CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr" prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns#"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8" /> <meta name="description" content="On March 9, 1942, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire that fighting words was a category of unprotected speech." /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.thefire.org/news/80-years-ago-supreme-court-introduced-fighting-words" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/pwa/icons/apple-touch-icon.png" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.thefire.org/news/80-years-ago-supreme-court-introduced-fighting-words" /> <meta property="og:title" content="80 years ago the Supreme Court introduced ‘Fighting Words’" /> <meta property="og:description" content="The Supreme Court ruled in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire that “fighting words” was a category of unprotected speech." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.thefire.org/sites/default/files/styles/1200x630/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png?h=252f27fa&itok=fImdvkRL" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#333333" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/pwa/manifest.json" crossorigin="use-credentials" /> <meta name="Generator" content="Drupal 10 (https://www.drupal.org)" /> <meta name="MobileOptimized" content="width" /> <meta name="HandheldFriendly" content="true" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="icon" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/pwa/icons/favicon.ico" type="image/vnd.microsoft.icon" /> <link rel="icon" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/pwa/icons/favicon.svg" type="image/svg+xml" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/national/national-thin.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/national/national-light.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/national/national-medium-italic.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/national/national-semibold.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/national/national-bold.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/pt-sans/PTSans-Regular.ttf" as="font" type="font/ttf" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/pt-sans/PTSans-Italic.ttf" as="font" type="font/ttf" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/pt-sans/PTSans-Bold.ttf" as="font" type="font/ttf" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <link rel="preload" href="/themes/custom/fire/assets/fonts/pt-sans/PTSans-BoldItalic.ttf" as="font" type="font/ttf" crossorigin="anonymous" /> <title>80 years ago the Supreme Court introduced ‘Fighting Words’</title> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/sites/default/files/css/css_8XMudaRTLcZOXg_ubSCtTFgYfhOecNgzII1XYI28Fwg.css?delta=0&language=en&theme=fire&include=eJxNjGsKwzAMgy8UkiMNp1ZaQ17YDmW3X0cL2y9Jn5DsbY6WMhlCEcWfazCjHXYnc3LZbl9WZyUxrBlO5DK0pUcjC9Wxh0lKu9I8LLGuSTX-SFx9rlzFDnBouBapSHVo3Gi6jP7AgZbB8XtLftXBxHEK40UV6km6-Afc3EpQ" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/sites/default/files/css/css__iyaBPD8bCpIDlWl_hdGyzC8bkwemfscyLaR0RJvmpE.css?delta=1&language=en&theme=fire&include=eJxNjGsKwzAMgy8UkiMNp1ZaQ17YDmW3X0cL2y9Jn5DsbY6WMhlCEcWfazCjHXYnc3LZbl9WZyUxrBlO5DK0pUcjC9Wxh0lKu9I8LLGuSTX-SFx9rlzFDnBouBapSHVo3Gi6jP7AgZbB8XtLftXBxHEK40UV6km6-Afc3EpQ" /> <script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_XnbI43hXEoKgjbzelWKVps34u9VlTOIYMNWLeIrlVOA.js?scope=header&delta=0&language=en&theme=fire&include=eJxNjGsKwzAMgy8UkiMNp1ZaQ17YDmW3X0cL2y9Jn5DsbY6WMhlCEcWfazCjHXYnc3LZbl9WZyUxrBlO5DK0pUcjC9Wxh0lKu9I8LLGuSTX-SFx9rlzFDnBouBapSHVo3Gi6jP7AgZbB8XtLftXBxHEK40UV6km6-Afc3EpQ"></script>  <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-NJZGMN9');</script>   <script type="text/javascript" src="//tags.wdsvc.net/controller.js?id=100462" defer></script>  <script> function attentiveOptIn(value, type = 'email') { window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ event: "attentive_opt_in", // Custom event name optInValue: value, // Pass the user ID if available, default to null optInType: type // Define optInType type, which is email or sms }); } </script> </head> <body class="path-node page-node-type-article page--include-toc">  <noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-NJZGMN9" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <a class="skiplink" href="#maincontent">Skip to main content</a> <div class="dialog-off-canvas-main-canvas" data-off-canvas-main-canvas> <div class="page-container"> <div data-sitewide-alert></div> <header class="site-header js-site-header"> <div class="inner"> <a class="logo" href="/" aria-label="The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression" role="link"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 200 96"> <g class="name"> <polygon points="74.7,67 74.7,31 101.7,31 101.7,40 85.8,40 85.8,47 99.4,47 99.4,55.9 85.8,55.9 85.8,67 "/> <rect x="105.2" y="31" width="11.2" height="36.1"/> <path d="M143.6,67c-1.1-1-1.6-2.2-2.3-4l-1.1-2.8c-0.9-2.5-1.9-3.5-4.8-3.5h-3V67h-11.2V31h16.9c10.3,0,15.1,4.1,15.1,11.9 c0,6.4-4.2,9.1-9.4,9.6v0.3c3.8,0.2,6.1,2,7.3,4.6l2.2,5.3c0.8,1.8,1.5,3.1,2.6,4.3L143.6,67L143.6,67z M132.4,48.3h4.9 c3.1,0,4.6-1.3,4.6-4.3c0-2.8-1.6-4.2-4.6-4.2h-4.9V48.3z"/> <polygon points="184.8,67 156.9,67 156.9,31 184.8,31 184.8,40 168.1,40 168.1,44.9 182.4,44.9 182.4,53.2 168.1,53.2 168.1,58.1 184.8,58.1"/> </g> <g class="tagline"> <path d="M75.2,80.8v-7.8h4.2v.6h-3.5v3h3.1v.6h-3.1v3.6h-.7Zm5-3.1c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6s-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm9.9,1.8c-.3,.9-1,1.4-2,1.4-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-2v-4.2h.7v4.1c0,1.1,.5,1.6,1.4,1.6s1.8-.8,1.8-2.2v-3.5h.7v6.1h-.6l-.1-1.3Zm3.3-3.4c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.1h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3Zm6.6,2.4c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.6h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm5.6,2.6c-.3,.3-.8,.4-1.3,.4-.9,0-1.5-.5-1.5-1.5v-4.1h-.9v-.6h.9v-1.3l.7-.1v1.4h1.8v.6h-1.8v4c0,.8,.4,1.1,.9,1.1,.4,0,.7-.1,1-.4l.2,.5Zm1.6-8.2c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.2-.5,.5-.5Zm.3,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.6,3c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6s-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm6.8-1.6c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm7.8-.8v-.6h.9v-.9c0-1.4,.8-2,1.8-2,.5,0,.8,.1,1.1,.3l-.2,.6c-.3-.2-.6-.3-.9-.3-.7,0-1.1,.4-1.1,1.4v.8h1.6v.6h-1.6v5.5h-.7v-5.5l-.9,.1h0Zm3.8,2.4c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.6,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6-1.2,0-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm9.2-2.3c-.2-.1-.3-.1-.6-.1-1,0-1.7,1-1.7,2.3v3.2h-.7v-6.1h.6l.1,1.7c.2-1.1,.9-1.8,2-1.8,.2,0,.3,0,.4,.1l-.1,.7Zm4.9-2.4v7.8h-.7v-7.8h.7Zm2.8,3.1c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.1h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7h0Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm3-4.8c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.2,0h.7l1.5,4.2c.3,.9,.4,1.5,.4,1.5h0s.1-.6,.4-1.5l1.4-4.2h.7l-2.2,6.1h-.8l-