> Matters came to a head in 1937 when Hitler decided to help <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in the latter's <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">purge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Soviet military</a>. Hitler ordered that the German Army staff should be kept in the dark about Stalin's intentions, for fear that they would warn their Soviet counterparts due to their <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations_before_1941#Soviet_Russia_and_Weimar_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941">long-standing relations</a>. Accordingly, special SS teams, accompanied by burglary experts from the <a href="/wiki/Kriminalpolizei" title="Kriminalpolizei">criminal police</a>, broke into the secret files of the General Staff and the Abwehr and removed documents related to German-Soviet collaboration. To conceal the thefts, fires were started at the break-ins, which included Abwehr headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellenberg200025–27-26">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1938_reorganisation">1938 reorganisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1938 reorganisation">edit</a>]</div> Before the reorganization of the OKW in 1938, the Abwehr was merely a department within the Reichswehrministerium (Ministry of Armed Forces), and it was not until after Canaris was appointed chief that its numbers increased and it gained some independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandford200118-27">[21]</a> Experiencing an explosion in personnel of sorts, the Abwehr went from fewer than 150 employees to nearly one thousand between 1935 and 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011114-28">[22]</a> Canaris reorganized the agency in 1938, subdividing the Abwehr into three main sections: <ul><li>The Central Division (also called Department Z—"Abteilung Z" or "die Zentrale" in German): acted as the controlling brain for the other two sections, as well as handling personnel and financial matters, including the payment of agents. Throughout Canaris's tenure it was headed by Generalmajor <a href="/wiki/Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a>.</li> <li>The Foreign Branch, ("Amtsgruppe Ausland" in German) (later known as Foreign Intelligence Group) was the second subdivision of the Abwehr and had several functions: <ol><li>liaison with the OKW and the general staff of the services,</li> <li>coordination with the German Foreign Ministry on military matters, and</li> <li>evaluation of captured documents and evaluation of foreign press and radio broadcasts. This liaison with the OKW meant that the Foreign Branch was the appropriate channel to request Abwehr support for a particular mission.</li></ol></li> <li>Abwehr constituted the third division and was labeled "counter-intelligence branches" but in reality focused on intelligence gathering. It was subdivided into the following areas and responsibilities: <ul><li>I. Foreign Intelligence Collection (further subdivided by letter, e.g. Abwehr I-Ht) <dl><dd>G: false documents, photos, links, passports, chemicals</dd> <dd>H West: army west (Anglo-American Army intelligence)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Armies_East" title="Foreign Armies East">H Ost</a>: army east (Soviet Army intelligence)</dd> <dd>Ht: technical army intelligence</dd> <dd>I: communications—design of wireless sets, wireless operators</dd> <dd>K: computer/cryptanalysis operations</dd> <dd>L: air intelligence</dd> <dd>M: naval intelligence</dd> <dd>T/lw: technical air intelligence</dd> <dd>Wi: economic intelligence</dd> <dd>Attached to Abwehr I. was Gruppe I-T for technical intelligence. Initially Abwehr I-K was a technical research unit, a small fraction the size of its British counterpart, Britain's <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>. Its importance later grew during the war to match its British counterpart in size and capability.</dd></dl></li> <li>II. <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a>: tasked with directing covert contact/exploitation of discontented minority groups in foreign countries for intelligence purposes. <dl><dd>Attached to Abwehr II. was the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburgers" title="Brandenburgers">Brandenburg Regiment</a>, an offshoot of Gruppe II-T (Technical Intelligence), and unconnected to any other branch outside of Abwehr II. Gruppe II-T.<a href="#cite_note-29">[g]</a></dd></dl></li> <li>III. <a href="/wiki/Counter-intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-intelligence">Counter-intelligence</a> division: responsible for counter-intelligence operations in German industry, planting false information, penetration of foreign intelligence services, and investigating acts of sabotage on German soil. Attached to Abwehr III. were: <ul><li>IIIC: Civilian Authority bureau</li> <li>IIIC-2: Espionage cases bureau</li> <li>IIID: Disinformation bureau</li> <li>IIIF: Counter espionage agents bureau</li> <li>IIIN: Postal bureau</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Abwehr liaisons were also established with the army, navy, and Luftwaffe High Commands, and these liaisons would pass on specific intelligence requests to the operational sections of the Abwehr. Abwehr I was commanded by Colonel Hans Pieckenbrock,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978236-30">[23]</a> Abwehr II was commanded by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Erwin_von_Lahousen" title="Erwin von Lahousen">Erwin von Lahousen</a> and Abwehr III was commanded by Colonel Egbert Bentivegni. These three officers formed the core of the Abwehr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011115-31">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ast_/_Abwehrstelle">Ast / Abwehrstelle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ast / Abwehrstelle">edit</a>]</div> Under the structure outlined above, the Abwehr placed a local station in each military district in Germany, ("Wehrkreis"), called ' Abwehrstelle' or ' Ast'. Following the German Table of Organisation and Equipment<a href="#cite_note-32">[h]</a> model of Abwehr headquarters, each Ast was usually subdivided into sections for <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-roman"><li>espionage</li><li>sabotage</li><li>counter-intelligence</li></ol></div> Typically each Ast would be commanded by a senior army or naval officer and would be answerable to Abwehr HQ. in Berlin. Operations carried out by each Ast would be in tandem with the overall strategic plan formulated by Admiral Canaris. Canaris in turn would receive instructions on what intelligence gathering should take priority from the OKW or, increasingly after 1941, Hitler directly. In practice, each Ast was given considerable latitude in mission planning and execution—a facet of the organization that ultimately damaged its intelligence-gathering capability. Each local Ast could recruit potential agents for missions and the Abwehr also employed freelance recruiters to groom and vet potential agents. In most cases, the agents were recruited civilians, not officers/soldiers from the military. The recruitment emphasis seems to have been very much on "quantity" not "quality". The poor quality of recruits often led to the failure of Abwehr missions.<a href="#cite_note-33">[i]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operational_structure_in_neutral_countries">Operational structure in neutral countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Operational structure in neutral countries">edit</a>]</div> In neutral countries, the Abwehr frequently disguised its organization by attaching personnel to the German Embassy or to trade missions. Such postings were referred to as "War Organisations" ("Kriegsorganisationen" or "KO's" in German).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243-34">[25]</a> In neutral but friendly <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> for example, the Abwehr had both an Ast and a KO while <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> had neither. In friendly countries of interest, occupied countries, or in Germany, the intelligence service would normally organize "Abwehr sub-stations" ("Abwehrleitstellen" or "Alsts" in German), or "Abwehr adjoining posts" ("Abwehrnebenstellen" in German). The "Alsts" would fall under the jurisdiction of the geographically appropriate Ast, which in turn would be supervised by the Central division in Berlin. For a while, the KOs were tolerated by the neutral countries and those who feared Germany too much to protest but as the Allied powers waged war against Germany, many of the KOs were simply expelled at the host countries request—due at least in part to pressure from the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243–248-35">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-war_operations">Pre-war operations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pre-war operations">edit</a>]</div> Before the war began, the Abwehr was fairly active and effective as it built a wide range of contacts; they developed links with the Ukrainians opposed to the Soviet regime, conducted meetings with <a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Indian nationalists</a> working against <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule in India</a>, and established an information-sharing agreement with the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195464–66-36">[27]</a> There was even some significant penetration into the extent of the United States industrial capacity and economic potential,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn197885–88-37">[28]</a> and data was collected by the Abwehr concerning American military capacity and contingency planning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195498-38">[29]</a> Sometime in March 1937, senior Abwehr officer <a href="/wiki/Paul_Th%C3%BCmmel" title="Paul Thümmel">Paul Thümmel</a> provided a vast array of significant information about the German intelligence services to Czech agents who in turn, forwarded the data to <a href="/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Intelligence Service">SIS</a> London, whom they codenamed agent A-54.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochanski2022113-39">[30]</a> Thümmel provided data about "military capabilities, and intentions" as well as "detailed information on the organization and structure of the Abwehr and SD along with "the near-complete order of battle of the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe, and German mobilization plans"; and, later "he gave advanced warnings of the German annexation of the Sudetenland as well as the invasions of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> and Poland."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199584-40">[31]</a> After the assumption of absolute control over the OKW in February 1938, Hitler declared that he did not want men of intelligence under his command, but men of brutality, an observation which did not sit well with Canaris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011142–143-41">[32]</a> Whether he was deeply troubled by Hitler's comment or not, Canaris and the Abwehr still busied themselves preparing the ideological groundwork for the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">annexation of Austria</a> which occurred in March 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011148–149-42">[33]</a> A month later, Canaris and the Abwehr were set to work subverting the Czechs as part of Hitler's strategy to acquire the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011118–119-43">[34]</a> Before the spring of 1938 came to an end, the conservative members of the German Foreign Office and many ranking officers in the military began sharing their fears over an impending international disaster and the threat of another catastrophic European war based on Hitler's actions. A conspiratorial group formed around General <a href="/wiki/Erwin_von_Witzleben" title="Erwin von Witzleben">Erwin von Witzleben</a> and Admiral Canaris as a result.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHildebrand197370–71-44">[35]</a> Throughout the process, Canaris and subordinates such as <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Groscurth" title="Helmuth Groscurth">Helmuth Groscurth</a> worked to prevent war to the extent feasible. Meanwhile, Canaris participated in the plots among the military leadership for a coup against Hitler and attempted to open up covert communication lines with the British, convinced that Hitler would push Europe to war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011147–164-45">[36]</a> Before the actual invasion of Poland occurred, the Abwehr went so far as to send a special emissary, <a href="/wiki/Ewald_von_Kleist-Schmenzin" title="Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin">Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin</a>, to London in order to warn them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005585-46">[37]</a> Subverting the Nazi government with warnings to the Allies was but one part of the picture, as this move did not stop or deter Canaris from obeying Hitler's orders to provide 150 Polish army uniforms and small arms to Himmler and Heydrich for their <a href="/wiki/Gleiwitz_incident" title="Gleiwitz incident">staged attack on a German radio station by 'Polish' forces</a>; one act which Hitler used to justify his assault on Poland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1990518-47">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="During_World_War_II">During World War II</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: During World War II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157,_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0157%2C_Geheimer_Funkmeldedienst_des_OKW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>OKW secret radio service</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_successes">Early successes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early successes">edit</a>]</div> Under Canaris, the Abwehr expanded and proved to be efficient during the early years of the war. Its most notable success was <a href="/wiki/Operation_Nordpol" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Nordpol">Operation Nordpol</a>, which was an operation against the Dutch underground network, which at the time was supported by the <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">Special Operations Executive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011176–177-48">[39]</a> Concomitant to the period known as the <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>, the Abwehr collected information on Denmark and Norway. Shipping in and out of Danish and Norwegian ports was placed under observation and over 150,000 tons of shipping was destroyed as a result. Agents in Norway and Denmark successfully penetrated their military thoroughly enough to determine the disposition and strength of land forces in both countries and deep-cover Abwehr operatives kept the German forces, particularly the Luftwaffe, intimately informed during the invasion of Norway. Against both of these nations, the Abwehr mounted what one would call a successful intelligence operation of some scale and proved itself critical to the success of German military endeavors there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195481–86-49">[40]</a> Fear over the drastically low levels of available petroleum at the beginning of 1940 prompted activity from the German Foreign Office and the Abwehr in an attempt to ameliorate the problem "by concluding an unprecedented arms-for-oil" deal, brokered to push back the "Anglo-French dominance in the <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a> oilfield."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETooze2006381-50">[41]</a> Abwehr operatives also played on Romanian fears, making them more amenable to Hitler's offer to shield them from the Soviets—through which the Germans acquired cheap oil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETooze2006381–382-51">[42]</a> In this regard, the Abwehr provided some semblance of economic utility for the Nazi regime. In March 1941, the Germans forced a captured SOE radio operator to transmit messages to Britain in a code that the Germans had obtained. Even though the operator gave indications that he was compromised, the receiver in Britain did not notice. Thus the Germans were able to penetrate the Dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years, capturing agents, and sending false intelligence and <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a> reports until the British caught on. In Bodyguard of Lies Anthony Brown suggests that the British were well aware that the radios were compromised and used this method to feed false information to the Germans regarding the site of the D-Day landings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1975464–466-52">[43]</a> Hitler sent Canaris as a special envoy to Madrid during the early summer of 1940 to convince Spain to join in the coming fight against the Allies, for which Gibraltar could have strategic military value.