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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Natural philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle_and_Hellenistic_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle_and_Hellenistic_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Aristotle and Hellenistic physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle_and_Hellenistic_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_European_and_Islamic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_European_and_Islamic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Medieval European and Islamic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_European_and_Islamic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Classical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Core theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Core_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Core theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Core_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Classical theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Modern theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fundamental_concepts_in_modern_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamental_concepts_in_modern_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Fundamental concepts in modern physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamental_concepts_in_modern_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_between_classical_and_modern_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_between_classical_and_modern_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Distinction between classical and modern physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_between_classical_and_modern_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_and_relation_to_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_and_relation_to_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Philosophy and relation to other fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy_and_relation_to_other_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy and relation to other fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_and_relation_to_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distinction_between_fundamental_vs._applied_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_between_fundamental_vs._applied_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Distinction between fundamental vs. applied physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_between_fundamental_vs._applied_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Scientific method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_and_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_and_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Theory and experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_and_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scope_and_aims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope_and_aims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Scope and aims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scope_and_aims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Research fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_and_particle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_and_particle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Nuclear and particle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_and_particle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Atomic, molecular, and optical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Condensed_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Condensed_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Condensed matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Condensed_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrophysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrophysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.4</span> <span>Astrophysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Current research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics_Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics_Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Physics Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics_Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Careers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Careers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Careers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Careers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 243 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-243" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">243 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%B0%E1%8D%88%E1%8C%A5%E1%88%AE_%E1%88%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%8C%8B%E1%89%B5_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የተፈጥሮ ሕግጋት ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የተፈጥሮ ሕግጋት ጥናት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीव-विज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="जीव-विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="فيزياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيزياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A6%DC%9D%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%9F" title="ܦܝܣܝܟ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܦܝܣܝܟ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizic%C3%A2" title="Fizicâ – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Fizicâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fesica" title="Fesica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Fesica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পদাৰ্থ বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পদাৰ্থ বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास्त्र – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भौतिक शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mba%27erekokuaa" title="Mba'erekokuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mba'erekokuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فیزیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فیزیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Pisika" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bu%CC%8Dt-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Bu̍t-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bu̍t-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фізіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фізыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भौतिकी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भौतिकी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pisika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B" title="དངོས་ཁམས་རིག་པ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དངོས་ཁམས་རིག་པ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8D" title="Физикэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Физикэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pisika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fyzika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundoyetsimba" title="Fundoyetsimba – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Fundoyetsimba" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiks" title="Fisiks – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Fisiks" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffiseg" title="Ffiseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffiseg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysik" title="Fysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fysik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%83" title="فيزيك – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فيزيك" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%A9%DE%92%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%87%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ފީޒިޔާއީ އިލްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފީޒިޔާއީ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Fyzika" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dz mw-list-item"><a href="https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94" title="དངོས་ཁམས་རིག་པ – Dzongkha" lang="dz" hreflang="dz" data-title="དངོས་ཁམས་རིག་པ" data-language-autonym="ཇོང་ཁ" data-language-local-name="Dzongkha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ཇོང་ཁ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Füüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Füüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Φυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%AEsica" title="Fîsica – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Fîsica" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziko" title="Fiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fiziko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فیزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhautik_vigyan" title="Bhautik vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Bhautik vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alisfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Alisfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Alisfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique" title="Physique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuerkunde" title="Natuerkunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Natuerkunde" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiche" title="Fisiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Fisiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisic" title="Fisic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fisic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishig" title="Fishig – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fishig" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiosaig" title="Fiosaig – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Fiosaig" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="物理學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Physics" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AB%8C%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="ભૌતિકશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ભૌતિકશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu%CC%8Dt-l%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Vu̍t-lî-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Vu̍t-lî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81laik%C5%ABlohea" title="Kālaikūlohea – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālaikūlohea" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Ֆիզիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆիզիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भौतिक शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Fyzika" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziko" title="Fiziko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fiziko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8C%CC%80m%E1%BB%A5%CC%80nt%E1%BB%A5d%E1%BB%8B" title="Ọ̀mụ̀ntụdị – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọ̀mụ̀ntụdị" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pisika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica" title="Physica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Physica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%86%E1%92%AB%E1%91%A6%E1%93%B1%E1%93%95%E1%95%86%E1%93%82%E1%96%85/umatsuliriniq" title="ᐆᒫᑦᓱᓕᕆᓂᖅ/umatsuliriniq – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐆᒫᑦᓱᓕᕆᓂᖅ/umatsuliriniq" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Физикæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Физикæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifiziki" title="Ifiziki – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ifiziki" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchazandalo" title="Umchazandalo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchazandalo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Eðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פיזיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uumaatsulerineq" title="Uumaatsulerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Uumaatsulerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೌತಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭೌತಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsika" title="Físika – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Físika" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%9B%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%8F%D8%AA" title="ترٛایُت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ترٛایُت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Fizyka" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysegieth" title="Fysegieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Fysegieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizikia" title="Fizikia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fizikia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altelopa" title="Altelopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Altelopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiz%C3%AEk" title="Fizîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Fizîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9F%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BB%8C" title="ຟີຊິກສ໌ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຟີຊິກສ໌" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica" title="Physica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Physica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixica" title="Fixica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Fixica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurkunde" title="Natuurkunde – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Natuurkunde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADz%C3%ADk%C3%AD" title="Fízíkí – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Fízíkí" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/termu%27eske" title="termu'eske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="termu'eske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebyobuzimbe" title="Ebyobuzimbe – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ebyobuzimbe" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास्‍त्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भौतिक शास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൗതികശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൗതികശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%BCika" title="Fiżika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Fiżika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिकशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भौतिकशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="فيزيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيزيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فزیک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فزیک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%ACk-l%C4%AB" title="Ŭk-lī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ŭk-lī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Физикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Физикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Физик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Физик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရူပဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiki" title="Fisiki – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Fisiki" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurkunde" title="Natuurkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Natuurkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netuurkunde" title="Netuurkunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Netuurkunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भौतिक शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौतिक शास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भौतिक शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADseca" title="Físeca – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Físeca" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCsiik" title="Füsiik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Füsiik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiks" title="Fisiks – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Fisiks" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikk" title="Fysikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikk" title="Fysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C5%B7sique" title="Phŷsique – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Phŷsique" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisike" title="Fisike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Fisike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica" title="Fisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fisica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Физике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Физике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A5_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ପଦାର୍ଥ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପଦାର୍ଥ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiiziksii" title="Fiiziksii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Fiiziksii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="فزکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فزکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရူပဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فزیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فزیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizix" title="Fizix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Fizix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="រូបវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រូបវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisike" title="Fisike – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Fisike" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Fìsica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica" title="Física – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Física" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizic%C4%83" title="Fizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fizică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachaykamay" title="Pachaykamay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pachaykamay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фізіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiki" title="Fisiki – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Fisiki" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भौतिकशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भौतिकशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_(%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B3)" title="طبیعیات (فزکس) – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="طبیعیات (فزکس)" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Fìsica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naitural_philosophy" title="Naitural philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Naitural philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physik" title="Physik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Physik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiksi" title="Fisiksi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Fisiksi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica" title="Fìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Fìsica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="භෞතික විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භෞතික විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Physics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="طبيعيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="طبيعيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzika" title="Fyzika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fyzika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka" title="Fizyka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Fizyka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiisigis" title="Fiisigis – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Fiisigis" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فیزیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فیزیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_natru" title="Sabi fu natru – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Sabi fu natru" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiikka" title="Fysiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fysiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysik" title="Fysik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fysik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisika" title="Pisika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pisika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இயற்பியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இயற்பியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasngama" title="Tasngama – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasngama" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasengama" title="Tasengama – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasengama" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%81%A2%E1%82%86%E1%80%B8%E1%82%81%E1%81%A2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88" title="ပၢႆးႁၢင်ႈ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ပၢႆးႁၢင်ႈ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="భౌతిక శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భౌతిక శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="ฟิสิกส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฟิสิกส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6%C3%B6ckat%C9%94%C9%94r" title="Piööckatɔɔr – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piööckatɔɔr" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8A%E1%8B%9A%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%B5" title="ፊዚክስ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ፊዚክስ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiki" title="Fisiki – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Fisiki" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lea faka-Tonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೌತ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಭೌತ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika" title="Fizika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Fizika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Физика – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Физика" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%84%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%80" title="ᨄᨗᨔᨗᨀ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨄᨗᨔᨗᨀ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фізика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="طبیعیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="طبیعیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%89%D8%B2%D9%89%D9%83%D8%A7" title="فىزىكا – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="فىزىكا" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuzlij" title="Vuzlij – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vuzlij" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizega" title="Fizega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fizega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik" title="Fizik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Fizik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Vật lý học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vật lý học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCs%C3%BCd" title="Füsüd – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Füsüd" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BC%C3%BCsiga" title="Füüsiga – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Füüsiga" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizike" title="Fizike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Fizike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%BCjia" title="Atüjia – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Atüjia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="物理學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fisika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%ABmm" title="Jëmm – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Jëmm" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="物理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="物理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-Ntumbuluko" title="Ntivo-Ntumbuluko – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-Ntumbuluko" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific field of study</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Physics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Physics (disambiguation)">Physics (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Physis</a>.