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rounded-50"><i class="fas fa-file-pdf"></i> View PDF</a> <a href="https://www.longdom.org/pdfdownload.php?download=open-access/retroviral-pathogenesis-from-basic-mechanisms-to-clinical-outcomes.pdf&aid=110543" title="Download PDF" class="btn btn-sm bg-green-600 rounded-50"><i class="fas fa-download"></i> Download PDF</a> </div> </div> <h2 class="font-size-7 mt-2">Retroviral Pathogenesis: From Basic Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes</h2> <a href='https://www.longdom.org/author/xiaofei-kim-72873' title='Xiaofei Kim' style='color:#555; border-bottom:1px dotted #CCC;'>Xiaofei Kim</a><sup><a href='#Xiaofei_Kim'>*</a></sup> <div> </div> <a id="Xiaofei_Kim"></a> <strong><sup>*</sup>Correspondence:</strong> Xiaofei Kim, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Aichi Bunkyo, Aichi, Japan, <strong>Email:</strong> <i class='fa fa-envelope' aria-hidden='true' title='xiaofeik@gmail.com'></i> <p><a href="#ai"><strong>Author info »</strong></a></p> <h4>Description</h4> <p>Retroviruses are a diverse <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/family-345.html'>family</a> of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/viruses-25440.html'>viruses</a> that play a significant role in human disease. They are characterized by their ability to convert their <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/rna-210.html'>RNA</a> <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/genome-7056.html'>genome</a> into Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), which then integrates into the host's genome. This unique feature not only facilitates viral <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/replication-13486.html'>replication</a> but also poses challenges for therapeutic intervention. Understanding retroviral pathogenesis-from basic molecular mechanisms to clinical outcomes-is essential for developing effective treatments and preventive strategies. This manuscript explains the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/pathogenesis-26240.html'>pathogenesis</a> of retroviruses, focusing on their molecular mechanisms, disease progression, and clinical implications. For example, <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/human-immunodeficiency-virus-54285.html'>Human <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immunodeficiency-26749.html'>Immunodeficiency</a> Virus</a> (HIV), a well-studied retrovirus, uses the Clusters of Differentiation 4 (CD4) receptor and a co-receptor, usually C-C chemokine Receptor type 5 (CCR5) or CXC chemokine Receptor 4 (CXCR4), to enter T-helper cells. This DNA is then transported into the host cell's nucleus and integrated into the host <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/genome-7056.html'>genome</a> by the viral integrase enzyme. Once integrated, the viral DNA, known as a provirus, is transcribed into <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/rna-210.html'>RNA</a> and translated into viral proteins. This integration is a stable and permanent feature of retroviral infection, allowing for persistent infection. In HIV, the integration of the proviral DNA into the host <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/genome-7056.html'>genome</a> can lead to a latent infection state where viral gene expression is minimal or absent. This latency is a major obstacle to curing HIV, as the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/virus-28980.html'>virus</a> can reactivate and resume replication, particularly when the host <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immune-system-8102.html'>immune system</a> is compromised.</p> <p>For instance, <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> use high <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/mutation-12288.html'>mutation</a> rates to alter its envelope proteins, thus escaping recognition by antibodies. Retroviruses also produce viral proteins that can inhibit immune responses, such as the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> protein Nef, which downregulates CD4 and Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class I molecules. <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> is the most well-known retrovirus associated with human disease. The disease progression of <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> involves several stages. This phase is followed by a chronic phase where the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/virus-28980.html'>virus</a> replicates at lower levels, and individuals may remain asymptomatic for years. Without treatment, <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> progresses to Acquired <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immunodeficiency-26749.html'>Immunodeficiency</a> Syndrome (AIDS), characterized by severe <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immune-system-8102.html'>immune system</a> damage and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and certain cancers. The clinical outcomes of AIDS include severe immunosuppression, increased morbidity, and a reduced life expectancy. Certain retroviruses are known to cause <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/cancer-26169.html'>cancer</a> by integrating into host genes involved in cell regulation. Oncoviruses such as Human T-cell Leukemia <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/virus-28980.html'>Virus</a> (HTLV-1) are linked to Adult T-cell Leukemia/ Lymphoma (ATLL). HTLV-1 encodes a protein called tax, which promotes cell proliferation and transformation. The integration of HTLV-1 DNA into the host <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/genome-7056.html'>genome</a> can lead to the activation of oncogenes and the disruption of tumor suppressor genes, contributing to the development of <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/cancer-3081.html'>cancer.