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005224–225-53">[44]</a> The repeat visit, in December 1940, was a failure; Franco, for various political and military reasons, was not ready to join the German war effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReginbogin2009116-54">[45]</a> Canaris reported that Franco would not commit Spanish forces until England collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1973173–174-55">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underestimating_the_enemy_and_the_Commissar_Order">Underestimating the enemy and the Commissar Order</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Underestimating the enemy and the Commissar Order">edit</a>]</div> Initial estimates of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>'s will and capability were low, a line of thinking shared by the Nazi hierarchy. A great deal has been made by historians over this fact, but some of the German General Staff's optimism was the result of estimates provided by the Abwehr, whose assessments left the German General Staff believing that the Red Army only possessed 90 infantry divisions, 23 cavalry divisions, and a mere 28 mechanized brigades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984282-56">[47]</a> By the time the reappraisal of the Red Army by German military intelligence occurred in mid-June 1941 (which was about 25 percent higher than previously reported), it was a foregone conclusion that Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union was going to take place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984283-57">[48]</a> Late assessments from the Abwehr contributed to military overconfidence and their reporting mechanism said nothing of the massive mobilization capability of the Soviet Union, an oversight that arguably contributed to the German defeat since time-tables were so important for German success. Many of the maps produced for Operation Barbarossa by the Abwehr were woefully inaccurate and portrayed dirt tracks as main roads, hampering the pace of logistical operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMegargee2000133-58">[49]</a> The German Army's failure to reach its objectives in short order proved pivotal; once winter came, improperly outfitted German forces suffered when supplies did not reach them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984283–284-59">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[j]</a> Overestimating their capabilities and trusting their assessments too much, as well as underestimating their enemies (especially the Soviets and the Americans), atop long-standing traditions of <a href="/wiki/Unconditional_obedience" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconditional obedience">unconditional obedience</a>, comprised a historically central weakness in the German system, according to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Klaus_P._Fischer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Klaus P. Fischer (page does not exist)">Klaus P. Fischer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1995445-61">[51]</a> On 8 September 1941, under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Commissar_Order" title="Commissar Order">Commissar Order</a> (Kommissarbefehl), the OKW issued a decree concerning the ruthless ideological imperatives of the Nazi state against all semblance of Bolshevism, a provision that included executing Soviet <a href="/wiki/Commissar" title="Commissar">commissars</a> and prisoners of war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobsen1968523–525-62">[52]</a> Admiral Canaris, the head of the OKW Ausland/Abwehr, immediately expressed concern about the military and political ramifications of this order. Killing soldiers and even non-combatants in contravention of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention">Geneva Convention</a> was not something the Abwehr leadership—namely Canaris—supported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011223-63">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa_and_the_Middle_East">North Africa and the Middle East</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: North Africa and the Middle East">edit</a>]</div> The Abwehr was active in North Africa leading up to and during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert Campaign">Western Desert Campaign</a> of 1941–42. North Africa, like other cases, proved disastrous for the Abwehr. The greatest failure occurred as a result of deception operations conducted by the British. An Italian of Jewish ancestry was recruited in France sometime in 1940 by the Abwehr. Unknown to the Germans, this individual was an agent codenamed "Cheese" who was already working for the British SIS before the war began. In February 1941, the Abwehr sent Cheese to Egypt to report on any British military operations; instead of providing his German handlers with accurate information, he passed strategic deception materials and hundreds of MI5 doctored messages to Nazi intelligence by way of a fictitious sub-agent named 'Paul Nicosoff', helping to ensure the success of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton201341-64">[54]</a> Confirmation of this fact came when one of Hitler's most trusted military advisers, Chief of the OKW Operations Staff, General <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jodl" title="Alfred Jodl">Alfred Jodl</a>, later informed his Allied interrogators that the Allied landings in North Africa came as a total surprise to the German general staff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt2004218,_270-65">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[k]</a> The need for upwards of 500 more agents to supplement intelligence operations in North Africa prompted the Abwehr to get creative. Arab prisoners of war (POWs) languishing in French camps were offered a trip back to their homeland if they agreed to spy for the Germans in North Africa, as were Soviet POWs in the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978273-68">[57]</a> Other intelligence collection efforts included working closely with the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> on aerial reconnaissance missions over North Africa. Previously, aerial reconnaissance was ordered by army intelligence officers of the Army Group HQ (part of the structure to which the Abwehr was assigned).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978125–130-69">[58]</a> Major <a href="/w/index.php?title=Witilo_von_Griesheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Witilo von Griesheim (page does not exist)">Witilo von Griesheim</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witilo_von_Griesheim" class="extiw" title="de:Witilo von Griesheim">de</a>] was sent to <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Italian Libya</a> in early 1941 to set up AST Tripoli (code name WIDO). He soon set up a network of agents and wireless stations gathering information in Libya and in the surrounding French territories. In mid-July 1941, Admiral Canaris ordered Luftwaffe Major <a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Ritter" title="Nikolaus Ritter">Nikolaus Ritter</a> of Abwehr I to form a unit to infiltrate Egypt through the desert to make contact with the Egyptian Army Chief of Staff, <a href="/wiki/El_Masri_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="El Masri Pasha">el Masri Pasha</a>, but this effort repeatedly failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolinari201348-70">[59]</a> Accompanying Ritter in Libya was the Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Desert_exploration" title="Desert exploration">desert explorer</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Alm%C3%A1sy" title="László Almásy">László Almásy</a> with a mission to gather intelligence from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">British-held Egypt</a>. After Ritter was injured and sent away, Almásy took over command and organized the 1942 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Salaam" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Salaam">Operation Salam</a>, which succeeded in transporting two German agents across the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a> behind enemy lines to Egypt. In July 1942, Almásy and his agents were captured by British counterintelligence operatives.<a href="#cite_note-72">[l]</a> Other operations in North Africa were occurring concomitantly with those of Almásy and Ritter. During late January 1942 for instance, the OKW authorized the creation of a special unit, Sonderkommando Dora, which was placed under the command of Abwehr officer, Oberstleutnant <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Eichler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Eichler (page does not exist)">Walter Eichler</a> (formerly a <a href="/wiki/Tanks_in_the_German_Army" title="Tanks in the German Army">Panzer</a> officer as well).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolinari201348-70">[59]</a> The unit included geologists, cartographers, and mineralogists, who were sent into North Africa to study desert topography and assess the terrain for military use, but by November 1942—following the Axis retreat from <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">El Alamein</a>—Sonderkommando Dora along with the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburgers" title="Brandenburgers">Brandenburgers</a> operating in the area, were withdrawn from the Sahara altogether.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolinari201348–49-73">[61]</a> An Iranian national recruited in Hamburg by the Abwehr before the war was converted into a double agent by British and Russian intelligence officers (working together in one of the few joint intelligence efforts of the war), who code-named him "Kiss". From late 1944 until the end of the war, Kiss, who was based out of the intelligence center in Baghdad, provided false information on Soviet and British troop movements in Iraq and Iran to the Abwehr; as directed by his Allied controllers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton201370-74">[62]</a> On the Afghan border, the Abwehr sought to turn the <a href="/wiki/Faqir_of_Ipi" title="Faqir of Ipi">Faqir of Ipi</a> against British forces. They infiltrated the region using <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Oberd%C3%B6rffer" title="Manfred Oberdörffer">Manfred Oberdörffer</a>, a physician, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hermann_Brandt" title="Fred Hermann Brandt">Fred Hermann Brandt</a>, an entomologist under the guise of a medical mission to research leprosy. The mission was a failure, with Oberdörffer being killed and Hermann was taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014188–190-75">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questionable_commitment_and_recruiting">Questionable commitment and recruiting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Questionable commitment and recruiting">edit</a>]</div> Just how committed typical members of the Abwehr were to German victory is difficult to assess, but if its leadership tells a story, it is not one of conviction. For instance, during March 1942, when many Germans still had confidence in their Führer and their army, Canaris saw things differently and told General <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Fromm" title="Friedrich Fromm">Friedrich Fromm</a> that there was no way Germany could win the war.<a href="#cite_note-77">[m]</a> Canaris had made the United States a primary target even before it entered into the conflict. By 1942, German agents were operating from within all of America's top armaments manufacturers. The Abwehr also suffered a very public debacle in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pastorius" title="Operation Pastorius">Operation Pastorius</a>, which resulted in the executions of six Abwehr agents sent to the United States to sabotage the <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Aluminum industry in the United States">American aluminum industry</a>. The Abwehr attempted use of coercion as a means to infiltrate the United States when they 'recruited' a <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a> American citizen visiting Germany, <a href="/wiki/William_G._Sebold" title="William G. Sebold">William G. Sebold</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> threats and blackmail, code-naming him TRAMP, and assigning him the task of "serving as radio and <a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">microfilm</a> channel for Major <a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Ritter" title="Nikolaus Ritter">Nikolaus Ritter</a>, head of the Abwehr Hamburg post's air intelligence section".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson1995139–140-78">[65]</a> Unfortunately for the Germans, who used Sebold successfully for a short period, he was discovered, and became a counterspy, and his communications to Germany were screened by the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson1995141-79">[66]</a> For more than a year and a half, the FBI was able to transmit misleading information via Sebold to German intelligence from a shortwave radio transmitter located on Long Island, NY.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2022218–219-80">[67]</a> Meetings between Sebold and "bona fide German spies" were even filmed by FBI technicians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2022219-81">[68]</a> Not every spy the Abwehr sent was captured or converted in this manner, but the Americans, and especially the British, proved mostly successful in countering the efforts of the German Abwehr officers and used them to their advantage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson1995140–143-82">[69]</a> The Abwehr was impaired by agents who aided the Allies in whatever covert means were necessary. Canaris personally gave false information that discouraged Hitler from invading Switzerland (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Tannenbaum" title="Operation Tannenbaum">Operation Tannenbaum</a>). He also persuaded <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> not to allow German forces to pass through Spain to invade <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Felix" title="Operation Felix">Operation Felix</a>), but it may have been just as much the imposition of the SD. The SD was allegedly spreading rumors about the partition of Spain. SD operatives also established a station at the <a href="/wiki/Correos" title="Correos">central post office</a> in Madrid to police mail going through Spain and even attempted to assassinate one of Franco's pro-Allied generals, which strengthened Franco's intransigence against Hitler and the Nazi regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011196–200-83">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agent_Garbo">Agent Garbo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Agent Garbo">edit</a>]</div> Operation Garbo, also known as "Garbo" or "Agent Garbo", was a crucial British intelligence operation during World War II aimed at deceiving the Abwehr. The mastermind behind this operation was <a href="/wiki/Juan_Pujol_Garc%C3%ADa" title="Juan Pujol García">Juan Pujol García</a>, a Spanish double agent who worked for the British<a href="#cite_note-84">[n]</a> and whose acting was considered so good they codenamed him "<a href="/wiki/Greta_Garbo" title="Greta Garbo">Garbo</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearFoot1995714-85">[71]</a> Garbo was highly successful in spreading disinformation to the Abwehr, primarily by creating a network of fictitious sub-agents and feeding them fabricated intelligence reports. These reports were carefully crafted to mislead the Germans about Allied intentions and strategies. Garbo's information was so convincing that he gained the confidence of the German high command, who considered him one of their most trustworthy sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearFoot1995714-85">[71]</a> One of the most significant achievements of Operation Garbo was its role in the success of the D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, as it contributed to the confusion and misdirection of German forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2008400–402-86">[72]</a> By providing false information about an impending Allied invasion via the <a href="/wiki/Pas_de_Calais" class="mw-redirect" title="Pas de Calais">Pas de Calais</a>, Garbo diverted German attention away from Normandy, where the actual landings took place, making Juan Pujol García's efforts in Operation Garbo instrumental in the overall Allied strategy and intelligence operations during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings2016465,_481-87">[73]</a> Juan Pujol García was so trusted by both sides that he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire" title="Order of the British Empire">MBE</a> by the British and an Iron Cross by the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearFoot1995714–715-88">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repression_and_complicity">Repression and complicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Repression and complicity">edit</a>]</div> Images of the Abwehr as a veritable organ of resistance inside the heart of Nazi Germany are not an accurate reflection across the spectrum of its entire operations or its personnel. In a staff of some 13,000, perhaps 50 were fundamentally anti-Nazi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfour1988156-89">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[o]</a> Before the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> for instance, the Abwehr and SiPo jointly drew up a list of over 60,000 names, people who were to be the targets of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tannenberg" title="Operation Tannenberg">Operation Tannenberg</a>, an effort designed to systematically identify and liquidate the Polish elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurleigh2010125-92">[77]</a> For several months before the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Abwehr was key in deception operations set up to convince the British and the Soviets that Great Britain was under threat of imminent invasion, an undertaking which helped soften the eastern territories for Operation Barbarossa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200893-93">[78]</a> Before the commencement of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">attack on the Soviet Union</a>, the Abwehr also spread rumors that the British talk of an impending German attack was nothing more than <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018576–577-94">[79]</a> During January 1942, partisan fighters at the port city of <a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Eupatoria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> assisted a <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> landing there and revolted against the German occupying forces. Reinforcements were sent in under General <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Manstein" title="Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> and the port city was retaken. Reprisals against the partisans were carried out under the direction of Major Hans-Wolf Riesen, an Abwehr officer on the Eleventh Army's staff, who oversaw the execution of 1200 civilians, the bulk of whom were Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemay2013282-95">[80]</a> Additional evidence over the duties assigned to operatives in theater is revealing. Out in the field, the army group commander of the G-2 was assisted the army group Abwehr officer (Frontaufklaerungskommando III), with additional help coming available from the secret field police. Abwehr officers in this capacity were tasked with overseeing personnel in counterintelligence, the safeguarding of classified information, and preventive security. The Frontaufklaerungskommando III received instructions concerning the Abwehr from OKH/General z.b.V./Gruppe Abwehr, and "informed army group G-2 of all Abwehr matters in a monthly report or special reports."