</div> <p 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sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:1px solid #A2B8BF"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent; padding:0.2em; font-size:175%; font-weight:bold;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/100px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/150px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/200px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles" title="Index of physics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physics" title="Outline of physics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_physicists" title="List of physicists">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physics_awards" title="List of physics awards">List of physics awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physics_journals" title="List of physics journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Category:Physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Template:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Physics</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">fundamental constituents</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">motion</a> and behavior through <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, and the related entities of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-maxwell1878-physicalscience_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holzner2003-physics_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holzner2003-physics-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>. </p><p>Physics is one of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-krupp2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krupp2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over much of the past two millennia, physics, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, but during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> in the 17th century, these natural sciences branched into separate research endeavors.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physics intersects with many <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> areas of research, such as <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a>, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences<sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy. </p><p>Advances in physics often enable new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a>. For example, advances in the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> led directly to the development of technologies that have transformed modern society, such as television, computers, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_appliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic appliance">domestic appliances</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> advances in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> led to the development of industrialization; and advances in <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> inspired the development of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/400px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/600px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/800px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>The expansion of the universe according to the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory in physics</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></div> <p>The word <i>physics</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">physica</i></span> ('study of nature'), which itself is a borrowing of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φυσική</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">phusikḗ</i></span> 'natural science'), a term derived from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φύσις</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">phúsis</i></span> 'origin, nature, property').<sup id="cite_ref-etymonline-physics_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline-physics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etymonline-physic_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline-physic-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSJ_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSJ-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_astronomy">Ancient astronomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/400px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" decoding="async" width="400" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/600px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/800px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2678" data-file-height="1589" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a> is evident in monuments like the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senemut_Tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical ceiling of Senemut Tomb">ceiling of Senemut's tomb</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> is one of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>. Early civilizations dating before 3000 BCE, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse <a href="/wiki/Great_circle" title="Great circle">great circles</a> across the sky,<sup id="cite_ref-krupp2003_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krupp2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which could not explain the positions of the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Asger_Aaboe" title="Asger Aaboe">Asger Aaboe</a>, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and all Western efforts in the <a href="/wiki/Exact_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Exact science">exact sciences</a> are descended from late <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aaboe1991_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaboe1991-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomers</a> left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies,<sup id="cite_ref-clagett1995_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clagett1995-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Greek poet <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> wrote of various celestial objects in his <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i>; later <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomers</a> provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-thurston1994_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thurston1994-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a> has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a> (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when <a href="/wiki/Presocratics" class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratics">pre-Socratic philosophers</a> like <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> rejected <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">non-naturalistic</a> explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.<sup id="cite_ref-singer2008p35_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singer2008p35-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment;<sup id="cite_ref-lloyd1970pp108-109_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lloyd1970pp108-109-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-about-atomism_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-atomism-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle_and_Hellenistic_physics">Aristotle and Hellenistic physics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/340px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a><br />(384–322 <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical period</a> in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic times</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> developed along many lines of inquiry. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">Ἀριστοτέλης</span>, <i>Aristotélēs</i>) (384–322 BCE), a student of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, wrote on many subjects, including a substantial treatise on "<a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a>" – in the 4th century BC. <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a> was influential for about two millennia. His approach mixed some limited observation with logical deductive arguments, but did not rely on experimental verification of deduced statements. Aristotle's foundational work in Physics, though very imperfect, formed a framework against which later thinkers further developed the field. His approach is entirely superseded today. </p><p>He explained ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>) with the theory of <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">four elements</a>. Aristotle believed that each of the four classical elements (air, fire, water, earth) had its own natural place.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of their differing densities, each element will revert to its own specific place in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, because of their weights, fire would be at the top, air underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go towards its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, the flames go up into the air in an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. His laws of motion included: that heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (e.g. density of air).