2.1-6.1Zm6.6-2.4c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5c.1-.3,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm6.1-2.7h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7h0Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm6.6,2.4c-.3,.9-1,1.4-2,1.4-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-2v-4.2h.7v4.1c0,1.1,.5,1.6,1.4,1.6s1.8-.8,1.8-2.2v-3.5h.7v6.1h-.6l-.1-1.3Zm6.5,0c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.6h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm4.4,2.9c-.2,.1-.4,.1-.5,.1-.7,0-1.1-.4-1.1-1.1v-7.7h.7v7.6c0,.5,.2,.7,.6,.7,.2,0,.3,0,.4-.1l-.1,.5h0Zm-120.2,12.3c-.2-.2-.3-.4-.4-.8l-.3-1.4c-.2-.9-.8-1.3-1.7-1.3h-1.5v3.4h-.7v-7.8h2.4c1.7,0,2.5,.8,2.5,2.1,0,1.2-.8,1.9-1.8,1.9h0c.8,.1,1.2,.4,1.4,1.3l.4,1.5c.1,.4,.2,.6,.4,.9l-.7,.2h0Zm-3.9-4.1h1.7c1.2,0,1.8-.5,1.8-1.6,0-1-.6-1.6-1.8-1.6h-1.7v3.2Zm6.4-4.4c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm5.7,.5c.3-.2,.5-.5,.5-1.1l.6,.2c-.1,.7-.4,1.1-.9,1.2,.2,.3,.3,.7,.3,1.1,0,1.3-1,2.1-2.3,2.1-.3,0-.7-.1-.9-.1-.3,.2-.5,.4-.5,.7,0,.4,.3,.6,.9,.6h1.4c1.2,0,2,.5,2,1.6,0,1.5-1.6,2-3.1,2-1.3,0-2.6-.4-2.6-1.7,0-.9,.7-1.5,1.6-1.5-.5,0-.8-.4-.8-.9s.3-.8,.8-.9c-.7-.3-1.1-1-1.1-1.8,0-1.3,.9-2.1,2.3-2.1,.8-.1,1.4,.2,1.8,.6Zm-1.9,7.8c1.2,0,2.4-.3,2.4-1.4,0-.7-.4-1.1-1.4-1.1h-1.3c-1,0-1.7,.4-1.7,1.2,0,1,.9,1.3,2,1.3Zm.1-4.8c1,0,1.6-.6,1.6-1.6s-.6-1.6-1.6-1.6-1.6,.6-1.6,1.6,.6,1.6,1.6,1.6Zm4.9-2.1c.3-.9,.9-1.5,2-1.5s1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-8.8h.7l-.1,4.1h0Zm8.6,4.4c-.3,.3-.8,.4-1.3,.4-.9,0-1.5-.5-1.5-1.5v-4.1h-.9v-.6h.9v-1.3l.7-.1v1.4h1.8v.6h-1.8v4c0,.8,.4,1.1,.9,1.1,.4,0,.7-.1,1-.4l.2,.5Zm1.2-1.3c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm11.9,.3c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.7h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm3.4-1.7c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.2h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm10,3.8h-4.4v-7.8h4.4v.6h-3.7v3h3.3v.6h-3.3v3h3.7v.6h0Zm3.9-1.9c-.5-.7-.5-.8-.5-.8h-.1s0,.2-.5,.9l-1.2,1.8h-.7l2.1-3.1-2-3h.8l1.1,1.7c.5,.7,.5,.9,.5,.9h0s.1-.2,.5-.9l1.1-1.7h.7l-2,3,2.1,3.1h-.8l-1.1-1.9Zm3.7,4.5h-.7v-8.8h.5l.1,1.3c.3-1,1.2-1.5,2.1-1.5,1.5,0,2.4,1,2.4,3s-1,3.3-2.6,3.3c-1,0-1.7-.6-1.9-1.2l.1,3.9h0Zm0-5c0,1.4,.9,2,1.8,2,1.1,0,2-.8,2-2.7,0-1.7-.8-2.5-1.9-2.5-1,0-1.9,.7-1.9,2.1v1.1h0Zm8.7-3c-.2-.1-.3-.1-.6-.1-1,0-1.7,1-1.7,2.3v3.2h-.7v-6.1h.6l.1,1.7c.2-1.1,.9-1.8,2-1.8,.2,0,.3,0,.4,.1l-.1,.7Zm4.8,3.7l.6,.1c-.2,1.2-1.1,1.6-2.3,1.6-1.6,0-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.1s1-3.2,2.6-3.2c1.5,0,2.2,1,2.2,2.4,0,.3,0,.6-.1,.8h-4.1c0,1.6,.7,2.6,2,2.6,1,0,1.5-.3,1.7-1.2Zm-.1-1.9v-.4c0-1-.6-1.7-1.6-1.7-1.1,0-1.8,.8-1.9,2.1h3.5Zm2.4,2c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm5.2,0c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm5.6-6.9c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5c.1-.3,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.6,3c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2-1.6,0-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6-1.2,0-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm6.7-1.6c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Z"/> </g> <path class="mark" fill="#e31f27" d="M52.1,59.7L59.2,31l-12.4,9.8L37.8,0.1L27.3,22.6l-8.7-12.5L0,67l21.7,25.4H44L68.1,67L52.1,59.7z M52.2,41.9 l-2.7,10.8l-1.6-7.4L52.2,41.9z M18.7,82.4l-14-16.4l15.2-46.6l5.3,7.6L11.3,56.7l7.4,25.5L18.7,82.4z M24,39.5l-4,32.1L15.8,57 L24,39.5z M23,81.8l6.7-54.7L36.4,13l6.8,30.7l0,0L24.4,86.4L23,81.8z M28.2,88.2l16.6-37.6L47.3,62l-6.5,26.3H28.2z M51.1,63.9 l9.9,4.5L46.1,84.1L51.1,63.9z"/> </svg> </a> <div class="menu-outer js-menu-outer"> <nav class="super-nav"> <ul><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="https://www.thefire.org/members/" class="link"><span class="inner-text">Member Portal</span></a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="/students" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23273"><span class="inner-text">Students</span></a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="/faculty" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23277"><span class="inner-text">Faculty</span></a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="/alumni" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23272"><span class="inner-text">Alumni</span></a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="/k-12-educators" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23275"><span class="inner-text">K-12 Educators</span></a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1"><a href="/college-administrators" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23276"><span class="inner-text">College Administrators</span></a></li></ul> <ul class="desktop-only"><li class="item store" tabindex="-1"><a href="https://shop.thefire.org/" class="link"><span class="inner-text">Store</span></a></li><li class="item contact" tabindex="-1"><a href="/about-us" class="link"><span class="inner-text">About Us</span></a></li><li class="item additional_link" tabindex="-1"><a href="/submit-a-case" class="link"><span class="inner-text">Submit a Case</span></a></li><li class="item donate" tabindex="-1"><a href="https://www.thefire.org/donate?form=FUNCNZRZALN" class="link"><span class="inner-text">Donate</span></a></li></ul> </nav> <div class="main"><nav class="nav js-site-header-nav" aria-label="Main Site Navigation"><ul class="global-mobile-links"><li class="item home" tabindex="-1"><a href="/" class="link">Home</a></li><li class="item store" tabindex="-1"><a href="https://shop.thefire.org/" class="link">Store</a></li><li class="item donate" tabindex="-1"><a href="https://www.thefire.org/donate?form=FUNCNZRZALN" class="link">Donate</a></li></ul><ul><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-parent-has-link="true" data-expanded="false"><button class="no-link js-no-link" aria-expanded="false"><span class="inner-text">Defending Your Rights</span><span class="symbol" aria-hidden="true"></span></button><div class="dropdown js-dropdown" aria-hidden="true" data-card-count="1"><div class="inner"><ul class="list"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-expanded="false"><span class="eyebrow"><span class="inner-text">What We Do </span></span><ul class="sublist"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/individual-rights-advocacy" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23294">Individual Rights Advocacy</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/reforming-college-policies" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23318">Reforming College Policies</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/legal-support" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23299">Legal Support</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/legislative-policy-reform" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/21">Legislative Policy Reform</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/our-impact" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23316">Our Impact</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-expanded="false"><span class="eyebrow"><span class="inner-text">What we defend</span></span><ul