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_War_Dept._General_Staff198446-96">[81]</a> Security within army headquarters was another area of responsibility so detachments of the secret field police were placed at his disposal and he cooperated with particular departments of the SD, the SS, and the police to be well versed in all fields of counterintelligence and kept tabs on guards, checking their reliability against available personnel records. According to the United States War Dept. General Staff, <blockquote>The Abwehr officer maintained close liaison with Frontaufklaerungskommando III to be well informed about counterintelligence conditions, especially as far as the non-German population was concerned. The net of agents produced a clear picture of the morale and attitude of the population within the sector of the army group and reported on all activities of the enemy intelligence service, on resistance movements and other illegal groups, and guerrilla conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_War_Dept._General_Staff198446-96">[81]</a></blockquote> According to Bauer, the Abwehr was more interested in perpetuating its interests than it was in saving Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer1996126-97">[82]</a> While there are accounts of the Abwehr assisting Jews to safety via clandestinely arranged emigration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseman2000129–145,_250–253-98">[83]</a> there are also cases of Abwehr operatives enriching themselves in the process through bribes and other monetary payoffs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoseman2000137–138-99">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[p]</a> Not only that, the Abwehr had its share of dedicated Nazis. For example, it is now known that Abwehr agent Hermann Giskes and Joseph Schreieder of the Gestapo cooperated in an operation known as <a href="/wiki/Englandspiel" title="Englandspiel">Englandspiel</a>, through which the Nazis gained "complete control" over all Dutch <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">SOE</a> agents between March 1942 and December 1943, whom they used as part of a successful deception scheme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochanski2022368-101">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[q]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CASSIA_spy_ring_(Maier–Messner_group)">CASSIA spy ring (Maier–Messner group)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: CASSIA spy ring (Maier–Messner group)">edit</a>]</div> A major Abwehr failure occurred when the existence of a resistance group and spy ring, which operated out of Austria and had been working with the Allies, was uncovered by the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>; a failing for which the Abwehr was embarrassed. This resistance group provided the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">OSS</a> with plans and information on <a href="/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde_Army_Research_Center" title="Peenemünde Army Research Center">Peenemünde</a>, the <a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2 rockets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiger_tank" title="Tiger tank">Tiger tanks</a>, aircraft (<a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109" title="Messerschmitt Bf 109">Messerschmitt Bf 109</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163_Komet" title="Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet">Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet</a>, etc.), and supplied information on the existence of major concentration camps like <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroucek2008414-104">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassellMacRaeAmeskamp2006189-105">[88]</a> Despite the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>'s use of torture, they were unable to uncover the true extent of the group's success, particularly in providing information for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Operation Crossbow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Hydra_(1943)" title="Operation Hydra (1943)">Operation Hydra</a>, both preliminary missions for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurner2017187-106">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoeckl-KlamperMangNeugebauer2018300-107">[90]</a> Some 20 members of the group—including its key figures, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Franz_Joseph_Messner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franz Joseph Messner (page does not exist)">Franz Joseph Messner</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_Messner" class="extiw" title="de:Franz Joseph Messner">de</a>] (codenamed CASSIA by the OSS) and the priest <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Maier" title="Heinrich Maier">Heinrich Maier</a>—were eventually executed due to the intelligence failures of the OSS, who hired <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bed%C5%99ich_Laufer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bedřich Laufer (page does not exist)">Bedřich Laufer</a> (OSS Code name: Iris), a double agent who had also been working for the SD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassellMacRaeAmeskamp2006182–183-108">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Undermining_the_regime">Undermining the regime</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Undermining the regime">edit</a>]</div> Several examples demonstrate that some Abwehr members were opposed to the Nazi regime. In January 1944 for example, American statesman <a href="/wiki/Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Allen Dulles</a> revealed his knowledge of a coalescing resistance against the Nazis, an assemblage of intellectuals from military and government circles; his main contact was Abwehr officer <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bernd_Gisevius" title="Hans Bernd Gisevius">Hans Bernd Gisevius</a>, who was stationed in Zurich as the German Vice Consul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2002281-109">[92]</a> Dulles communicated with the Abwehr concerning their intrigue against Hitler and even attempted discussions about a separate peace, but President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> would have none of it, preferring instead a policy of unconditional surrender for the Nazi government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2002281-109">[92]</a> Machinations against the National Socialists by the Abwehr were considerable in terms of the chain of command. General <a href="/wiki/Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a> of the Abwehr remained in regular contact with Dulles. Foreknowledge and penetration of the Abwehr was such that Dulles reported later in February 1944 that the Abwehr was going to be absorbed by the SD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2002281-109">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[r]</a> The SS continually undermined the Abwehr by putting its officers under investigation, believing them to be involved in anti-Hitler plots. Heydrich ensured that the Abwehr and Canaris were closely monitored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011226-111">[93]</a> The SS also accused Canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments, especially on the Russian campaign, and the Abwehr was under investigation for treason related to the earlier attack on Belgrade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011226–227-112">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Front">Eastern Front</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Eastern Front">edit</a>]</div> Following the launch of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, an <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> Soviet agent named Alexander Demyanov penetrated the Abwehr in late 1941 by posing as a member of a pro-German underground resistance with alleged access to the Soviet military leadership—this was a complete fabrication concocted by the <a href="/wiki/GRU_(Soviet_Union)" title="GRU (Soviet Union)">GRU</a> and NKVD, who used Demyanov as a <a href="/wiki/Double_agent" title="Double agent">double agent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018646-113">[95]</a> During the autumn of 1942, Demyanov informed his German handlers that he was working as a communications officer at the Soviet headquarters in Moscow, which would give him access to important intelligence, a ruse that managed to fool the German intelligence commander on the Russian front at the time, <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Gehlen" title="Reinhard Gehlen">Reinhard Gehlen</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fremde_Heere_Ost" class="mw-redirect" title="Fremde Heere Ost">Fremde Heere Ost</a> (Foreign Armies East) intelligence section.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018646–647-114">[96]</a> Demyanov manipulated the military operations around <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a>, convincing Gehlen that <a href="/wiki/Army_Group_Centre" title="Army Group Centre">Army Group Center</a> would be unable to move west of Moscow to aide General <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Paulus" title="Friedrich Paulus">Friedrich Paulus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/6th_Army_(Wehrmacht)" title="6th Army (Wehrmacht)">Sixth Army</a>, which was ultimately encircled by the Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018647-115">[97]</a> Likewise, a group of White Russians under General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anton_Turkoul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anton Turkoul (page does not exist)">Anton Turkoul</a> [<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2857039#sitelinks-wikipedia" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q2857039">Wikidata</a>] sought <a href="/wiki/Asylum_in_Germany" title="Asylum in Germany">asylum in Germany</a> and offered to provide radio intelligence for the Germans and worked with the Abwehr in getting the necessary communication links established. One of the primary radio links was code-named MAX, supposedly located near the Kremlin. MAX was not the intelligence mechanism the Abwehr believed it to be, instead, it was "a creature of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Commissariat_for_State_Security" title="People's Commissariat for State Security">NKGB</a>", through which information was regularly disseminated concerning <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Armies_East" title="Foreign Armies East">Foreign Armies East</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_Air_Forces_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foreign Air Forces East (page does not exist)">Foreign Air Forces East</a> and troop movements. Careful message trafficking and deception operations by the Soviets allowed them to misdirect the Germans and aided in the strategic surprise they enjoyed against Army Group Center in June 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson1995143–144-116">[98]</a> Even though the Abwehr no longer existed at this point, the heritage operations connected to MAX gave the Soviet armies an advantage they would not have otherwise possessed and further proved the extent of damage attributable to the Abwehr's incompetence, as Moscow's disinformation repeatedly fooled the German high command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings2016234–237-117">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Frau_Solf_Tea_Party_and_the_end_of_the_Abwehr">The Frau Solf Tea Party and the end of the Abwehr</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Frau Solf Tea Party and the end of the Abwehr">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frau_Solf_Tea_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Frau Solf Tea Party">Frau Solf Tea Party</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Vermehren" title="Erich Vermehren">Erich Vermehren</a></div> On 10 September 1943, the incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the Abwehr occurred. The incident came to be known as the "<a href="/wiki/Frau_Solf_Tea_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Frau Solf Tea Party">Frau Solf Tea Party</a>". <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Solf" title="Hanna Solf">Hanna Solf</a> was the widow of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Solf" title="Wilhelm Solf">Wilhelm Solf</a>, a former Colonial Minister under <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> and ex-<a href="/wiki/Ambassador" title="Ambassador">ambassador</a> to <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Frau Solf had long been involved in the <a href="/wiki/German_Resistance_to_Nazism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Resistance to Nazism">anti-Nazi intellectual movement</a> in Berlin. Members of her group were known as members of the "Solf Circle". At a tea party hosted by her on 10 September, a new member was included in the circle, a handsome young Swiss doctor named <a href="/wiki/Paul_Reckzeh" title="Paul Reckzeh">Paul Reckzeh</a>. Reckzeh was an agent of the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> (Secret State Police), to which he reported on the meeting, providing several incriminating documents. The members of the Solf Circle were all rounded up on 12 January 1944. Eventually, everyone involved in the Solf Circle—except Frau Solf and her daughter <a href="/wiki/Lagi_Gr%C3%A4fin_von_Ballestrem" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem">Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem</a>—was executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer19901,_025-118">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitlinger1989304–306-119">[101]</a> One of those executed was <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kiep" title="Otto Kiep">Otto Kiep</a>, an official in the Foreign Office, who had friends in the Abwehr, among whom were <a href="/wiki/Erich_Vermehren" title="Erich Vermehren">Erich Vermehren</a> and his wife, the former Countess Elizabeth <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plettenberg" title="House of Plettenberg">von Plettenberg</a>, who were stationed as agents in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>. Both were summoned to Berlin by the Gestapo in connection with the Kiep case. Fearing for their lives, they contacted the British and defected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitlinger1989306-120">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011281–282-121">[103]</a> Hitler had long suspected that the Abwehr had been infiltrated by anti-Nazi defectors and Allied agents, and the defection of Vemehren after the Solf Circle arrests all but confirmed it. It was also mistakenly believed in Berlin that the Vermehrens absconded with the secret codes of the Abwehr and turned them over to the British. That proved to be the last straw for Hitler. Despite the efforts of the Abwehr to shift the blame to the SS or even to the Foreign Ministry, Hitler had had enough of Canaris and he told Himmler so, twice. He summoned the chief of the Abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the Abwehr to "fall to bits". Canaris quietly agreed that it was "not surprising", as Germany was losing the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011282-122">[104]</a> Hitler fired Canaris on the spot, and on 18 February 1944, Hitler signed a decree that abolished the Abwehr.<a href="#cite_note-124">[s]</a> Its functions were taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) and the senior RSHA official <a href="/wiki/Walter_Schellenberg" title="Walter Schellenberg">Walter Schellenberg</a> replaced Canaris functionally within the RSHA. This action strengthened Himmler's control over the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984537-125">[106]</a> Canaris was <a href="/wiki/Cashiering" title="Cashiering">cashiered</a> and given the empty title of Chief of the Office of Commercial and Economic Warfare. He was arrested on 23 July 1944, in the aftermath of the "<a href="/wiki/20_July_Plot" class="mw-redirect" title="20 July Plot">20 July Plot</a>" against Hitler, and executed shortly before the end of the war, along with Oster, his deputy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2012698-126">[107]</a> The functions of the Abwehr were then fully absorbed by Amt VI, <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst#Ausland-SD" title="Sicherheitsdienst">SD-Ausland</a>, a sub-office of the RSHA, which was part of the SS.