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object) that the speed that object moves, will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem of motion and its causes was studied carefully, leading to the philosophical notion of a "<a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">prime mover</a>" as the ultimate source of all motion in the world (Book 8 of his treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_European_and_Islamic">Medieval European and Islamic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">European science in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> fell to invaders and internal decay in the fifth century, resulting in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) resisted the attacks from invaders and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992363_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992363-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the sixth century, <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a> created an important compilation of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' works that are copied in the <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a>. </p><p> In sixth-century Europe <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, a Byzantine scholar, questioned <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s teaching of physics and noted its flaws. He introduced the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus" title="Theory of impetus">theory of impetus</a>. Aristotle's physics was not scrutinized until Philoponus appeared; unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. On Aristotle's physics Philoponus wrote:</p><blockquote><p>But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> ten centuries later,<sup id="cite_ref-dialogTwoNewSciences_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dialogTwoNewSciences-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works when arguing that Aristotelian physics was flawed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1300s <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>, a teacher in the faculty of arts at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, developed the concept of impetus. It was a step toward the modern ideas of inertia and momentum.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic scholarship</a> inherited <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a> from the Greeks and during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> reasoning, developing early forms of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hazan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) drawing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hazan.png/170px-Hazan.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Hazan.png 1.5x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 965</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1040</span>) wrote of his <i>camera obscura</i> experiments in the <i>Book of Optics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001Book_I_[6.85],_[6.86],_p._379;_Book_II,_[3.80],_p._453_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001Book_I_[6.85],_[6.86],_p._379;_Book_II,_[3.80],_p._453-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> and vision,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which came from the works of many scientists like <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_(mathematician)" title="Ibn Sahl (mathematician)">Ibn Sahl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī">Al-Farisi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. The most notable work was <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">The Book of Optics</a></i> (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir), written by Ibn al-Haytham, in which he presented the alternative to the ancient Greek idea about vision.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Treatise on Light</i> as well as in his <i>Kitāb al-Manāẓir</i>, he presented a study of the phenomenon of the <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> (his thousand-year-old version of the <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole camera</a>) and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using the knowledge of previous scholars, he began to explain how light enters the eye. He asserted that the light ray is focused, but the actual explanation of how light projected to the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His <i>Treatise on Light</i> explained the <i>camera obscura</i>, hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinhole-camera.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/170px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/255px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/340px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption>The basic way a pinhole camera works</figcaption></figure> <p>The seven-volume <i>Book of Optics</i> (<i>Kitab al-Manathir</i>) influenced thinking<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> across disciplines from the theory of visual <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> to the nature of <a href="/wiki/Perspectivity" title="Perspectivity">perspective</a> in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. This included later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> to <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>. </p><p> The translation of <i>The Book of Optics</i> had an impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build devices that replicated those Ibn al-Haytham had built and understand the way vision works.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/170px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/255px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/340px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642) related mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical">Classical</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/170px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/255px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/340px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Physics became a separate science when <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europeans</a> used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of physics">laws of physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-benchaim2004_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benchaim2004-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Major developments in this period include the replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> with the heliocentric <a href="/wiki/Copernican_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernican model">Copernican model</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">laws governing the motion of planetary bodies</a> (determined by Kepler between 1609 and 1619), Galileo's pioneering work on <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> in the 16th and 17th centuries, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s discovery and unification of the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a> (that would come to bear his name).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newton also developed <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the mathematical study of continuous change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-allen1997_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen1997-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of laws in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetics">electromagnetics</a> resulted from research efforts during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> as energy needs increased.<sup id="cite_ref-schoolscience-industrialrevolution_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schoolscience-industrialrevolution-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laws comprising classical physics remain widely used for objects on everyday scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they provide a close approximation in such situations, and theories such as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> simplify to their classical equivalents at such scales. Inaccuracies in <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">History of special relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History of quantum mechanics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/170px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/255px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg/340px-Max_Planck_Nobel_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1656" data-file-height="2348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> (1858–1947), the originator of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg/170px-Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg/255px-Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg/340px-Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1182" data-file-height="1475" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–1955), discovered the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a> began in the early 20th century with the work of <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> in quantum theory and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> predicted that the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> depends on the motion of the observer, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> of electromagnetism. This discrepancy was corrected by Einstein's theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-relativity-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a> provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency. This, along with the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> and a complete theory predicting discrete <a href="/wiki/Energy_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy levels">energy levels</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">electron orbitals</a>, led to the theory of quantum mechanics improving on classical physics at very small scales.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnorrobertson1996-quantum-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this early work, and work in related fields, the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model_of_particle_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Model of particle physics">Standard Model of particle physics</a> was derived.<sup id="cite_ref-donut2001_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donut2001-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> in 2012,<sup id="cite_ref-cho2012_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cho2012-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental particles">fundamental particles</a> predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">physics beyond the Standard Model</a>, with theories such as <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>, is an active area of research.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of <a href="/wiki/Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probabilities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Group_theory#Physics" title="Group theory">groups</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_theories">Core theories</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">Branches of physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physics" title="Outline of physics">Outline of physics</a></div> <p>Physics deals with a wide variety of systems, although certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and moving at a speed much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a>, an aspect of classical mechanics, was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Newton (1642–1727). </p><p>These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, and special relativity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_theory">Classical theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></div> <p>Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a> and bodies in <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> and may be divided into <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a> (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> (study of motion without regard to its causes), and <a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical dynamics">dynamics</a> (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">fluid mechanics</a> (known together as <a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">continuum mechanics</a>), the latter include such branches as <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">hydrostatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">hydrodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">pneumatics</a>. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica-acoustics_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-acoustics-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important modern branches of acoustics include <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonics">ultrasonics</a>, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; <a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">bioacoustics</a>, the physics of animal calls and hearing,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Electroacoustics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroacoustics">electroacoustics</a>, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a> but also with <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a>, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> gives rise to a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a> deals with <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a> at rest, <a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">electrodynamics</a> with moving charges, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">magnetostatics</a> with magnetic poles at rest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_theory">Modern theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>H</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ψ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>d</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>ψ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6227214310d46ffac904ca257878eee1fb6ce726" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:24.027ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }"></span> <br /><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>κ</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/124ab80fcb17e2733cc17ff6f93da5e52f355c77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:19.468ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}"></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations" title="Einstein field equations">Einstein field equations</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Founders</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bose" title="Satyendra Nath Bose">Satyendra Nath Bose</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime_topology" title="Spacetime topology">Topology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomness" title="Randomness">Randomness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computation">Quantum computation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical physics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-linear_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear dynamics">Non-linear dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">Plasma physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of gravitation">Theories of gravitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Witten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Sommerfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Onnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Weyl" title="Hermann Weyl">Weyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Kramers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Kramers">Kramers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">de Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bose" title="Satyendra Nath Bose">Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">van der Waals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Moseley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Paget_Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir George Paget Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Millikan">Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Veltman" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Veltman">Veltman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" title="John Stewart Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Goudsmit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">Uhlenbeck</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeEmptyBullet"></span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_physics" title="Category:Modern physics">Modern physics</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_physics" title="Template:Modern physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modern_physics" title="Template talk:Modern physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modern_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modern physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> study matter on the smallest scale at which <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> can be identified. The <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">physics of elementary particles</a> is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with motion in the absence of gravitational fields and the <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general theory of relativity</a> with motion and its connection with <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in many areas of modern physics.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fundamental_concepts_in_modern_physics">Fundamental concepts in modern physics</h4></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_(physics)" title="Action (physics)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality_(physics)" title="Causality (physics)">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_covariance" title="Principle of covariance">Covariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical field">Physical field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical interaction">Physical interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_ensemble" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical ensemble">Statistical ensemble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)" title="Symmetry (physics)">Symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">Wave</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinction_between_classical_and_modern_physics">Distinction between classical and modern physics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modernphysicsfields.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Modernphysicsfields.svg/330px-Modernphysicsfields.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Modernphysicsfields.svg/495px-Modernphysicsfields.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Modernphysicsfields.svg/660px-Modernphysicsfields.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>The basic domains of physics</figcaption></figure> <p>While physics itself aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/260px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/390px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/520px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> of 1927, with prominent physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_time_and_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute time and space">absolute time and space</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Planck, Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> are being developed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_and_relation_to_other_fields">Philosophy and relation to other fields</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></div> <p>Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> and its "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>" to advance knowledge of the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-rosenberg2006ch1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rosenberg2006ch1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientific method employs <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori and a posteriori</a></i> reasoning as well as the use of <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a> to measure the validity of a given theory.<sup id="cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch14_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">philosophy of physics</a>, involves issues such as the nature of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space and time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> outlooks such as <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-godfreysmith2003ch15_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-godfreysmith2003ch15-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Laplace</a>, who championed <a href="/wiki/Causal_determinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal determinism">causal determinism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-laplace1951_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-laplace1951-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, who wrote on quantum mechanics.<sup id="cite_ref-schroedinger1983_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroedinger1983-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schroedinger1995_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroedinger1995-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mathematical physicist <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> has been called a <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonist</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-hawkingpenrose1996p4_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hawkingpenrose1996p4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a view Penrose discusses in his book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality" title="The Road to Reality">The Road to Reality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-penrose2004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penrose2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hawking referred to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and took issue with Penrose's views.<sup id="cite_ref-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penroseshimonycartwrighthawking1997-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/220px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/330px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg/440px-Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabola</a>-shaped <a href="/wiki/Lava_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava flow">lava flow</a> illustrates an application of mathematics in physics — in this case, Galileo's <a href="/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of falling bodies">law of falling bodies</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physics_and_other_sciences.