class="sublist"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/free-speech" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23314">Free Speech</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/academic-freedom" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23313">Academic Freedom</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/religious-liberty" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23309">Religious Liberty</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/due-process" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23312">Due Process</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/press-freedom" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23305">Press Freedom</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/freedom-of-assembly" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23311">Freedom of Assembly</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/freedom-of-conscience" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/26">Freedom of Conscience</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/title-ix" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23308">Title IX</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/defending-your-rights/your-rights-abroad" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23306">Your Rights Abroad</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="cards"><li class="item js-link-event"><div class="inner"><div class="title"> Have your rights been violated? </div><div class="description"> If you face retaliation over protected speech, reach out to FIRE to learn more about how we can protect your rights. </div><a href="/submit-a-case" class="link js-link-event-link"><span class="inner-text">Submit a Case</span></a></div><picture class="bg-image"><img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/450x300/public/2022/08/students-college-campus-Shutterstock-19.jpg.webp?itok=WfYU4HU1" width="450" height="300" alt="College professor city campus"></picture></li></ul></div></div></li><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-parent-has-link="true" data-expanded="false"><button class="no-link js-no-link" aria-expanded="false"><span class="inner-text">Get Involved</span><span class="symbol" aria-hidden="true"></span></button><div class="dropdown js-dropdown" aria-hidden="true" data-card-count="2"><div class="inner"><ul class="list"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-expanded="false"><span class="eyebrow"><span class="inner-text">Make a difference</span></span><ul class="sublist"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/take-action" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/25019">Take Action</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/donate" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/27">Donate</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/events" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/53">Attend an Event</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/be-an-advocate" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23293">Be an Advocate</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/be-an-advocate/students" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23301">For Students</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/be-an-advocate/faculty" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23297">For Faculty</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/be-an-advocate/alumni" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23298">For Alumni</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/get-involved/host-fire-speaker" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/77">Host a FIRE Speaker</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="cards"><li class="item js-link-event"><div class="inner"><div class="title"> Take Action </div><div class="description"> Across the nation, free speech rights are under attack. Join us in defending this essential quality of liberty. Make your voice heard and join a campaign. </div><a href="/get-involved/take-action" class="link js-link-event-link"><span class="inner-text">Protect Free Speech</span></a></div><picture class="bg-image"><img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/450x300/public/2024/06/Take%20Action%20graphic%20with%20bullhorn.jpg.webp?itok=w70V1WY9" width="450" height="300" alt="Take Image graphic with bullhorn"></picture></li><li class="item js-link-event"><div class="inner"><div class="title"> FIRE Student Network </div><div class="description"> FIRE’s 2022 College Free Speech Rankings are based on the voices of more than 44,000 currently enrolled students at 208 colleges and are designed to help parents and prospective students choose the right school. </div><a href="/get-involved/be-an-advocate/student-network" class="link js-link-event-link"><span class="inner-text">Build Your Network</span></a></div><picture class="bg-image"><img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/450x300/public/2022/08/students-college-campus-Shutterstock-21.jpg.webp?itok=8yJatfLB" width="450" height="300" alt="Students walking on college campus"></picture></li></ul></div></div></li><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-parent-has-link="true" data-expanded="false"><button class="no-link js-no-link" aria-expanded="false"><span class="inner-text">Research & Learn</span><span class="symbol" aria-hidden="true"></span></button><div class="dropdown js-dropdown" aria-hidden="true" data-card-count="2"><div class="inner"><ul class="list"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="true" data-expanded="false"><span class="eyebrow"><span class="inner-text">Resources</span></span><ul class="sublist"><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Resource Library</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1560" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1560"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Toolkits</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1563" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1563"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Curricula </a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1559" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1559"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Issue Pages</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1566" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1566"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Reports</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1562" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1562"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Databases</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/research-learn?