</a> Retroviruses are also implicated in neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases. For instance, the Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) have been associated with neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia. HERVs are ancient retroviral elements integrated into the human genome, and their reactivation or abnormal expression may contribute to disease <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/pathology-12039.html'>pathology</a> through autoimmune mechanisms or neuroinflammation.</p> <p>The advent of <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/highly-active-antiretroviral-therapy-26690.html'>Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy</a> (HAART) has transformed the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/management-22652.html'>management</a> of <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> infection. Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) involves a combination of <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/drugs-3667.html'>drugs</a> targeting different stages of the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> life cycle, including reverse transcriptase inhibitors, <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/protease-45029.html'>protease</a> inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors. ART effectively suppresses viral replication, reduces viral load, and improves immune function, leading to prolonged life expectancy and improved quality of life for individuals with HIV. However, ART does not eliminate the proviral reservoirs, and lifelong treatment is necessary. Emerging approaches such as <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/gene-therapy-2477.html'>gene therapy</a> and <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/genome-7056.html'>genome</a> editing offer potential solutions for retroviral infections. Techniques like Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR/Cas9) are being explored to target and excise integrated <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> proviral DNA from the host genome. Additionally, <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/gene-therapy-2477.html'>gene therapy</a> approaches aim to enhance the host’s <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immune-response-27143.html'>immune response</a> or introduce genetic modifications to confer resistance to retroviral infection. While still in experimental stages, these approaches hold promise for curing retroviral infections in the future. Developing an effective vaccine against <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> remains a major challenge. Research includes exploring novel vaccine platforms, such as viral vector-based vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and nanoparticle vaccines, to induce broad and effective <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/immunity-12162.html'>immunity</a> against HIV. Additionally, understanding the mechanisms of immune evasion by <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> and targeting viral reservoirs are essential for vaccine development. A major hurdle in curing <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> is the persistence of viral reservoirs, particularly in latent cellular reservoirs. Research is ongoing to develop strategies to "wake up" latent <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> and make it susceptible to ART or immune responses. This approach, known as "shock and kill," aims to eliminate latent <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/hiv-44957.html'>HIV</a> by reactivating the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/virus-28980.html'>virus</a> and targeting it with antiretroviral <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/drugs-3667.html'>drugs</a> or immune-based therapies.</p> <h4>Conclusion</h4> <p>Retroviral <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/pathogenesis-26240.html'>pathogenesis</a> encompasses a range of complex mechanisms, from viral <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/replication-13486.html'>replication</a> and integration to immune evasion and disease progression. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for developing effective treatments and preventive strategies. Advances in <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/antiretroviral-therapy-2937.html'>antiretroviral therapy</a> have significantly improved the <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/management-22652.html'>management</a> of HIV, but challenges remain in addressing viral latency and developing a cure. Emerging technologies such as <a target='_blank' href='https://www.longdom.org/peer-reviewed-journals/gene-therapy-2477.html'>gene therapy</a> and innovative vaccine approaches offer hope for future breakthroughs. Continued research and collaboration are essential for advancing our understanding of retroviral diseases and improving clinical outcomes for affected individuals.</p>   <div class="card bg-light mb-3"> <div class="card-body px-3 pb-0"> <h4 class="font-size-4"><a id="ai"></a>Author Info</h4> <a href='https://www.longdom.org/author/xiaofei-kim-72873' title='Xiaofei Kim' style='color:#555; border-bottom:1px dotted #CCC;'>Xiaofei Kim</a><sup><a href='#Xiaofei_Kim'>*</a></sup> <div> </div> Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Aichi Bunkyo, Aichi, Japan<br> <div> </div> <p><strong>Citation:</strong> Kim X (2024). Retroviral Pathogenesis: From Basic Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes. J Antivir Antiretrovir. 16:346</p> <p> <strong>Received: </strong>02-Sep-2024, Manuscript No. JAA-24-33780; <strong>Editor assigned: </strong>04-Sep-2024, Pre QC No. JAA-24-33780 (PQ); <strong>Reviewed: </strong>18-Sep-2024, QC No. JAA-24-33780; <strong>Revised: </strong>25-Sep-2024, Manuscript No. JAA-24-33780 (R); <strong>Published:</strong> 02-Oct-2024 , DOI: 10.35248/1948-5964.24.16.346</p> <p><strong>Copyright: </strong>漏 2024 Kim X. 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