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Physics_and_other_sciences.png" decoding="async" width="106" height="368" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-dijksterhuis1986_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dijksterhuis1986-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-mastin2010-plato_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mastin2010-plato-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galileo,<sup id="cite_ref-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toraldodifrancia1976p10-galileo-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Newton. Some theorists, like <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penelope_Maddy" title="Penelope Maddy">Penelope Maddy</a>, hold that logical truths, and therefore mathematical reasoning, depend on the <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> world. This is usually combined with the claim that the laws of logic express universal regularities found in the structural features of the world, which may explain the peculiar relation between these fields. </p><p>Physics uses mathematics<sup id="cite_ref-applicationsofmathematics_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-applicationsofmathematics-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to organise and formulate experimental results. From those results, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic solution">precise</a> or <a href="/wiki/Simulation#Computer_simulation" title="Simulation">estimated</a> solutions are obtained, or quantitative results, from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical data, with their <a href="/wiki/Units_of_measure" class="mw-redirect" title="Units of measure">units of measure</a> and estimates of the errors in the measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like <a href="/wiki/Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific computing">computation</a> have made <a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">computational physics</a> an active area of research. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mathematical_Physics_and_other_sciences.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mathematical_Physics_and_other_sciences.png/220px-Mathematical_Physics_and_other_sciences.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Mathematical_Physics_and_other_sciences.png 1.5x" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="194" /></a><figcaption>The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a> is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data. </p><p>The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a> is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical.<sup id="cite_ref-jmp-def_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jmp-def-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problems in this field start with a "<a href="/wiki/Boundary_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary condition">mathematical model of a physical situation</a>" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinction_between_fundamental_vs._applied_physics">Distinction between fundamental vs. applied physics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a></div> <p>Physics is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a> (also called basic science). Physics is also called "<i>the</i> fundamental science" because all branches of natural science including chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, chemistry is often called <a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">the central science</a> because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> of matter (chemistry's focus on the molecular and atomic scale <a href="/wiki/Difference_between_chemistry_and_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference between chemistry and physics">distinguishes it from physics</a>). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">mass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charge_conservation" title="Charge conservation">charge</a>. Fundamental physics seeks to better explain and understand phenomena in all spheres, without a specific practical application as a goal, other than the deeper insight into the phenomema themselves. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg/170px-Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg/255px-Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg/340px-Prediction_of_sound_scattering_from_Schroeder_Diffuser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="2745" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic engineering">acoustic engineering</a> model of sound reflecting from an acoustic diffuser, implemented with classical physics</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif/220px-Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif/330px-Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif/440px-Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">simple machine</a> for lifting</figcaption></figure> <p>Applied physics is a general term for physics research and development that is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. </p><p>The approach is similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">accelerator physics</a> might seek to build better <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">particle detectors</a> for research in theoretical physics. </p><p>Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">flight simulators</a>, video games, and movies, and is often critical in <a href="/wiki/Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensic</a> investigations. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Military_laser_experiment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Military_laser_experiment.jpg/220px-Military_laser_experiment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Military_laser_experiment.jpg/330px-Military_laser_experiment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Military_laser_experiment.jpg/440px-Military_laser_experiment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Experiment using a <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">standard consensus</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws</a> of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">uncertainty</a>. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, a physicist can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing the extrapolation forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering that speed up the development of a new technology. </p><p>There is also considerable <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a>, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of <a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">econophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociophysics">sociophysics</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</h3></div> <p>Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a <a href="/wiki/Physical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical theory">physical theory</a>. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of a theory.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation.<sup id="cite_ref-honderich1995pp474-476_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-honderich1995pp474-476-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_and_experiment">Theory and experiment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/220px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/330px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/440px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronaut</a> and Earth are both in <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a>. (Pictured: Astronaut Bruce McCandless.) </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/220px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/330px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/440px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1327" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Theorists seek to develop <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while <a href="/wiki/Experimentalism" title="Experimentalism">experimentalists</a> devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modelling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a>, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicists</a> who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology (particle physics)">phenomenologists</a>, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">fundamental theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation" title="Many-worlds interpretation">parallel universes</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">multiverse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Higher_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher dimension">higher dimensions</a>. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions. </p><p>Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, whereas those involved in <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied research">applied research</a> often work in industry, developing technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) and <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a> has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists.<sup id="cite_ref-feynman1965p157-experiment_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynman1965p157-experiment-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope_and_aims">Scope and aims</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acceleration_components.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Acceleration_components.JPG/220px-Acceleration_components.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Acceleration_components.JPG/330px-Acceleration_components.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Acceleration_components.JPG/440px-Acceleration_components.JPG 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Physics covers a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>) to the largest <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a> of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science".<sup id="cite_ref-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feynmanleightonsands1963v1ch3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together. </p><p>For example, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">ancient Chinese</a> observed that certain rocks (<a href="/wiki/Lodestone" title="Lodestone">lodestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> knew of other objects such as <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-stewart_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stewart-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. This process of "unifying" forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak nuclear force</a> are now considered to be two aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">electroweak interaction</a>. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (theory of everything) for why nature is as it is (see section <i><a href="#Current_research">Current research</a></i> below for more information).