_page=1&keywords=&_limit=6&resource_type=1561" class="link" data-drupal-link-query="{"_limit":"6","_page":"1","keywords":"","resource_type":"1561"}" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23371">Guides</a></li><li class="item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false"><a href="/supreme-court" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23470">Supreme Court Cases</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="cards"><li class="item js-link-event"><div class="inner"><div class="title"> College Free Speech Rankings </div><div class="description"> Presented by FIRE and College Pulse, the 2025 College Free Speech Rankings is the largest survey of campus free expression ever performed. </div><a href="https://rankings.thefire.org/" class="link js-link-event-link"><span class="inner-text">Explore Rankings</span></a></div><picture class="bg-image"><img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/450x300/public/2023/08/Featured%20image.jpg.webp?itok=QE4zMGRA" width="450" height="300" alt="College student with a backpack walking down a hallway."></picture></li><li class="item js-link-event"><div class="inner"><div class="title"> National Speech Index </div><div class="description"> The National Speech Index is a new quarterly component of America’s Political Pulse, an ongoing weekly survey that will allow researchers to track shifting free speech sentiment in America over time. </div><a href="/research-learn/national-speech-index" class="link js-link-event-link"><span class="inner-text">Learn More</span></a></div><picture class="bg-image"><img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/450x300/public/2022/08/Pin%20map%20of%20the%20United%20state%20of%20America%20Vector%20illustration%20shutterstock_1515280103.jpg.webp?itok=_OOzh8vA" width="450" height="300" alt="Pin map of the United state of America"></picture></li></ul></div></div></li><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false" data-parent-has-link="true"><a href="/colleges" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23321"><span class="inner-text">Colleges</span></a></li><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false" data-parent-has-link="true"><a href="/news" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/43"><span class="inner-text">News</span></a></li><li class="item js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false" data-parent-has-link="true"><a href="/cases" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/95"><span class="inner-text">Cases</span></a></li><li class="item mobile-only js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false" data-parent-has-link="true" ><a href="/about-us" class="link">About Us</a></li><li class="item mobile-only js-site-header-nav-top-item" tabindex="-1" data-children="false" data-parent-has-link="true" ><a href="/submit-a-case" class="link">Submit a Case</a></li></ul></nav></div> </div> <div class="utility"><button class="search-open js-search-toggle" aria-label="Open Search"></button><button class="menu-toggle js-menu-toggle" aria-label="Toggle menu visibility"><span class="icon" aria-hidden="true"></span></button></div> <div class="site-header-search js-site-header-search"><div class="inner"><button type="button" class="close js-search-close-btn" aria-label="Close Search"><span class="icon" aria-hidden="true"></span></button><form role="search" method="GET" action="/search"><input class="js-header-search-input" type="search" name="keywords" aria-label="Search Term(s)" placeholder="Enter search terms"><button class="submit js-header-search-submit" type="submit" aria-label="Submit" disabled></button></form></div></div> </div> </header> <main id="maincontent"> <article class="grid-container"> <article class="breadcrumbs js-breadcrumbs" data-bg-color-top="gray-t3" data-bg-color-btm="gray-t3" data-collapsible-vspace="true" data-menu-expanded="false"> <div class="inner"> <div class="inline-crumbs"> <ul> <li class="home"><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li class="current-page" data-has-section-menu="false"> <a href="/news" class="link" hreflang="en"><span class="inner-text">Newsdesk</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </article> <article id="block-fire-table-of-contents" class="partial table-of-contents js-table-of-contents js-hidden"><div class="inner"><div class="sticky-buffer"><div class="contents-btn-wrap js-toc-contents-btn-wrap"><button class="contents-btn"><span class="menu-symbol" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="icon"></span></span><span class="inner-text"> Contents </span></button></div><header><h2 class="title">Table of Contents</h2></header><nav class="toc-nav js-toc-nav"></nav></div></div></article> <article class="hero-news-article js-any-hero" data-bg-color-top="multi" data-bg-color-btm="white" data-has-image="true"> <div class="inner"> <aside class="social-share js-social-share"> <button class="trigger js-trigger"> <span class="label">Share</span> </button> <ul class="social-share-services"> <li><a data-service="mail" href="mailto:?subject=From%20TheFire.org%20%E2%80%93%2080%20years%20ago%20the%20Supreme%20Court%20introduced%20%E2%80%98Fighting%20Words%E2%80%99&body=Hi%20there%20%E2%80%93%20%0A%0AI%20thought%20you%20would%20be%20interested%20in%20this%20content%20from%20Foundation%20for%20Individual%20Rights%20in%20Expression%3A%0A%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefire.org%2Fnews%2F80-years-ago-supreme-court-introduced-fighting-words"><span class="sr-text">Share with Email</span></a></li> <li><button type="button" data-title="80 years ago the Supreme Court introduced ‘Fighting Words’" data-service="twitter"><span class="sr-text">Share on Twitter</span></button></li> <li><button type="button" data-service="facebook"><span class="sr-text">Share on Facebook</span></button></li> <li><button type="button" data-service="print"><span class="sr-text">Print</span></button></li> </ul> </aside> <div class="accent-background-outer" aria-hidden="true" data-animation="custom" > <div class="accent-background" data-context="hero" data-color="light-blue" data-darker-text="false" data-use-square="false" aria-hidden="true" > </div> </div> <div class="content" data-animation="custom"> <header class="intro"> <h1 class="title" data-animation-duration="300" data-animation="fadeInUp" data-animation-delay="500" > 80 years ago the Supreme Court introduced ‘Fighting Words’ </h1> </header> <div class="description"> <article class="beyondwords"> <div class="inner"> <div class="beyondwords-container"> <div class="beyondwords-player" data-project-id="35531" data-content-id="9affe8ef-877b-4134-8c63-139ac7e4b6eb"></div> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="meta" data-animation-duration="300" data-animation="fadeInUp" data-animation-delay="700" > <div class="bylines"> <span class="runin">by </span> <ul> <li>David Hudson</li> </ul> </div> <div class="date-text"> <time datetime="2022-03-09T22:01:57Z">March 9, 2022</time> </div> </div> <figure class="media-col" data-has-video="false" data-animation-duration="300" data-animation="fadeInUp" data-animation-delay="800" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" > <div class="media-outer"> <picture loading="lazy" class="media"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/379x213/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png.webp?itok=x_keg_nh 1x" media="(max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="379" height="213"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/580x326/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png.webp?itok=4QGY2pQ- 1x" media="(max-width: 768px)" type="image/webp" width="580" height="326"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/700x394/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png.webp?itok=-9Hi2CFa 