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_War_Dept._General_Staff19843-127">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Zossen_documents">The Zossen documents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Zossen documents">edit</a>]</div> During the war, the Abwehr assembled a secret dossier detailing many of the crimes committed in Eastern Europe by the Nazis, known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zossen_documents&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zossen documents (page does not exist)">Zossen documents</a>. These files were gathered together to expose the regime's crimes at a future date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough200544-128">[109]</a> The documents were kept in a safe at the <a href="/wiki/Maybach_I_and_II" title="Maybach I and II">Zossen military headquarters</a> not far from Berlin and remained under Abwehr control. Some of the papers were allegedly buried, but the individual responsible for this, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Schrader" title="Werner Schrader">Werner Schrader</a>, ended up implicated in the <a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">20 July plot</a> against Hitler and committed suicide shortly thereafter. Later, the documents were discovered by the Gestapo, and under the personal supervision of the SD Chief <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a>, they were taken to the castle <a href="/wiki/Mittersill_Castle" title="Mittersill Castle">Schloss Mittersill</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tyrol" title="Tyrol">Tyrol</a> and burned. Supposedly amongst the Zossen documents was the personal diary of Admiral Canaris, as well as the Vatican and Fritsch papers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDulles200073-129">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effectiveness_and_legacy">Effectiveness and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effectiveness and legacy">edit</a>]</div> Many historians agree that, in general, the Abwehr had a poor reputation for the quality of its work and its unusually decentralized organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195437-130">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199049-131">[112]</a> Some of the Abwehr's less than stellar image and performance was due to the intense rivalry it had with the SS, the RSHA and with the SD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008251-132">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZentnerBedürftig19912-5">[3]</a> Other factors in the failings of the Abwehr may have included Allied success in deciphering the German <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a> ciphers through the code-breakers at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018616–617-133">[114]</a> During the August and September 1942 engagements in North Africa against Rommel, this Allied capability was a crucial element to Montgomery's success, as British signals intelligence (<a href="/wiki/SIGINT" class="mw-redirect" title="SIGINT">SIGINT</a>) was superior to that of the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018640,_644–645-134">[115]</a> American historian <a href="/wiki/Robin_Winks" title="Robin Winks">Robin Winks</a> says that the Abwehr was "an abysmal failure, failing to forecast <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"> Torch</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Husky</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"> Overlord</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinks1996281-135">[116]</a> English historian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper" title="Hugh Trevor-Roper">Hugh Trevor-Roper</a> says it was "rotten with corruption, notoriously inefficient, [and] politically suspect". He adds that it was under the "negligent rule" of Admiral Canaris, who was "more interested in anti-Nazi intrigue than in his official duties". Historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> agrees with this observation and avows that Canaris "was anything but a Nazi enthusiast".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008251-132">[113]</a> According to Trevor-Roper, for the first two years of World War II it was a "happy parasite" that was "borne along ... on the success of the German Army". When the tide turned against the Nazis and the Abwehr proved unable to produce the intelligence the Axis <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a> demanded, the Nazi authorities merged the Abwehr into the SS in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevor-Roper199275-136">[117]</a> Numerous intelligence failures and general incompetence led to catastrophic disasters for the German military in both its eastern and western campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2002524–525-137">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[t]</a> In his book, The Secret War: Spies, Ciphers, and Guerrillas, 1939–1945, historian Max Hastings claims that other than suborning Yugoslav officers ahead of their 1941 emergency mobilization, the Abwehr's espionage operations were "uniformly unsuccessful".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings201664-139">[119]</a> Such harsh criticism of the Abwehr aside, the organization achieved some notable successes earlier in its existence. Members of the Abwehr played an important role (along with the SD) in helping to lay the groundwork for the 1938 <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss"> Anschluß</a> with Austria with Germany, and during the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)"> German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a> an Abwehr group aided in the seizure of a strategically important railway tunnel in Polish Silesia in the final week of August 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008251-132">[113]</a> Historian Walter Goerlitz claimed in his 1952 work, History of the German General Staff, 1657–1945, that Canaris and the Abwehr formed the "real center of military opposition to the regime",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoerlitz1985295-140">[120]</a> a view which many others do not share. Former OSS Berlin station chief and later director of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Allen Dulles</a>, evaluated German intelligence officers from the Abwehr at the end of the war and concluded that only the upper echelons were active dissenters and part of the opposition movement. According to Dulles, the Abwehr participated in a lot more than just machinations against Hitler's régime and asserted that approximately 95 percent of the Abwehr actively worked "against the Allies" whereas only about 5 percent of them were anti-Nazi in disposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDulles200075–76-141">[121]</a> Military historian <a href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">John Wheeler-Bennett</a> wrote that the Abwehr "failed conspicuously as a secret intelligence service", that it was "patently and incontestably inefficient" and adds that members of the Abwehr "displayed no great efficiency either as intelligence officers or as conspirators...".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheeler-Bennett1980597-142">[122]</a> Whatever successes the Abwehr enjoyed before the start of the Second World War, there were virtually none once the war began and worse, the British successfully ran 19 double agents through the Abwehr which fed them false information, duping the German intelligence service to the very end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandford200123–24-143">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[u]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[v]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Orchestra_(espionage)" title="Red Orchestra (espionage)"> Soviet infiltration</a> into the Abwehr and <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> successes against Abwehr agents also reflect poorly on German military intelligence efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephan200445,_110,_114,_173-148">[126]</a> Historian Albert Seaton makes an important observation regarding the German Army's failures as a result of poor intelligence by asserting that all too often, decisions were made as a result of the opinion of Hitler and that he imposed his views on the military chain of command and therewith, the choice of actions taken during the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaton1982221-149">[127]</a> Max Hastings makes similar claims about the general nature of totalitarian systems: in Nazi Germany, intelligence assessments required adjustment to fit within the constraints of what Hitler would accept.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings201665-150">[128]</a> Nonetheless, the general historical reputation of the Abwehr remains unfavourable in the view of many historians. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chiefs">Chiefs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Chiefs">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th data-sort-type="number"><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> </th> <th class="unsortable">Portrait </th> <th>Chief of the Abwehr</th> <th data-sort-type="date">Took office</th> <th data-sort-type="date">Left office</th> <th>Time in office</th> <th>Defence branch</th> <th><abbr title="Reference(s)">Ref.</abbr> </th></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:No_image.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Friedrich Gempp"><img alt="Friedrich Gempp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/No_image.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1" data-file-height="1" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Gempp, FriedrichColonel <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gempp" title="Friedrich Gempp">Friedrich Gempp</a> (1873–1947)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 January 1921</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">June 1927</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">6 years, 5 months</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichsheer</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">2</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:No_image.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Günther Schwantes [de]"><img alt="Günther Schwantes [de]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/No_image.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1" data-file-height="1" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Schwantes, GüntherMajor <a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C3%BCnther_Schwantes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Günther Schwantes (page does not exist)">Günther Schwantes</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Schwantes" class="extiw" title="de:Günther Schwantes">de</a>] (1881–1942)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">June 1927</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">February 1929</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 year, 8 months</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichsheer</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">3</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:FBredow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ferdinand von Bredow"><img alt="Ferdinand von Bredow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/FBredow.jpg/120px-FBredow.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/FBredow.jpg/250px-FBredow.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="483" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Bredow, FerdinandLieutenant colonel <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Bredow" title="Ferdinand von Bredow">Ferdinand von Bredow</a> (1884–1934)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">February 1929</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">2 June 1932</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">3 years, 4 months</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichsheer</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">4</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig,_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Conrad Patzig [de]"><img alt="Conrad Patzig [de]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg/100px-Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg/150px-Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg/200px-Kapit%C3%A4n_zur_See_Konrad_Patzig%2C_first_commanding_officer_of_Admiral_Graf_Spee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="876" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Patzig, ConradRear admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conrad_Patzig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conrad Patzig (page does not exist)">Conrad Patzig</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Patzig" class="extiw" title="de:Conrad Patzig">de</a>] (1888–1975)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">6 June 1932</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 January 1935</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">2 years, 209 days</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">5</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43,_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wilhelm Canaris"><img alt="Wilhelm Canaris" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/100px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/150px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg/200px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1979-013-43%2C_Wilhelm_Canaris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="796" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Canaris, WilhelmAdmiral <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a> (1887–1945)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 January 1935</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">12 February 1944</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">9 years, 42 days</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">6</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:No_image.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Georg Hansen"><img alt="Georg Hansen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/No_image.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1" data-file-height="1" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Hansen, GeorgColonel <a href="/wiki/Georg_Hansen" title="Georg Hansen">Georg Hansen</a> (1904–1944)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">13 February 1944</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 June 1944</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">109 days</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/40px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg/60px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281938%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(1935%E2%80%931945)" title="German Army (1935–1945)">German Army</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">7</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-178-04A,_Walter_Schellenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Walter Schellenberg"><img alt="Walter Schellenberg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-178-04A%2C_Walter_Schellenberg.jpg/120px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-178-04A%2C_Walter_Schellenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-178-04A%2C_Walter_Schellenberg.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-178-04A%2C_Walter_Schellenberg.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Schellenberg, WalterSS-<a href="/wiki/Brigadef%C3%BChrer" title="Brigadeführer">Brigadeführer</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Schellenberg" title="Walter Schellenberg">Walter Schellenberg</a> (1910–1952)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">1 June 1944</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">4 May 1945</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">337 days</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> <tr><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">8</td><td style="; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="width:px;height:px;overflow:hidden;position:relative"> <div style="position:relative;top:-px;left:-px"><a href="/wiki/File:Otto_Skorzeny_portait.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Otto Skorzeny"><img alt="Otto Skorzeny" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Otto_Skorzeny_portait.jpg/120px-Otto_Skorzeny_portait.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Otto_Skorzeny_portait.jpg/250px-Otto_Skorzeny_portait.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3499" /></a></div></div></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">Skorzeny, OttoSS-<a href="/wiki/Obersturmbannf%C3%BChrer" title="Obersturmbannführer">Obersturmbannführer</a> <a href="/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny" title="Otto Skorzeny">Otto Skorzeny</a> (1908–1975)</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">5 May 1945</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">8 May 1945</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">3 days</td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Schutzstaffel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a></td><td style="text-align:center; background:transparent;color:inherit;">–</td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_Department_of_the_High_Command_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht">OKW/Chi</a>: The highest cryptologic bureau for the Wehrmacht supreme command.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_der_Nachrichtenaufkl%C3%A4rung" title="General der Nachrichtenaufklärung">General der Nachrichtenaufklärung</a>: The high command of the <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_des_Heeres" title="Oberkommando des Heeres">German Army (Wehrmacht)</a> OKH/Chi cipher bureau.