1x" media="(max-width: 1199px)" type="image/webp" width="700" height="394"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/860x484/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png.webp?itok=YQ7PcAwu 1x" media="(min-width: 1200px)" type="image/webp" width="860" height="484"/> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/379x213/public/2022/03/09152830/Alternate.png.webp?itok=x_keg_nh" width="379" height="213" alt="Boxer"> </picture> </div> </figure> </div> </div> </article> <div data-drupal-messages-fallback class="hidden"></div> <article class="text-block wysiwyg-content js-text-block" data-bg-color-top="white" data-bg-color-btm="white" data-collapsible-vspace="true"> <div class="inner"> <p>Eighty years ago today — on March 9, 1942 — the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in <a href="/supreme-court/decision/chaplinsky-v-new-hampshire/"><em>Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</em></a> that “<a href="/news/misconceptions-about-fighting-words-exception" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="807463c6-c6eb-4eac-8085-231b1a6878d1" data-entity-substitution="canonical">fighting words</a>” was a category of unprotected speech. The Court unanimously determined that Walter Chaplinsky, a Jehovah’s Witness, uttered such words at a marshal who arrested him under a breach of the peace law. </p><p>Chaplinsky allegedly had been proclaiming the virtues of his religion on the public streets of Rochester, New Hampshire — which displeased others. At some point, Chaplinsky cursed a local marshal as a “God-damned racketeer” and “damned fascist.” </p><p>This led to Chaplinsky’s arrest under a broadly worded New Hampshire law that provided “no person shall address any offensive, derisive, or annoying word to any other person.” </p><p>Today, such a law would be considered <a href="/overbreadth-overview/">overbroad</a>, but in 1942, the New Hampshire Supreme Court had limited the law, writing that it applied only to “fighting words.” On appeal, the Supreme Court accepted this term and narrow construction. Writing for the Court, Justice Frank Murphy explained:</p><blockquote><p>There are certain well-defined and narrowly limited classes of speech, the prevention and punishment of which have never been thought to raise any Constitutional problem. These include the lewd and obscene, the profane, the libelous, and the insulting or “fighting” words — those which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace.</p></blockquote><p>Thus was born the fighting words doctrine. Justice Murphy explained that these fighting words were not protected because they did not contribute to the “exposition of ideas” and had little to no social value. Not only did Justice Murphy define fighting words, but he also uttered what would become the most famous (or infamous) and oft-cited passage in American jurisprudence for the principle that the First Amendment does not protect all types of speech. In other words, there are some narrow, unprotected categories of speech that do not receive First Amendment protection.</p><blockquote class="quote-boxed-full"><p>Walter Chaplinsky was arrested and punished for criticizing a local government official.</p></blockquote><p>An important facet of modern First Amendment jurisprudence is a gradual narrowing of these unprotected categories of speech. For example, there used to be obscenity prosecutions for booksellers who sold novels by James Joyce and D.H. Lawrence. Now, obscenity is relegated to an occasional prosecution of someone who traffics in very violent hardcore depictions of sexual conduct.</p><h3><strong>Limiting the Fighting Words Doctrine</strong></h3><p>The same narrowing has occurred for fighting words. In fact, the U.S. Supreme Court has consistently struck down convictions based on the fighting words rationale and limited the doctrine. Most notably, the Court limited “fighting words” to direct, face-to-face personal insults in <a href="/supreme-court/decision/cohen-v-california/"><em>Cohen v. California</em></a> (1971), ruling that Paul Robert Cohen did not utter fighting words when he wore a jacket bearing the message “Fuck the Draft” in a Los Angeles County courthouse. Justice John Marshall Harlan II explained in his majority opinion that Cohen’s jacket was not a “direct personal insult.”</p><figure role="group" class="caption caption-drupal-media align-right"> <article class="media media--type-image media--view-mode-original-aspect"> <picture loading="lazy"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/417xy/public/2022/03/09165907/Fuck-the-Draft-Poster-CREDIT-Victoria-Albert-Museum-London.jpeg.webp?itok=0LSp6-VZ 1x" media="(max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="409" height="600"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/640xy/public/2022/03/09165907/Fuck-the-Draft-Poster-CREDIT-Victoria-Albert-Museum-London.jpeg.webp?itok=yPN-W8ZK 1x" media="(max-width: 767px)" type="image/webp" width="409" height="600"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/833xy/public/2022/03/09165907/Fuck-the-Draft-Poster-CREDIT-Victoria-Albert-Museum-London.jpeg.webp?itok=piYYRqji 1x" media="(min-width: 768px)" type="image/webp" width="409" height="600"> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/417xy/public/2022/03/09165907/Fuck-the-Draft-Poster-CREDIT-Victoria-Albert-Museum-London.jpeg.webp?itok=0LSp6-VZ" width="409" height="600"> </picture> </article> <figcaption>Fuck the Draft poster by Kiyoshi Kuromiya (Victoria and Albert Museum)</figcaption> </figure> <p>The Court also reversed a fighting words-type conviction in <a href="/supreme-court/lewis-v-city-new-orleans" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="207f9f5c-3724-4b9c-91fe-eea61c9fe1d7" data-entity-substitution="canonical"><em>Lewis v. New Orleans</em></a> (1974), ruling that the New Orleans ordinance that prohibited the use of “obscene or opprobrious language” toward police officers was too broad. In a concurring opinion, Justice Lewis Powell reasoned that police officers, because of their enhanced training, are expected to exercise greater restraint than the average person. </p><p>Years later, the Court ruled that government officials cannot engage in viewpoint discrimination under an ordinance that targets only certain types of fighting words. Justice Antonin Scalia explained in <a href="/supreme-court/rav-v-city-st-paul-minnesota" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="5f2b42f6-05e2-44fd-ab2f-87f986acb4ac" data-entity-substitution="canonical"><em>R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul</em></a> (1992) that city officials had “no such authority to license one side of a debate to fight freestyle, while requiring the other to follow Marquis of Queensberry rules.”</p><p>Critics contend that the doctrine is unsound. Professor Burton Caine, in his impressive piece, “<a href="https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1026&context=mulr">The Trouble with the Fighting Words Doctrine: <em>Chaplinksy v. New Hampshire</em> is a Threat to First Amendment Values and Should be Overruled</a>,” calls the doctrine a “tragedy for the jurisprudence of Freedom of Speech.” Caine explains that “what the Court in <em>Chaplinsky</em> labels as fighting words is, in reality, ‘political’ speech or speech on public issues, which deserves the utmost protection in the American democracy.” </p><p>For example, Walter Chaplinsky was arrested and punished for criticizing a local government official. The essence of the First Amendment, its shining principle, is that individuals should have the freedom to criticize the government. </p><blockquote class="quote-boxed-right"><p>The U.S. Supreme Court has invalidated convictions based on the fighting words doctrine. However, the concept remains part of First Amendment law.</p></blockquote><p>Caine, <a href="https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4896&context=caselrev">Mark P. Strasser</a>, and others have also noted that the U.S. Supreme Court has invalidated convictions based on the fighting words doctrine. However, the concept remains part of First Amendment law and has been used by many lower courts to uphold convictions for breach of the peace or disorderly conduct decisions.  </p><p>As I explain in “<a href="https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1398&context=unh_lr">The Fighting Words Doctrine: Alive and Well in the Lower Courts”</a> for The New Hampshire Law Review, key factors in fighting words cases include whether the speech is coupled with aggressive conduct, whether the volume of the speech is loud or more subdued, whether there is a single foul utterance or a string of profanities, whether the recipient of the communication is a police officer or an average citizen, and whether the speech includes racial slurs.  </p><p>I conclude that the “doctrine remains a vibrant and controversial part of First Amendment law.”  </p><p>And it all started eighty years ago today.</p> <article class="align-center media media--type-image has-video js-modal-open media--type-remote-video media--view-mode-default"> <button type="button" name="video-toggle" class="video-toggle"> <span class="sr-text">View video</span> </button> <picture><img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/833x469/public/oembed_thumbnails/2022-08/B_4oQorXpN_xVvaTYAI9KOo6tHBXx_w4vJ2-UwsfpME.jpg.webp?itok=9hcogoTP" width="833" height="469" alt> </picture> <dialog class="modal js-modal" id="video-modal-49997"> <div class="inner" role="document"> <div class="scrollable"> <header class="header"> <button class="close js-modal-close" aria-label="Close modal"></button> </header> <div class="content"> <div class="video-embed"><iframe src="https://www.thefire.org/media/oembed?url=https%3A//www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DlhQ3Pe2Q-9c&max_width=0&max_height=0&hash=nA212R8JnrCgWam3fEEKp8Id9riZg7c3urJNFAQPFzs" frameborder="0" allowtransparency width="200" height="113" class="media-oembed-content" loading="lazy" title="Fighting words: So to Speak podcast"></iframe> </div> </div> </div> </div> </dialog> </article> </div> </article> <article data-red-angle="left" class="card-grid" data-animation="custom" data-bg-color-top="white" data-bg-color-btm="white" data-collapsible-vspace="true" data-hash-lines="top-right" data-desktop-layout="large-four-up"> <div class="inner"> <header class="intro"> <h2 class="title" data-animation-duration="300" data-animation="fadeInUp" data-animation-delay="500" > Recent Articles </h2> <div class="description" data-animation-duration="300" data-animation="fadeInUp" data-animation-delay="700" > <div class="inner wysiwyg-content"> <p>FIRE’s award-winning Newsdesk covers the free speech news you need to stay informed.</p> </div> </div> </header> <div class="cards"> <article class="card js-link-event" data-animation="custom" > <div class="media-outer" data-animation="custom"> <picture loading="lazy" class="media"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2023/07/shutterstock_560959042.jpg.webp?itok=54rG9mt7 1x" media="(min-width: 500px) and (max-width: 1200px)" type="image/webp" width="334" height="250"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/534x400/public/2023/07/shutterstock_560959042.jpg.webp?itok=fAMHMVPZ 1x" media="(min-width: 1200px), (max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="534" height="400"/> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2023/07/shutterstock_560959042.jpg.webp?itok=54rG9mt7" width="334" height="250" alt="Lady justice against The Supreme court of U.S."> </picture> </div> <div class="text" data-animation-duration="900" data-animation="fadeIn" data-animation-delay="200" > <header> <h4 class="title"> <a href="/news/supreme-court-must-halt-unprecedented-tiktok-ban-allow-review-fire-argues-new-brief-high-court" class="js-link-event-link"> Supreme Court must halt unprecedented TikTok ban to allow review, FIRE argues in new brief to high court </a> </h4> <div class="date-text"> <time datetime="2024-12-17T17:31:43Z">December 17, 2024</time> </div> </header> <div class="description"> <div class="inner wysiwyg-content"> FIRE filed an amicus brief in support of TikTok’s emergency application for an injunction pending review of a law that would force it to shut down absent divestiture of Chinese ownership. </div> </div> </div> </article> <article class="card js-link-event" data-animation="custom" > <div class="media-outer" data-animation="custom"> <picture loading="lazy" class="media"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2024/03/free%20speech%20dispatch%20featured%20image.png.webp?itok=XK3DRzXv 1x" media="(min-width: 500px) and (max-width: 1200px)" type="image/webp" width="334" height="250"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/534x400/public/2024/03/free%20speech%20dispatch%20featured%20image.png.webp?itok=VQzaJEgH 1x" media="(min-width: 1200px), (max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="534" height="400"/> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2024/03/free%20speech%20dispatch%20featured%20image.png.webp?itok=XK3DRzXv" width="334" height="250" alt="Free Speech Dispatch featured image with Sarah McLaughlin"> </picture> </div> <div class="text" data-animation-duration="900" data-animation="fadeIn" data-animation-delay="250" > <header> <h4 class="title"> <a href="/news/blogs/free-speech-dispatch/australia-blocks-social-media-teens-while-uk-mulls-blasphemy-ban" class="js-link-event-link"> Australia blocks social media for teens while UK mulls blasphemy ban </a> </h4> <div class="date-text"> <time datetime="2024-12-17T12:47:10Z">December 17, 2024</time> </div> </header> <div class="description"> <div class="inner wysiwyg-content"> South Korea rejects a short-lived martial law decree, ‘Wicked’ does not defy local censorship laws, ‘Family Guy’ can’t fly, and Australian breakdancer Raygun threatens legal action over a musical. </div> </div> </div> </article> <article class="card js-link-event" data-animation="custom" > <div class="media-outer" data-animation="custom"> <picture loading="lazy" class="media"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2023/04/Lets%20go%20brandon%202023_final.jpg.webp?itok=77gzi7RF 1x" media="(min-width: 500px) and (max-width: 1200px)" type="image/webp" width="334" height="250"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/534x400/public/2023/04/Lets%20go%20brandon%202023_final.jpg.webp?itok=Aoxzmqnc 1x" media="(min-width: 