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luftnachrichten_Abteilung_350" title="Luftnachrichten Abteilung 350">Luftnachrichten Abteilung 350</a>: The OKL/Chi cipher bureau for high command of the <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Luftwaffe" title="Oberkommando der Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-Dienst" title="B-Dienst">B-Dienst</a>: (Observation Service) The <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Marine" title="Oberkommando der Marine">Navy High Command</a> OKM/Chi cipher bureau.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">20 July plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Chapman" title="Eddie Chapman">Eddie Chapman</a>, a prominent British <a href="/wiki/Double_agent" title="Double agent">double agent</a> who infiltrated the Abwehr and fed intelligence to <a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a> during World War II. He was trusted by the Germans and awarded the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">German Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Giskes" title="Hermann Giskes">Hermann Giskes</a>—Leading light in the Abwehr <a href="/wiki/Englandspiel" title="Englandspiel">Englandspiel</a> operation in the Netherlands</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army_%E2%80%93_Abwehr_collaboration_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Republican Army – Abwehr collaboration in World War II">Irish Republican Army-Abwehr Collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Salaam" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Salaam">Operation Salaam</a>, a long-range mission into <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">British-held Egypt</a> during World War II</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Schindler" title="Oskar Schindler">Oskar Schindler</a>, another Abwehr agent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a>, Canaris' deputy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergbauernhilfe" title="Bergbauernhilfe">Bergbauernhilfe</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Originally formed in 1866, the early manifestation of the Prussian Abwehr predates the modern German state and originated to collect intelligence information for the Prussian government during <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War"> a war</a> with neighboring Austria. See: Lerner & Lerner, eds. (2004). Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security, vol. 1, A-E, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> In particular, the British and the French vehemently opposed Germany having any form of intelligence services and attempted to institute as many restrictions as possible on the Abwehr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaine19847-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> The term Abwehr, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language"> German</a> for 'ward-off', was chosen to emphasize the defensive character of this department of the <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a> Ministry following the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZentnerBedürftig19912-5">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> The OKW did not establish an Intelligence Branch in its Operations Staff until 1943, at which time it consisted of only three officers. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Despite the location of its HQ, in reality, the power lay in the field via each "Abwehrstelle" or "Ast" of the Abwehr—see <a href="#1938_reorganization"> section titled 1938 reorganization</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> A view Heydrich acquired from Walter Nicolai's 1923 book, Geheime Mächte, in which the author argues that Imperial Germany lost the war as a result of not having a capable intelligence agency comparable to the ones operated by Britain and France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201284-22">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Sometimes referred to as the 'Brandenburgers' of 'Brandenburger Regiment', the Brandenburg Regiment was the first German <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a> unit similar to the British Commandos. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> TO&E being the exact listing of what was deemed necessary for any German military unit to be at full operational strength. An exception to this TO&E directive existed in Hamburg which had no permanent Abwehr II presence. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Evidence of the Abwehr's substandard performance related to recruiting is mentioned in once classified American military documents. See German Espionage and Sabotage against the United States. O.N.I. Review [Office of Naval Intelligence] 1, no.3 (Jan. 1946): 33–38. [Declassified]. Full text online and retrievable from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011205033841/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm">"German Espionage and Sabotage Against the U.S. In World War II"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm">the original</a> on 2001-12-05. Retrieved 2013-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=German+Espionage+and+Sabotage+Against+the+U.S.+In+World+War+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Ffaqs%2Ffaq114-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"> (Accessed December 20, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> It is doubtful that more accurate reporting would have deterred Hitler since at one point during the planning phase of Operation Barbarossa, General <a href="/wiki/Georg_Thomas" title="Georg Thomas">Georg Thomas</a>, then head of the Defence Economy and Armament Office of the OKW, was scolded and patronized when he warned of insufficient fuel reserves for the attack, and voiced complaints about logistics due to the different gauges between German and Russian railways. See Barnett (2003). Hitler's Generals, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> During the spring of 1941, the Abwehr dispatched a Palestine-born Jew named Ernst Paul Fackenheim (who had been in a concentration camp) back to his place of birth to apprise the Germans over British efforts to prevent General <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a> from seizing the Suez Canal. Instead of reporting information back to the Nazis, Fackenheim, who had been dropped by parachute into Palestine, promptly turned himself over to the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton201348–49-66">[56]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> One of the men taken into British custody (recruited to assist in communicating information between Egypt and Berlin) was a young Egyptian signals intelligence officer named <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (later President of Egypt).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton201350-71">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Diary of the Chief of Staff, Befehlhabers des Ersatzheeres, 20 March 1942, Imperial War Museum, MI 14/981/3.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994298-76">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Garbo's case manager at <a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a> was <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Harris" title="Tomás Harris">Tomás Harris</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Balfour's numbers do not match the figures put forth by historian Richard Breitman, who claims the organization consisted of "more than twenty-one thousand officials in 1941, not including informants and other sources."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreitmanGodaNaftaliWolfe200594-90">[76]</a> Nonetheless, the point remains the same, as the Abwehr was not largely populated by personnel working against the Nazi regime. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> For more on the depths of corruption in Nazi Germany, see: Frank Bajohr, Parvenüs und Profiteure: Korruption in der NS-Zeit. Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> For further details regarding Englandspiel, see Kochanski, Resistance: The Underground War Against Hitler, 1939–1945, pp. 373–380.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochanski2022373–380-102">[86]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Dulles was not the only one receiving reports from resistance groups. Efforts by dissident Germans to contact the Allies in Switzerland and elsewhere during 1944 are also documented in U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1944, vol. 1, General (Washington, DC, 1966), pp. 484–579. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> For a long time, Hitler had found the Abwehr suspect in terms of performance; they had not apprised the German military with any intelligence on the North African landings nor much thereafter, leading Hitler to conclude that the Abwehr and its leadership were incompetent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaller1996330–331-123">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> One officer from the German General Staff during Operation Barbarossa described the Abwehr's intelligence contribution to the war effort as nothing more than Mist, which is German for "manure" or "dung". See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas1987" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, David (1987). "Foreign Armies East and German Military Intelligence in Russia 1941–45". Journal of Contemporary History. 22 (2): 261–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948702200204">10.1177/002200948702200204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260933">260933</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161288059">161288059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Foreign+Armies+East+and+German+Military+Intelligence+in+Russia+1941%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E261-%3C%2Fspan%3E301&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161288059%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260933%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200948702200204&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> So thorough was the British penetration of German military intelligence, that not one single agent the Abwehr had in Great Britain was legitimate. Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)" title="David Kahn (writer)">David Kahn</a> asserts that the British accomplished "the greatest deception in the history of warfare since the Trojans dragged into their jubilant city a huge wooden horse left by the departing Greeks".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978367-144">[124]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Attempts by the Abwehr to encourage anti-colonial rebellion against the British Empire in Ireland (through contacts with the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army_(1922%E2%80%931969)" title="Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)"> IRA</a>) and in India (making ties with members of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a>) also proved unsuccessful since the British effectively thwarted their efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalton201347,_51-146">[125]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes20092-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes20092_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2009">Holmes 2009</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaine19847-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaine19847_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaine19847_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPaine1984">Paine 1984</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZentnerBedürftig19912-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZentnerBedürftig19912_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZentnerBedürftig19912_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZentnerBedürftig1991">Zentner & Bedürftig 1991</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDearFoot19951-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDearFoot19951_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDearFoot1995">Dear & Foot 1995</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorShaw199711-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorShaw199711_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylorShaw1997">Taylor & Shaw 1997</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewsome2014950–951-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewsome2014950–951_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewsome2014">Newsome 2014</a>, pp. 950–951. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1995165-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1995165_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1995">Taylor 1995</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978224–225-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn1978224–225_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, pp. 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201144-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201144_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978225-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn1978225_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018573-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrew2018573_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrew2018">Andrew 2018</a>, p. 573. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201193-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201193_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201194-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201194_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199596-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichelson199596_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichelson1995">Richelson 1995</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201197–99-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201197–99_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 97–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett201196–99-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett201196–99_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 96–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201284-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201284_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGerwarth2012">Gerwarth 2012</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201285-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerwarth201285_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGerwarth2012">Gerwarth 2012</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199586-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichelson199586_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichelson1995">Richelson 1995</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellenberg200025–27-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellenberg200025–27_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchellenberg2000">Schellenberg 2000</a>, pp. 25–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandford200118-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlandford200118_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlandford2001">Blandford 2001</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011114-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011114_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978236-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn1978236_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011115-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011115_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243–248-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn1978243–248_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, pp. 243–248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195464–66-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195464–66_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeverkuehn1954">Leverkuehn 1954</a>, pp. 64–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn197885–88-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahn197885–88_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahn1978">Kahn 1978</a>, pp. 85–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195498-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195498_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeverkuehn1954">Leverkuehn 1954</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochanski2022113-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKochanski2022113_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKochanski2022">Kochanski 2022</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichelson199584-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichelson199584_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRichelson1995">Richelson 1995</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011142–143-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011142–143_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 142–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011148–149-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011148–149_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 148–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011118–119-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011118–119_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 118–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHildebrand197370–71-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHildebrand197370–71_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHildebrand1973">Hildebrand 1973</a>, pp. 70–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011147–164-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011147–164_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 147–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005585-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005585_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2005">Weinberg 2005</a>, p. 585. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer1990518-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShirer1990518_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShirer1990">Shirer 1990</a>, p. 518. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassett2011176–177-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBassett2011176–177_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBassett2011">Bassett 2011</a>, pp. 176–177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeverkuehn195481–86-49"><a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1973173–174-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERich1973173–174_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRich1973">Rich 1973</a>, pp. 173–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984282-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1984282_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper1984">Cooper 1984</a>, p. 282. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984283-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1984283_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper1984">Cooper 1984</a>, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMegargee2000133-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMegargee2000133_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMegargee2000">Megargee 2000</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1984283–284-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1984283–284_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper1984">Cooper 1984</a>, pp. 283–284. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1995445-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer1995445_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer1995">Fischer 1995</a>, p. 445. </li> <li 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London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-31500-183-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-31500-183-8"><bdi>978-1-31500-183-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Withstanding+Hitler&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-1-31500-183-8&rft.aulast=Balfour&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBassett2011" class="citation book cs1">Bassett, Richard (2011). Hitler's Spy Chief: The Wilhelm Canaris Betrayal. New York: Pegasus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-450-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-450-6"><bdi>978-1-60598-450-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Spy+Chief%3A+The+Wilhelm+Canaris+Betrayal&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60598-450-6&rft.aulast=Bassett&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBauer1996" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Yehuda (1996). Jews for Sale?: Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933–1945. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30006-852-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30006-852-8"><bdi>978-0-30006-852-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+for+Sale%3F%3A+Nazi-Jewish+Negotiations%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-30006-852-8&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Yehuda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlandford2001" class="citation book cs1">Blandford, Edmund L. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ssintelligencena0000blan">SS Intelligence: The Nazi Secret Service</a>. Edison, NJ: Castle Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-78581-398-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-78581-398-9"><bdi>978-0-78581-398-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SS+Intelligence%3A+The+Nazi+Secret+Service&rft.place=Edison%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Castle+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-78581-398-9&rft.aulast=Blandford&rft.aufirst=Edmund+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fssintelligencena0000blan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoeckl-KlamperMangNeugebauer2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Boeckl-Klamper, Elisabeth; Mang, Thomas; Neugebauer, Wolfgang (2018). Gestapo-Leitstelle Wien, 1938–1945 (in German). Wien: Edition Steinbauer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-90249-483-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-90249-483-2"><bdi>978-3-90249-483-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gestapo-Leitstelle+Wien%2C+1938%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Wien&rft.pub=Edition+Steinbauer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-90249-483-2&rft.aulast=Boeckl-Klamper&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft.au=Mang%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Neugebauer%2C+Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBreitmanGodaNaftaliWolfe2005" class="citation book cs1">Breitman, Richard; Goda, Norman J.W.; Naftali, Timothy; Wolfe, Robert (2005). U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52161-794-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52161-794-9"><bdi>978-0-52161-794-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Intelligence+and+the+Nazis&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-52161-794-9&rft.aulast=Breitman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Goda%2C+Norman+J.W.&rft.au=Naftali%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Wolfe%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Brissaud, André. Canaris; the Biography of Admiral Canaris, Chief of German Military Intelligence in the Second World War. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-44811-621-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-44811-621-1">978-0-44811-621-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBroucek2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Broucek, Peter (2008). Militärischer Widerstand: Studien zur österreichischen Staatsgesinnung und NS-Abwehr (in German). Wien: Böhlau. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-20577-728-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-20577-728-1"><bdi>978-3-20577-728-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Milit%C3%A4rischer+Widerstand%3A+Studien+zur+%C3%B6sterreichischen+Staatsgesinnung+und+NS-Abwehr&rft.place=Wien&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-20577-728-1&rft.aulast=Broucek&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1975" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Anthony C. (1975). Bodyguard of Lies: The Extraordinary True Story Behind D-Day. New York: Harper and Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58574-692-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58574-692-7"><bdi>978-1-58574-692-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bodyguard+of+Lies%3A+The+Extraordinary+True+Story+Behind+D-Day&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-1-58574-692-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Anthony+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Budiansky, Stephen. Battle of Wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. New York: The Free Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67088-492-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67088-492-6">978-0-67088-492-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurleigh2010" class="citation book cs1">Burleigh, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nosimplevictoryw00norm">Moral Combat: Good and Evil in World War II</a>. New York: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67001-832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67001-832-1"><bdi>978-0-67001-832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Combat%3A+Good+and+Evil+in+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-67001-832-1&rft.aulast=Burleigh&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnosimplevictoryw00norm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCooper1984" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Matthew (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanarmy1933190000coop">The German Army, 1933–1945</a>. New York: Bonanza Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-51743-610-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-51743-610-3"><bdi>978-0-51743-610-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Army%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bonanza+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-51743-610-3&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanarmy1933190000coop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cruickshank, Charles Greig, and David Barlow. Deception in World War II. Oxford University Press, 1979. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19215-849-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19215-849-9">978-0-19215-849-9</a></li> <li>Cubbage, T. L. "The German misapprehensions regarding overlord: Understanding failure in the estimative process." Intelligence and National Security (1987) 2#3 pp: 114–174.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavies2008" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nosimplevictoryw00norm">No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939–1945</a>. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67001-832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67001-832-1"><bdi>978-0-67001-832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Simple+Victory%3A+World+War+II+in+Europe%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-67001-832-1&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnosimplevictoryw00norm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDearFoot1995" class="citation book cs1">Dear, Ian; <a href="/wiki/M._R._D._Foot" title="M. R. D. Foot">Foot, M.R.D.</a>, eds. (1995). The Oxford Guide to World War II. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534096-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534096-9"><bdi>978-0-19-534096-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Guide+to+World+War+II&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534096-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDulles2000" class="citation book cs1">Dulles, Allen (2000) [1947]. Germany's Underground: The Anti-Nazi Resistance. New York: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30680-928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30680-928-6"><bdi>978-0-30680-928-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%27s+Underground%3A+The+Anti-Nazi+Resistance&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-30680-928-6&rft.aulast=Dulles&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Farago, Ladislas. The Game of the Foxes: The Untold Story of German Espionage in the United States and Great Britain During WWII, David McKay Co. Inc., 1971. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-12342-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-12342-5">978-0-553-12342-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFischer1995" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, Klaus (1995). Nazi Germany: A New History. New York: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-82640-797-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-82640-797-9"><bdi>978-0-82640-797-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazi+Germany%3A+A+New+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-82640-797-9&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGerwarth2012" class="citation book cs1">Gerwarth, Robert (2012). Hitler's Hangman: The Life of Heydrich. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30018-772-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30018-772-4"><bdi>978-0-30018-772-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Hangman%3A+The+Life+of+Heydrich&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-30018-772-4&rft.aulast=Gerwarth&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoerlitz1985" class="citation book cs1">Goerlitz, Walter (1985) [1953]. History of the German General Staff, 1657–1945. New York: Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-914-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-914-8"><bdi>978-1-56619-914-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+German+General+Staff%2C+1657%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-1-56619-914-8&rft.aulast=Goerlitz&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHassellMacRaeAmeskamp2006" class="citation book cs1">Hassell, Agostino von; MacRae, Sigrid; Ameskamp, Simone (2006). Alliance of Enemies. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-31237-482-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-31237-482-2"><bdi>978-0-31237-482-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alliance+of+Enemies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thomas+Dunne+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-31237-482-2&rft.aulast=Hassell&rft.aufirst=Agostino+von&rft.au=MacRae%2C+Sigrid&rft.au=Ameskamp%2C+Simone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHastings2016" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Max (2016). The Secret War: Spies, Ciphers, and Guerrillas, 1939–1945. New York: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06225-927-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06225-927-1"><bdi>978-0-06225-927-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+War%3A+Spies%2C+Ciphers%2C+and+Guerrillas%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-06225-927-1&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Herfeldt, Olav. Schwarze Kapelle. Spionage und Widerstand. Die Geschichte der Widerstansgruppe um Admiral Wilhelm Canaris. Augsburg: Weltbild, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89350-077-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89350-077-2">978-3-89350-077-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHildebrand1973" class="citation book cs1">Hildebrand, Klaus (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foreignpolicyoft0000hild">The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich</a>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02528-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02528-8"><bdi>978-0-520-02528-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foreign+Policy+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02528-8&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforeignpolicyoft0000hild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHöhne1979" class="citation book cs1">Höhne, Heinz (1979). Canaris: Hitler's Master Spy. New York: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-08777-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-08777-3"><bdi>978-0-385-08777-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaris%3A+Hitler%27s+Master+Spy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-385-08777-3&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6hne&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2009" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Richard (2009). The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19866-209-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19866-209-9"><bdi>978-0-19866-209-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Military+History&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19866-209-9&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolt2004" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Thaddeus (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deceiversalliedm00holt">The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War</a>. New York: Scribner's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780743250429" title="Special:BookSources/9780743250429"><bdi>9780743250429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Deceivers%3A+Allied+Military+Deception+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner%27s&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780743250429&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Thaddeus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeceiversalliedm00holt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoward1990" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Michael (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pw-vCy7g5kkC&pg=PA49">British Intelligence in the Second World War: Strategic Deception</a>. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52140-145-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52140-145-6"><bdi>978-0-52140-145-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Intelligence+in+the+Second+World+War%3A+Strategic+Deception&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-52140-145-6&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpw-vCy7g5kkC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen1968" class="citation book cs1">Jacobsen, Hans-Adolf (1968). "The Kommissarbefehl and Mass Executions of Soviet Russian Prisoners of War". In Krausnick, Helmut; Buchheim, Hans; Broszat, Martin; Jacobsen, Hans-Adolf (eds.). Anatomy of the SS State. New York: Walker and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00211-026-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00211-026-6"><bdi>978-0-00211-026-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Kommissarbefehl+and+Mass+Executions+of+Soviet+Russian+Prisoners+of+War&rft.btitle=Anatomy+of+the+SS+State&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walker+and+Company&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-00211-026-6&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=Hans-Adolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKahn1978" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, David (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hitlersspiesgerm00kahn">Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II</a>. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02560-610-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02560-610-4"><bdi>978-0-02560-610-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Spies%3A+German+Military+Intelligence+in+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-02560-610-4&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhitlersspiesgerm00kahn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kitson, Simon. The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-22643-893-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-22643-893-1">978-0-22643-893-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKochanski2022" class="citation book cs1">Kochanski, Halik (2022). Resistance: The Underground War Against Hitler, 1939–1945. New York: Liveright. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-32409-165-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-32409-165-3"><bdi>978-1-32409-165-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resistance%3A+The+Underground+War+Against+Hitler%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Liveright&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-32409-165-3&rft.aulast=Kochanski&rft.aufirst=Halik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLemay2013" class="citation book cs1">Lemay, Benoit (2013). Erich von Manstein: Hitler's Master Strategist. Philadelphia; Oxford: Casemate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-059-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-059-6"><bdi>978-1-61200-059-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Erich+von+Manstein%3A+Hitler%27s+Master+Strategist&rft.place=Philadelphia%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61200-059-6&rft.aulast=Lemay&rft.aufirst=Benoit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lerner, K. Lee, and Brenda W. Lerner (2004). Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security, vol. 1, A-E. New York: Thomson Gale. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7876-7686-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7876-7686-1">0-7876-7686-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeverkuehn1954" class="citation book cs1">Leverkuehn, Paul (1954). German Military Intelligence. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Inc. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CIU8I">B0000CIU8I</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Military+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger+Inc.&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0000CIU8I%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Leverkuehn&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Liddell-Hart, B.H. The German Generals Talk. New York: Quill, 1979, [1948]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-06012-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-06012-9">0-688-06012-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLongerich2012" class="citation book cs1">Longerich, Peter (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/heinrichhimmler0000long">Heinrich Himmler</a>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199592326" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199592326"><bdi>978-0199592326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heinrich+Himmler&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199592326&rft.aulast=Longerich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fheinrichhimmler0000long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough2005" class="citation book cs1">McDonough, Frank (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oppositionresist00mcdo">Opposition and Resistance in Nazi Germany</a>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52100-358-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52100-358-2"><bdi>978-0-52100-358-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opposition+and+Resistance+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-52100-358-2&rft.aulast=McDonough&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foppositionresist00mcdo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMegargee2000" class="citation book cs1">Megargee, Geoffrey (2000). Inside Hitler's High Command. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-70061-015-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-70061-015-0"><bdi>978-0-70061-015-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+Hitler%27s+High+Command&rft.place=Lawrence%2C+KS&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-70061-015-0&rft.aulast=Megargee&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMolinari2013" class="citation book cs1">Molinari, Andrea (2013). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces, 1940–43. London: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-47280-215-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-47280-215-6"><bdi>978-1-47280-215-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Desert+Raiders%3A+Axis+and+Allied+Special+Forces%2C+1940%E2%80%9343&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-47280-215-6&rft.aulast=Molinari&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNewsome2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Newsome, Bruce (2014). "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) (1938–1945)". In David T. Zabecki (ed.). Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History. Vol. III, N–T. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-980-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-980-6"><bdi>978-1-59884-980-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oberkommando+der+Wehrmacht+%28OKW%29+%281938%E2%80%931945%29&rft.btitle=Germany+at+War%3A+400+Years+of+Military+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-980-6&rft.aulast=Newsome&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>O.N.I. Review [Office of Naval Intelligence]. “German Espionage and Sabotage against the United States.” 1, no.3 (Jan. 1946): 33-38. [Declassified]. Full text online and retrievable from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011205033331/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm">https://web.archive.org/web/20011205033331/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm</a> (Accessed December 20, 2014).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaine1984" class="citation book cs1">Paine, Lauran (1984). German Military Intelligence in World War II: The Abwehr. Stein & Day. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7091-9628-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7091-9628-0"><bdi>978-0-7091-9628-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Military+Intelligence+in+World+War+II%3A+The+Abwehr&rft.pub=Stein+%26+Day&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7091-9628-0&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=Lauran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2002" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Neal H. (2002) [1992]. "From Hitler's Doorstep: Allen Dulles and the Penetration of Germany". In George C. Chalou (ed.). The Secrets War: The Office of Strategic Services in World War II. Washington DC: National Archives and Records Administration. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-911333-91-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-911333-91-6"><bdi>978-0-911333-91-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Hitler%27s+Doorstep%3A+Allen+Dulles+and+the+Penetration+of+Germany&rft.btitle=The+Secrets+War%3A+The+Office+of+Strategic+Services+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-911333-91-6&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Neal+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRankin2008" class="citation book cs1">Rankin, Nicholas (2008). A Genius for Deception: How Cunning Helped the British Win Two World Wars. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19975-671-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19975-671-1"><bdi>978-0-19975-671-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Genius+for+Deception%3A+How+Cunning+Helped+the+British+Win+Two+World+Wars&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19975-671-1&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReginbogin2009" class="citation book cs1">Reginbogin, Herbert R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n2aV2f7wrXgC&dq=canaris+franco+1940&pg=PA116">Faces of Neutrality: A Comparative Analysis of the Neutrality of Switzerland and other Neutral Nations during WW II</a>. Berlin: LIT Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-82581-914-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-82581-914-9"><bdi>978-3-82581-914-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faces+of+Neutrality%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis+of+the+Neutrality+of+Switzerland+and+other+Neutral+Nations+during+WW+II&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-82581-914-9&rft.aulast=Reginbogin&rft.aufirst=Herbert+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn2aV2f7wrXgC%26dq%3Dcanaris%2Bfranco%2B1940%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReitlinger1989" class="citation book cs1">Reitlinger, Gerald (1989). The SS: Alibi of a Nation, 1922–1945. New York: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30680-351-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30680-351-2"><bdi>978-0-30680-351-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+SS%3A+Alibi+of+a+Nation%2C+1922%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-30680-351-2&rft.aulast=Reitlinger&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2022" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Nicholas (2022). Need to Know: World War II and the Rise of American Intelligence. New York and Boston: Mariner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06296-747-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06296-747-3"><bdi>978-0-06296-747-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Need+to+Know%3A+World+War+II+and+the+Rise+of+American+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York+and+Boston&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-06296-747-3&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRich1973" class="citation book cs1">Rich, Norman (1973). Hitler's War Aims Ideology: The Nazi State and the Course of Expansion. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-23396-476-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-23396-476-8"><bdi>978-0-23396-476-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+War+Aims+Ideology%3A+The+Nazi+State+and+the+Course+of+Expansion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-23396-476-8&rft.aulast=Rich&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichelson1995" class="citation book cs1">Richelson, Jeffrey T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofspiesin00rich">Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19507-391-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19507-391-1"><bdi>978-0-19507-391-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Century+of+Spies%3A+Intelligence+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19507-391-1&rft.aulast=Richelson&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofspiesin00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoseman2000" class="citation book cs1">Roseman, Mark (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pastinhiding00mark">A Past in Hiding: Memory and Survival in Nazi Germany</a>. New York: Metropolitan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80506-326-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80506-326-4"><bdi>978-0-80506-326-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Past+in+Hiding%3A+Memory+and+Survival+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-80506-326-4&rft.aulast=Roseman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpastinhiding00mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchellenberg2000" class="citation book cs1">Schellenberg, Walter (2000) [1956]. The Labyrinth: Memoirs of Walter Schellenberg, Hitler's Chief of Counterintelligence. Translated by Louis Hagen. New York: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306809279" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306809279"><bdi>978-0306809279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Labyrinth%3A+Memoirs+of+Walter+Schellenberg%2C+Hitler%27s+Chief+of+Counterintelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0306809279&rft.aulast=Schellenberg&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Schoonover, Thomas. Hitler's Man in Havana: Heinz Luning and Nazi Espionage in Latin America. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-81312-501-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-81312-501-5">978-0-81312-501-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeaton1982" class="citation book cs1">Seaton, Albert (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanarmy19334500seat">The German Army, 1933–1945</a>. New York: Meridian. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-452-00739-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-452-00739-0"><bdi>978-0-452-00739-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Army%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Meridian&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-452-00739-0&rft.aulast=Seaton&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanarmy19334500seat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShirer1990" class="citation book cs1">Shirer, William (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: MJF Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56731-163-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56731-163-1"><bdi>978-1-56731-163-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MJF+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-56731-163-1&rft.aulast=Shirer&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStephan2004" class="citation book cs1">Stephan, Robert W. (2004). Stalin's Secret War: Soviet Counterintelligence Against the Nazis, 1941–1945. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-70061-279-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-70061-279-6"><bdi>978-0-70061-279-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Secret+War%3A+Soviet+Counterintelligence+Against+the+Nazis%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Lawrence%2C+KS&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-70061-279-6&rft.aulast=Stephan&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStewart2014" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Jules (2014). The Kaiser's Mission to Kabul: A Secret Expedition to Afghanistan in World War I. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-875-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-875-5"><bdi>978-1-78076-875-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kaiser%27s+Mission+to+Kabul%3A+A+Secret+Expedition+to+Afghanistan+in+World+War+I&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78076-875-5&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Jules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylorShaw1997" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, James; Shaw, Warren (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of the Third Reich. New York: Penguin Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14051-389-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14051-389-9"><bdi>978-0-14051-389-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Dictionary+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Reference&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-14051-389-9&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1995" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Telford (1995) [1952]. Sword and Swastika: Generals and Nazis in the Third Reich. New York: Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-746-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-746-5"><bdi>978-1-56619-746-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sword+and+Swastika%3A+Generals+and+Nazis+in+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56619-746-5&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Telford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas1987" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, David (1987). "Foreign Armies East and German Military Intelligence in Russia 1941-45". Journal of Contemporary History. 22 (2): 261–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948702200204">10.1177/002200948702200204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260933">260933</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161288059">161288059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Foreign+Armies+East+and+German+Military+Intelligence+in+Russia+1941-45&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E261-%3C%2Fspan%3E301&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161288059%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260933%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200948702200204&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThurner2017" class="citation book cs1">Thurner, Christoph (2017). The CASSIA Spy Ring in World War II Austria: A History of the OSS's Maier-Messner Group. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-47666-969-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-47666-969-4"><bdi>978-1-47666-969-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+CASSIA+Spy+Ring+in+World+War+II+Austria%3A+A+History+of+the+OSS%27s+Maier-Messner+Group&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pub=McFarland+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-47666-969-4&rft.aulast=Thurner&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTooze2006" class="citation book cs1">Tooze, Adam (2006). The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67003-826-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67003-826-8"><bdi>978-0-67003-826-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wages+of+Destruction%3A+The+Making+and+Breaking+of+the+Nazi+Economy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-67003-826-8&rft.aulast=Tooze&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTrevor-Roper1992" class="citation book cs1">Trevor-Roper (1992). The Last Days of Hitler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-81224-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-81224-3"><bdi>978-0-226-81224-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Days+of+Hitler&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-226-81224-3&rft.au=Trevor-Roper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_War_Dept._General_Staff1984" class="citation book cs1">United States War Dept. General Staff (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanmilitaryin00unit_0">German Military Intelligence, 1939-1945</a>. Frederick, MD: University Publications of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89093-543-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89093-543-9"><bdi>978-0-89093-543-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Military+Intelligence%2C+1939-1945&rft.place=Frederick%2C+MD&rft.pub=University+Publications+of+America&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-89093-543-9&rft.au=United+States+War+Dept.+General+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanmilitaryin00unit_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaller1996" class="citation book cs1">Waller, John (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unseenwarineurop00wall">The Unseen War in Europe: Espionage and Conspiracy in the Second World War</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67944-826-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67944-826-6"><bdi>978-0-67944-826-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unseen+War+in+Europe%3A+Espionage+and+Conspiracy+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-67944-826-6&rft.aulast=Waller&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funseenwarineurop00wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalton2013" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Calder (2013). Empire of Secrets: British Intelligence, the Cold War, and the Twilight of Empire. New York: Overlook Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-46830-946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-46830-946-1"><bdi>978-1-46830-946-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Secrets%3A+British+Intelligence%2C+the+Cold+War%2C+and+the+Twilight+of+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Overlook+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-46830-946-1&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Calder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Gerhard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldatarmsgloba00wein">A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II</a>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44317-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44317-3"><bdi>978-0-521-44317-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+at+Arms%3A+A+Global+History+of+World+War+II&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44317-3&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldatarmsgloba00wein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1996" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Gerhard (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanyhitlerwor0000wein">Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History</a>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47407-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47407-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47407-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%2C+Hitler%2C+and+World+War+II%3A+Essays+in+Modern+German+and+World+History&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47407-8&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanyhitlerwor0000wein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2005" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Gerhard (2005). Hitler's Foreign Policy 1933–1939: The Road to World War II. New York: Enigma Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-92963-191-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-92963-191-9"><bdi>978-1-92963-191-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Foreign+Policy+1933%E2%80%931939%3A+The+Road+to+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Enigma+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-92963-191-9&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWheeler-Bennett1980" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1980) [1954]. Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-06864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-06864-9"><bdi>978-0-333-06864-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nemesis+of+Power%3A+The+German+Army+in+Politics+1918%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-333-06864-9&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinks1996" class="citation book cs1">Winks, Robin W. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a3ncweUli9UC&pg=PA281">Cloak & Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939–1961</a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30006-524-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30006-524-4"><bdi>978-0-30006-524-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cloak+%26+Gown%3A+Scholars+in+the+Secret+War%2C+1939%E2%80%931961&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-30006-524-4&rft.aulast=Winks&rft.aufirst=Robin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da3ncweUli9UC%26pg%3DPA281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZentnerBedürftig1991" class="citation book cs1">Zentner, Christian; Bedürftig, Friedemann (1991). The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. New York: MacMillan Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-897500-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-897500-9"><bdi>978-0-02-897500-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MacMillan+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-02-897500-9&rft.aulast=Zentner&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Bed%C3%BCrftig%2C+Friedemann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbwehr" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links_and_further_reading">External links and further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abwehr&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links and further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011205033841/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm">German Espionage and Sabotage Against the USA in WW2</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ibiblio.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibiblio.org">ibiblio.org</a>. Includes details on the structure of Abwehr.</li> <li>Gross, Kuno, Michael Rolke & András Zboray, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fjexpeditions.com/resources/salam/operation_salam.htm">Operation SALAM</a> – László Almásy's most daring Mission in the Desert War, Belleville, München, 2013</li> <li>Waller, John H. "The Double Life of Admiral Canaris." International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 9, no.3 (1996): 271–289. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08850609608435318?journalCode=ujic20">The Double Life of Admiral Canaris</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="German_Signals_intelligence_organisations_before_1945411" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:German_signal_intelligence_organisations_before_and_during_World_War_II" title="Template:German signal intelligence organisations before and during World War II"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:German_signal_intelligence_organisations_before_and_during_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:German signal intelligence organisations before and during World War II (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:German_signal_intelligence_organisations_before_and_during_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:German signal intelligence organisations before and during World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="German_Signals_intelligence_organisations_before_1945411" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">German <a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">Signals intelligence</a> organisations before 1945</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li>The Type of organisation</li> <li>Name of organisation</li> <li>People</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:6.9em;text-align:left;">Military <abbr title="A German military organisation">(?)</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cipher_Department_of_the_High_Command_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht High Command Cipher Bureau</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fellgiebel" title="Erich Fellgiebel">Erich Fellgiebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Praun" title="Albert Praun">Albert Praun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Kettler" title="Hugo Kettler">Hugo Kettler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Fenner" title="Wilhelm Fenner">Wilhelm Fenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_H%C3%BCttenhain" title="Erich Hüttenhain">Erich Hüttenhain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Novopashenny" title="Peter Novopashenny">Peter Novopashenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fricke" title="Walter Fricke">Walter Fricke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Stein_(mathematician)" title="Karl Stein (mathematician)">Karl Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Franz_(mathematician)" title="Wolfgang Franz (mathematician)">Wolfgang Franz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gisbert_Hasenjaeger" title="Gisbert Hasenjaeger">Gisbert Hasenjaeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Scholz" title="Heinrich Scholz">Heinrich Scholz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Liebknecht" title="Werner Liebknecht">Werner Liebknecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_K%C3%B6the" title="Gottfried Köthe">Gottfried Köthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Witt" title="Ernst Witt">Ernst Witt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Grunsky" title="Helmut Grunsky">Helmut Grunsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Hamel" title="Georg Hamel">Georg Hamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Aumann" title="Georg Aumann">Georg Aumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Teichm%C3%BCller" title="Oswald Teichmüller">Oswald Teichmüller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Aigner" title="Alexander Aigner">Alexander Aigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Weber_(mathematician)" title="Werner Weber (mathematician)">Werner Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Leiberich" title="Otto Leiberich">Otto Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Buggisch" title="Otto Buggisch">Otto Buggisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Menzer" title="Fritz Menzer">Fritz Menzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/General_der_Nachrichtenaufkl%C3%A4rung" title="General der Nachrichtenaufklärung">General der Nachrichtenaufklärung</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fellgiebel" title="Erich Fellgiebel">Erich Fellgiebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Thiele" title="Fritz Thiele">Fritz Thiele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gimmler" title="Wilhelm Gimmler">Wilhelm Gimmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Kettler" title="Hugo Kettler">Hugo Kettler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Boetzel" title="Friedrich Boetzel">Fritz Boetzel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Buggisch" title="Otto Buggisch">Otto Buggisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Menzer" title="Fritz Menzer">Fritz Menzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_von_Denffer" title="Herbert von Denffer">Herbert von Denffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_F%C3%B6ppl" title="Ludwig Föppl">Ludwig Föppl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Schubert" title="Horst Schubert">Horst Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_B%C3%B6hm" title="Friedrich Böhm">Friedrich Böhm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_von_Freytag-L%C3%B6ringhoff" title="Bruno von Freytag-Löringhoff">Bruno von Freytag-Löringhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Marquart" title="Johannes Marquart">Johannes Marquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willi_Rinow" title="Willi Rinow">Willi Rinow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kochend%C3%B6rffer" title="Rudolf Kochendörffer">Rudolf Kochendörffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Pietsch_(mathematician)" title="Hans Pietsch (mathematician)">Hans Pietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_Hoheisel" title="Guido Hoheisel">Guido Hoheisel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Peter_Luzius" title="Hans-Peter Luzius">Hans-Peter Luzius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Vauck" title="Wilhelm Vauck">Wilhelm Vauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bailovic" title="Rudolf Bailovic">Rudolf Bailovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kneschke" title="Alfred Kneschke">Alfred Kneschke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Luftnachrichten_Abteilung_350" title="Luftnachrichten Abteilung 350">Luftnachrichten Abteilung 350</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Martini" title="Wolfgang Martini">Wolfgang Martini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Voegele" title="Ferdinand Voegele">Ferdinand Voegele</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/B-Dienst" title="B-Dienst">B-Dienst</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Fricke" title="Kurt Fricke">Kurt Fricke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Stummel" title="Ludwig Stummel">Ludwig Stummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Bonatz" title="Heinz Bonatz">Heinz Bonatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Tranow" title="Wilhelm Tranow">Wilhelm Tranow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erhard_Maertens" title="Erhard Maertens">Erhard Maertens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Krauss" title="Fritz Krauss">Fritz Krauss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abwehr</a> <abbr title="The Abwehr didn't have its own cryptanalyts instead relying on the four others agencies for intelligence.">(?)</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:6.9em;text-align:left;">Civilian <abbr title="A German civilian operation">(?)</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Pers_Z_S57" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pers_Z_S" title="Pers Z S">Pers Z S</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curt_Selchow" title="Curt Selchow">Curt Selchow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Hauthal" title="Horst Hauthal">Horst Hauthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Schauffler" title="Rudolf Schauffler">Rudolf Schauffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Benzing" title="Johannes Benzing">Johannes Benzing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otfried_Deubner" title="Otfried Deubner">Otfried Deubner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Rohrbach" title="Hans Rohrbach">Hans Rohrbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Grunsky" title="Helmut Grunsky">Helmut Grunsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erika_Pannwitz" title="Erika Pannwitz">Erika Pannwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Schr%C3%B6ter" title="Karl Schröter">Karl Schröter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Research_Office_of_the_Reich_Air_Ministry" title="Research Office of the Reich Air Ministry">Research Office of the Reich Air Ministry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Schapper" title="Gottfried Schapper">Gottfried Schapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Schimpf" title="Hans Schimpf">Hans Schimpf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Christoph_of_Hesse" title="Prince Christoph of Hesse">Prince Christoph of Hesse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:6.9em;text-align:left;">Training <abbr title="Signal intelligence and cipher training organisations">(?)</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/General_der_Nachrichtenaufkl%C3%A4rung_Training_Referat" title="General der Nachrichtenaufklärung Training Referat">GdNA Training Referat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Heer_and_Luftwaffe_Signals_School" title="Heer and Luftwaffe Signals School">Heer and Luftwaffe Signals School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> </li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;;font-weight: normal;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Radio_Intelligence_Operations_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German Radio Intelligence Operations during World War II">German Radio Intelligence Operations during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/153111060">VIAF</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/3784150869801122190009">2</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/2091151-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007261497505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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