1200px), (max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="534" height="400"/> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2023/04/Lets%20go%20brandon%202023_final.jpg.webp?itok=77gzi7RF" width="334" height="250" alt="Let's Go Brandon sweatshirt"> </picture> </div> <div class="text" data-animation-duration="900" data-animation="fadeIn" data-animation-delay="300" > <header> <h4 class="title"> <a href="/news/free-speech-advocates-converge-support-fires-lets-go-brandon-federal-court-appeal" class="js-link-event-link"> Free speech advocates converge to support FIRE’s ‘Let's Go Brandon’ federal court appeal </a> </h4> <div class="date-text"> <time datetime="2024-12-17T16:35:09Z">December 17, 2024</time> </div> </header> <div class="description"> <div class="inner wysiwyg-content"> FIRE, with broad ‘friend of the court’ support, appeals ruling on teenagers’ First Amendment right to wear ‘Let’s Go Brandon’ apparel to school </div> </div> </div> </article> <article class="card js-link-event" data-animation="custom" > <div class="media-outer" data-animation="custom"> <picture loading="lazy" class="media"> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2024/12/College%20graduates%20during%20commencement%20graduation%20ceremony.jpg.webp?itok=dAaX--6Y 1x" media="(min-width: 500px) and (max-width: 1200px)" type="image/webp" width="334" height="250"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/534x400/public/2024/12/College%20graduates%20during%20commencement%20graduation%20ceremony.jpg.webp?itok=tkHlvMNm 1x" media="(min-width: 1200px), (max-width: 500px)" type="image/webp" width="534" height="400"/> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/334x250/public/2024/12/College%20graduates%20during%20commencement%20graduation%20ceremony.jpg.webp?itok=dAaX--6Y" width="334" height="250" alt="College graduates during commencement graduation ceremony"> </picture> </div> <div class="text" data-animation-duration="900" data-animation="fadeIn" data-animation-delay="350" > <header> <h4 class="title"> <a href="/news/how-alumni-can-save-their-alma-mater" class="js-link-event-link"> How alumni can save their alma mater </a> </h4> <div class="date-text"> <time datetime="2024-12-17T12:02:10Z">December 17, 2024</time> </div> </header> <div class="description"> <div class="inner wysiwyg-content"> When your alma mater falters, here are three steps you can take to get involved and support free speech and academic freedom on campus. </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> <div class="bg-accent-angle top" aria-hidden="true"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 512 512" class="svg-angle-segments left" preserveAspectRatio="xMaxYMax slice"> <rect class="path-top" x="246.97" y="-148.51" width="16" height="787.51" transform="translate(-98.72 237.58) rotate(-42.65)" /> <rect class="path-btm" x="-137.12" y="237.24" width="787.51" height="16" transform="translate(-97.61 267.87) rotate(-47.35)"/> </svg> </div> <div class="bg-accent-angle btm" aria-hidden="true"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 512 512" class="svg-angle-segments left" preserveAspectRatio="xMaxYMax slice"> <rect class="path-top" x="246.97" y="-148.51" width="16" height="787.51" transform="translate(-98.72 237.58) rotate(-42.65)" /> <rect class="path-btm" x="-137.12" y="237.24" width="787.51" height="16" transform="translate(-97.61 267.87) rotate(-47.35)"/> </svg> </div> </article> </article> </main> <footer class="site-footer"> <div class="inner"> <div class="col"> <a class="logo" href="/" aria-label="The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression" role="link"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 200 96"> <g class="name"> <polygon points="74.7,67 74.7,31 101.7,31 101.7,40 85.8,40 85.8,47 99.4,47 99.4,55.9 85.8,55.9 85.8,67 "/> <rect x="105.2" y="31" width="11.2" height="36.1"/> <path d="M143.6,67c-1.1-1-1.6-2.2-2.3-4l-1.1-2.8c-0.9-2.5-1.9-3.5-4.8-3.5h-3V67h-11.2V31h16.9c10.3,0,15.1,4.1,15.1,11.9 c0,6.4-4.2,9.1-9.4,9.6v0.3c3.8,0.2,6.1,2,7.3,4.6l2.2,5.3c0.8,1.8,1.5,3.1,2.6,4.3L143.6,67L143.6,67z M132.4,48.3h4.9 c3.1,0,4.6-1.3,4.6-4.3c0-2.8-1.6-4.2-4.6-4.2h-4.9V48.3z"/> <polygon points="184.8,67 156.9,67 156.9,31 184.8,31 184.8,40 168.1,40 168.1,44.9 182.4,44.9 182.4,53.2 168.1,53.2 168.1,58.1 184.8,58.1"/> </g> <g class="tagline"> <path d="M75.2,80.8v-7.8h4.2v.6h-3.5v3h3.1v.6h-3.1v3.6h-.7Zm5-3.1c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6s-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm9.9,1.8c-.3,.9-1,1.4-2,1.4-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-2v-4.2h.7v4.1c0,1.1,.5,1.6,1.4,1.6s1.8-.8,1.8-2.2v-3.5h.7v6.1h-.6l-.1-1.3Zm3.3-3.4c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.1h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3Zm6.6,2.4c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.6h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm5.6,2.6c-.3,.3-.8,.4-1.3,.4-.9,0-1.5-.5-1.5-1.5v-4.1h-.9v-.6h.9v-1.3l.7-.1v1.4h1.8v.6h-1.8v4c0,.8,.4,1.1,.9,1.1,.4,0,.7-.1,1-.4l.2,.5Zm1.6-8.2c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.2-.5,.5-.5Zm.3,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.6,3c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6s-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm6.8-1.6c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm7.8-.8v-.6h.9v-.9c0-1.4,.8-2,1.8-2,.5,0,.8,.1,1.1,.3l-.2,.6c-.3-.2-.6-.3-.9-.3-.7,0-1.1,.4-1.1,1.4v.8h1.6v.6h-1.6v5.5h-.7v-5.5l-.9,.1h0Zm3.8,2.4c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2s-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.6,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6-1.2,0-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm9.2-2.3c-.2-.1-.3-.1-.6-.1-1,0-1.7,1-1.7,2.3v3.2h-.7v-6.1h.6l.1,1.7c.2-1.1,.9-1.8,2-1.8,.2,0,.3,0,.4,.1l-.1,.7Zm4.9-2.4v7.8h-.7v-7.8h.7Zm2.8,3.1c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.1h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7h0Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm3-4.8c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.2,0h.7l1.5,4.2c.3,.9,.4,1.5,.4,1.5h0s.1-.6,.4-1.5l1.4-4.2h.7l-2.2,6.1h-.8l-2.1-6.1Zm6.6-2.4c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5c.1-.3,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm6.1-2.7h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7h0Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm6.6,2.4c-.3,.9-1,1.4-2,1.4-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-2v-4.2h.7v4.1c0,1.1,.5,1.6,1.4,1.6s1.8-.8,1.8-2.2v-3.5h.7v6.1h-.6l-.1-1.3Zm6.5,0c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.6h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm4.4,2.9c-.2,.1-.4,.1-.5,.1-.7,0-1.1-.4-1.1-1.1v-7.7h.7v7.6c0,.5,.2,.7,.6,.7,.2,0,.3,0,.4-.1l-.1,.5h0Zm-120.2,12.3c-.2-.2-.3-.4-.4-.8l-.3-1.4c-.2-.9-.8-1.3-1.7-1.3h-1.5v3.4h-.7v-7.8h2.4c1.7,0,2.5,.8,2.5,2.1,0,1.2-.8,1.9-1.8,1.9h0c.8,.1,1.2,.4,1.4,1.3l.4,1.5c.1,.4,.2,.6,.4,.9l-.7,.2h0Zm-3.9-4.1h1.7c1.2,0,1.8-.5,1.8-1.6,0-1-.6-1.6-1.8-1.6h-1.7v3.2Zm6.4-4.4c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm5.7,.5c.3-.2,.5-.5,.5-1.1l.6,.2c-.1,.7-.4,1.1-.9,1.2,.2,.3,.3,.7,.3,1.1,0,1.3-1,2.1-2.3,2.1-.3,0-.7-.1-.9-.1-.3,.2-.5,.4-.5,.7,0,.4,.3,.6,.9,.6h1.4c1.2,0,2,.5,2,1.6,0,1.5-1.6,2-3.1,2-1.3,0-2.6-.4-2.6-1.7,0-.9,.7-1.5,1.6-1.5-.5,0-.8-.4-.8-.9s.3-.8,.8-.9c-.7-.3-1.1-1-1.1-1.8,0-1.3,.9-2.1,2.3-2.1,.8-.1,1.4,.2,1.8,.6Zm-1.9,7.8c1.2,0,2.4-.3,2.4-1.4,0-.7-.4-1.1-1.4-1.1h-1.3c-1,0-1.7,.4-1.7,1.2,0,1,.9,1.3,2,1.3Zm.1-4.8c1,0,1.6-.6,1.6-1.6s-.6-1.6-1.6-1.6-1.6,.6-1.6,1.6,.6,1.6,1.6,1.6Zm4.9-2.1c.3-.9,.9-1.5,2-1.5s1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-8.8h.7l-.1,4.1h0Zm8.6,4.4c-.3,.3-.8,.4-1.3,.4-.9,0-1.5-.5-1.5-1.5v-4.1h-.9v-.6h.9v-1.3l.7-.1v1.4h1.8v.6h-1.8v4c0,.8,.4,1.1,.9,1.1,.4,0,.7-.1,1-.4l.2,.5Zm1.2-1.3c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm11.9,.3c0,.6,.2,.8,.5,.8,.1,0,.2,0,.3-.1v.6c-.1,0-.2,.1-.4,.1-.6,0-.9-.3-1-1.1-.3,.8-1.1,1.1-1.9,1.1-1.1,0-1.9-.6-1.9-1.6,0-1.2,.9-1.9,2.9-1.9h.8v-.8c0-1-.6-1.4-1.4-1.4s-1.3,.3-1.4,1.2l-.6-.1c.1-1.3,1.1-1.7,2.1-1.7,1.1,0,2,.5,2,1.9v3h0Zm-.7-1.7h-.6c-1.5,0-2.4,.4-2.4,1.4,0,.7,.5,1.2,1.3,1.2s1.7-.5,1.7-1.5v-1.1Zm3.4-1.7c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Zm9.9-4.2h.7v8.8h-.6l-.1-1.3c-.3,.9-1.1,1.4-2.1,1.4-1.3,0-2.4-1-2.4-3.1s1-3.3,2.7-3.3c.9,0,1.6,.6,1.8,1.2v-3.7Zm0,5.1c0-1.4-1-1.9-1.8-1.9-1.1,0-2,.8-2,2.7,0,1.7,.8,2.5,1.9,2.5,.9,0,1.9-.6,1.9-2v-1.3h0Zm10,3.8h-4.4v-7.8h4.4v.6h-3.7v3h3.3v.6h-3.3v3h3.7v.6h0Zm3.9-1.9c-.5-.7-.5-.8-.5-.8h-.1s0,.2-.5,.9l-1.2,1.8h-.7l2.1-3.1-2-3h.8l1.1,1.7c.5,.7,.5,.9,.5,.9h0s.1-.2,.5-.9l1.1-1.7h.7l-2,3,2.1,3.1h-.8l-1.1-1.9Zm3.7,4.5h-.7v-8.8h.5l.1,1.3c.3-1,1.2-1.5,2.1-1.5,1.5,0,2.4,1,2.4,3s-1,3.3-2.6,3.3c-1,0-1.7-.6-1.9-1.2l.1,3.9h0Zm0-5c0,1.4,.9,2,1.8,2,1.1,0,2-.8,2-2.7,0-1.7-.8-2.5-1.9-2.5-1,0-1.9,.7-1.9,2.1v1.1h0Zm8.7-3c-.2-.1-.3-.1-.6-.1-1,0-1.7,1-1.7,2.3v3.2h-.7v-6.1h.6l.1,1.7c.2-1.1,.9-1.8,2-1.8,.2,0,.3,0,.4,.1l-.1,.7Zm4.8,3.7l.6,.1c-.2,1.2-1.1,1.6-2.3,1.6-1.6,0-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.1s1-3.2,2.6-3.2c1.5,0,2.2,1,2.2,2.4,0,.3,0,.6-.1,.8h-4.1c0,1.6,.7,2.6,2,2.6,1,0,1.5-.3,1.7-1.2Zm-.1-1.9v-.4c0-1-.6-1.7-1.6-1.7-1.1,0-1.8,.8-1.9,2.1h3.5Zm2.4,2c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm5.2,0c.1,.8,.7,1.2,1.6,1.2s1.5-.3,1.5-1.1c0-.7-.4-1-1.2-1.2l-.8-.2c-1-.2-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6,0-1.2,1-1.7,2-1.7,1.2,0,1.9,.5,2.1,1.6l-.6,.1c-.1-.8-.6-1.2-1.4-1.2s-1.4,.4-1.4,1.1c0,.6,.3,.9,1.1,1.1l.8,.2c1,.3,1.6,.7,1.6,1.7,0,1.2-.9,1.7-2.2,1.7-1.2,0-2-.5-2.2-1.5l.6-.2Zm5.6-6.9c.3,0,.5,.2,.5,.5s-.2,.5-.5,.5-.5-.2-.5-.5c.1-.3,.3-.5,.5-.5Zm.4,2.4v6.1h-.7v-6.1h.7Zm1.6,3c0-2.1,1-3.1,2.6-3.1s2.6,1.1,2.6,3.1c0,2.1-1,3.2-2.6,3.2-1.6,0-2.6-1.1-2.6-3.2Zm.7,0c0,1.7,.7,2.7,1.9,2.7,1.3,0,2-.9,2-2.7,0-1.7-.7-2.6-2-2.6-1.2,0-1.9,.9-1.9,2.6Zm6.7-1.6c.3-.9,1-1.5,2-1.5,1.1,0,1.9,.6,1.9,1.9v4.3h-.7v-4.1c0-1-.5-1.5-1.3-1.5-1,0-1.8,.7-1.8,2.2v3.4h-.7v-6.1h.5l.1,1.4Z"/> </g> <path class="mark" fill="#e31f27" d="M52.1,59.7L59.2,31l-12.4,9.8L37.8,0.1L27.3,22.6l-8.7-12.5L0,67l21.7,25.4H44L68.1,67L52.1,59.7z M52.2,41.9 l-2.7,10.8l-1.6-7.4L52.2,41.9z M18.7,82.4l-14-16.4l15.2-46.6l5.3,7.6L11.3,56.7l7.4,25.5L18.7,82.4z M24,39.5l-4,32.1L15.8,57 L24,39.5z M23,81.8l6.7-54.7L36.4,13l6.8,30.7l0,0L24.4,86.4L23,81.8z M28.2,88.2l16.6-37.6L47.3,62l-6.5,26.3H28.2z M51.1,63.9 l9.9,4.5L46.1,84.1L51.1,63.9z"/> </svg> </a> <div class="contact-info"><div class="wysiwyg-content"><p>© 2024 <a href="https://www.thefire.org/">Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression</a><br>510 Walnut St. | Suite 900<br>Philadelphia, PA 19106</p></div><a class="email" href="mailto:fire@thefire.org">fire@thefire.org</a><a class="phone" href="tel:2157173473">215-717-FIRE</a></div></div> <div class="col"> <nav class="links" aria-label="Footer Navigation"><ul><li><a href="/about-us" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/2"><span class="inner-text">About Us</span></a></li><li><a href="/contact-us" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/8"><span class="inner-text">Contact Us</span></a></li><li><a href="/careers" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/9"><span class="inner-text">Careers</span></a></li><li><a href="/submit-a-case" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/23387"><span class="inner-text">Submit a Case</span></a></li><li><a href="/privacy-policy" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/38"><span class="inner-text">Privacy Statement</span></a></li><li><a href="/messaging-terms-and-conditions" class="link" data-drupal-link-system-path="node/26341"><span class="inner-text">Terms and Conditions</span></a></li></ul></nav> <div class="buttons"> <nav class="social" aria-label="Social Media Links"><ul><li><a class="icon-facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/thefireorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="icon-twitter" href="https://twitter.com/TheFIREorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="icon-instagram" href="https://www.instagram.com/thefireorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">Instagram</span></a></li><li><a class="icon-threads" href="https://www.threads.net/@thefireorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">Threads</span></a></li><li><a class="icon-youtube" href="http://www.youtube.com/thefireorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">YouTube</span></a></li><li><a class="icon-tiktok" href="https://www.tiktok.com/@thefireorg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span class="sr-text">TikTok</span></a></li></ul></nav> <a href="/donate?form=FUNCNZRZALN" class="btn-lg donate"><span class="inner-text">Donate</span></a> </div> </div> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="js-blocker"></div> <div class="partial selection-sharer js-selection-sharer"> <div class="inner"> <span class="title" id="selection-sharer-title"> Share </span> <ul aria-labelled-by="selection-sharer-title"> <li> <button class="action -tweet js-selection-sharer-action"> <span class="sr-text"> Share this selection on Twitter </span> </button> </li> <li> <a class="action -email js-selection-sharer-action" href="#" > <span class="sr-text"> Share this selection via email </span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <script type="application/json" data-drupal-selector="drupal-settings-json">{"path":{"baseUrl":"\/","pathPrefix":"","currentPath":"node\/13837","currentPathIsAdmin":false,"isFront":false,"currentLanguage":"en"},"pluralDelimiter":"\u0003","suppressDeprecationErrors":true,"ajaxPageState":{"libraries":"eJxFjmsKwzAMgy8UkiMNp1FSQ17YDmW3X0sK-yXpE9jKLAiRFC4_Lq-ehFix5gYNqlSgO6mR8eEaElPIXA3iD5rGo79woEUkn4c0srt2k4SK0Dw1JFmTqv8Tv_pcsbKeSE7ZcHHChyrEAnc2p181tL3vQnyuhlf9_a2O8gPWXUpQ","theme":"fire","theme_token":null},"ajaxTrustedUrl":[],"webform":{"dialog":{"options":{"narrow":{"title":"Narrow","width":600},"normal":{"title":"Normal","width":800},"wide":{"title":"Wide","width":1000}},"entity_type":"node","entity_id":"13837"}},"sitewideAlert":{"refreshInterval":600000,"automaticRefresh":true},"user":{"uid":0,"permissionsHash":"e7b795ba9716db3a0b9d97005d62e40ea8d29006387c1fd4add160c129225242"}}</script> <script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_BUIGcJ3wz93mpCaiukddwHFCLIDpHAb81YT_FIMbFpE.js?scope=footer&delta=0&language=en&theme=fire&include=eJxNjGsKwzAMgy8UkiMNp1ZaQ17YDmW3X0cL2y9Jn5DsbY6WMhlCEcWfazCjHXYnc3LZbl9WZyUxrBlO5DK0pUcjC9Wxh0lKu9I8LLGuSTX-SFx9rlzFDnBouBapSHVo3Gi6jP7AgZbB8XtLftXBxHEK40UV6km6-Afc3EpQ"></script> </body> </html>