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_fields">Research fields</h3></div> <p>Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support <a href="/wiki/Physics_education_research" title="Physics education research">physics education research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics_outreach" title="Physics outreach">physics outreach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialised, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Einstein (1879–1955) and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Field</th> <th>Subfields</th> <th>Major theories</th> <th>Concepts </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">Nuclear astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(physics)" title="Phenomenology (physics)">Particle physics phenomenology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effective_field_theory" title="Effective field theory">Effective field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lattice_field_theory" title="Lattice field theory">Lattice field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence" title="AdS/CFT correspondence">AdS/CFT correspondence</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Fundamental interaction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravitational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong</a>), <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spin_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin (particle physics)">Spin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">Spontaneous symmetry breaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">Seesaw mechanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brane" title="Brane">Brane</a>, <a href="/wiki/String_(physics)" title="String (physics)">String</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum energy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_and_molecular_astrophysics" title="Atomic and molecular astrophysics">Atomic and molecular astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">Polarization (waves)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-pressure_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure physics">High-pressure physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Low-temperature physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanoscale and mesoscopic physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bloch%27s_theorem" title="Bloch's theorem">Bloch's theorem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">Density functional theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermi_liquid_theory" title="Fermi liquid theory">Fermi liquid theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Many-body_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Many-body theory">Many-body theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">Electrical conduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">superfluidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spin_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin (particle physics)">Spin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravitation physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">Solar physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_physics" title="Space physics">Space physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy#Stellar_astronomy" title="Astronomy">Stellar astrophysics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Cosmic inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">Magnetohydrodynamics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black hole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">Cosmic string</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Star</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_physics" title="Accelerator physics">Accelerator physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agrophysics" title="Agrophysics">Agrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_physics" title="Communication physics">Communication physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Econophysics" title="Econophysics">Econophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser physics">Laser physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics_of_computation" title="Physics of computation">Physics of computation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">Plasma physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum electronics">Quantum electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_dynamics" title="Vehicle dynamics">Vehicle dynamics</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nuclear_and_particle">Nuclear and particle</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/220px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/330px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/440px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a><figcaption>A simulated event in the CMS detector of the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, featuring a possible appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and energy and the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">interactions</a> between them.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dpf_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dpf-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators,<sup id="cite_ref-halpern2010_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halpern2010-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> detectors,<sup id="cite_ref-grupen1999_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grupen1999-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_particle_physics" title="Computational particle physics">computer programs</a><sup id="cite_ref-walsh2012_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-walsh2012-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collisions</a> of other particles.<sup id="cite_ref-iop-hepp_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iop-hepp-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">fields</a> are described by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (<a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>) that interact via the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong nuclear force">strong</a>, weak, and electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">fundamental forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>, <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-gribbin1998_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gribbin1998-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson.<sup id="cite_ref-oerter2006_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oerter2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson,<sup id="cite_ref-eonr-higgs_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eonr-higgs-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an integral part of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>. </p><p>Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> generation and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> and magnetic resonance imaging, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Materials_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials engineering">materials engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> in geology and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical"><span id="Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical"></span>Atomic, molecular, and optical</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a></div> <p>Atomic, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a>, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum</a> treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). </p><p>Atomic physics studies the <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shells</a> of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Hyperfine_splitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperfine splitting">hyperfine splitting</a>), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> are considered part of nuclear physics. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a> focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. <a href="/wiki/Optical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical physics">Optical physics</a> is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of <a href="/wiki/Optical_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical field">optical fields</a> and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Condensed_matter">Condensed matter</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/280px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/420px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/560px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Velocity-distribution data of a gas of <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-taylorheinonen2002_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylorheinonen2002-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2008_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2008-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most familiar examples of condensed phases are <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solids</a> and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a> between atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-moore2011_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore2011-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More exotic condensed phases include the <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluid</a><sup id="cite_ref-leggett1999_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leggett1999-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a><sup id="cite_ref-levy2001_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levy2001-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconducting</a> phase exhibited by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction electron">conduction electrons</a> in certain materials,<sup id="cite_ref-stajiccoontzosborne2011_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stajiccoontzosborne2011-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferromagnet">ferromagnetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiferromagnet">antiferromagnetic</a> phases of <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spins</a> on <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">atomic lattices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mattis2006_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mattis2006-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dcmp_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dcmp-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>condensed matter physics</i> was apparently coined by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip Anderson</a> when he renamed his research group—previously <i>solid-state theory</i>—in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-princeton-anderson_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-princeton-anderson-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.<sup id="cite_ref-aps-dcmp_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aps-dcmp-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> and engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2008_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2008-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/330px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/495px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg/660px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6200" data-file-height="6200" /></a><figcaption>The deepest visible-light image of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">Hubble Ultra-Deep Field</a>. The vast majority of objects seen above are distant galaxies.</figcaption></figure> <p>Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">stellar structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a>, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jansky" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Jansky">Karl Jansky</a> in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a>. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the Earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">gamma-ray</a>, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray astronomy</a>. </p><p>Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a>'s discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble diagram">Hubble diagram</a>, prompted rival explanations known as the <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady state</a> universe and the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. </p><p>The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> and the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>. Cosmologists have recently established the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">ΛCDM model</a> of the evolution of the universe, which includes <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>. </p><p>Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a> over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa-glast_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-glast-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa-glast-darkmatter_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-glast-darkmatter-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly interacting massive particles">weakly interacting massive particles</a>, complementing similar experiments with the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> and other underground detectors. </p><p><a href="/wiki/IBEX" class="mw-redirect" title="IBEX">IBEX</a> is already yielding new <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysical">astrophysical</a> discoveries: "No one knows what is creating the <a href="/wiki/Energetic_neutral_atom" title="Energetic neutral atom">ENA (energetic neutral atoms)</a> ribbon" along the <a href="/wiki/Termination_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Termination shock">termination shock</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>, "but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>—in which the Solar System's enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind's charged particles is plowing through the onrushing 'galactic wind' of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet—is wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-kerr2009_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kerr2009-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_research">Current research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">List of unsolved problems in physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/220px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/330px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG/440px-Feynman%27sDiagram.JPG 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a> signed by <a href="/wiki/R._P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="R. P. Feynman">R. P. Feynman</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/220px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/330px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/440px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1716" /></a><figcaption>A typical phenomenon described by physics: a <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnet</a> levitating above a <a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">superconductor</a> demonstrates the <a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. </p><p>In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high-temperature superconductivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Legg2006_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Legg2006-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">quantum computers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen2008_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen2008-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> have non-zero <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a>, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a> is also currently ongoing.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although much progress has been made in high-energy, <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a>, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">complexity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nrc1997v9p161_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrc1997v9p161-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chaos,<sup id="cite_ref-kellert1993p32_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kellert1993p32-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a><sup id="cite_ref-eames-quoting-feynman_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eames-quoting-feynman-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> <a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">catastrophes</a>, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a> to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of <a href="/wiki/Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">pattern formation</a> in biological systems. In the 1932 <i>Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a> said:<sup id="cite_ref-goldstein1969_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldstein1969-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics_Education">Physics Education</h2></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics_education&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a> or physics teaching refers to the <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> methods currently used to <a href="/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">teach</a> physics. The occupation is called physics educator or physics teacher. <a href="/wiki/Physics_education_research" title="Physics education research">Physics education research</a> refers to an area of pedagogical research that seeks to improve those methods. Historically, physics has been taught at the high school and college level primarily by the lecture method together with laboratory exercises aimed at verifying concepts taught in the lectures. These concepts are better understood when lectures are accompanied with demonstration, hand-on experiments, and questions that require students to ponder what will happen in an experiment and why. Students who participate in <a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">active learning</a> for example with hands-on experiments learn through self-discovery. By trial and error they learn to change their preconceptions about phenomena in physics and discover the underlying concepts. Physics education is part of the broader area of <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Careers">Careers</h2></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physicist&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Physicist_Rosen_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physicist_Rosen-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a>, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Research_fields">research fields</a>, spanning all length scales: from <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">sub-atomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, through <a href="/wiki/Biological_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological physics">biological physics</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmological</a> length scales encompassing the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">experimental physicists</a> who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physicists</a> who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Physicist_Rosen_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Physicist_Rosen-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">applied physics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">engineering physics</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/25px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/37px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/49px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> – Fields of natural science related to Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a> – branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a> – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics" title="Relationship between mathematics and physics">Relationship between mathematics and physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_tourism" title="Science tourism">Science tourism</a> – Travel to notable science locations</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lists">Lists</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_physics" title="List of important publications in physics">List of important publications in physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physicists" title="List of physicists">List of physicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations" title="Lists of physics equations">Lists of physics equations</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>'s 1620 <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a></i></span></i> was critical in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_scientific_method" title="History of scientific method">development of scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cajori1917_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cajori1917-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Calculus was independently developed at around the same time by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>; while Leibniz was the first to publish his work and develop much of the notation used for calculus today, Newton was the first to develop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, the influence of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter" title="Johann Wilhelm Ritter">Ritter</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Concepts which are denoted <i>hypothetical</i> can change with time. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> of nineteenth-century physics was denigrated by some, including <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>'s critique of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a>'s formulation of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, which was innovated at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for <a href="/wiki/ArXiv.org" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv.org">arXiv.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the work of <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a>, on 'systems far from equilibrium', and others.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-maxwell1878-physicalscience-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-maxwell1878-physicalscience_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaxwell1878">Maxwell 1878</a>, p. 9 "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-youngfreedman2014p1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoungFreedman2014">Young & Freedman 2014</a>, p. 1 "Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-youngfreedman2014p2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-youngfreedman2014p2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoungFreedman2014">Young & Freedman 2014</a>, p. 2 "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holzner2003-physics-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-holzner2003-physics_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolzner2006">Holzner 2006</a>, p. 7 "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-krupp2003-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krupp2003_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-krupp2003_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrupp2003">Krupp 2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cajori1917-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cajori1917_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCajori1917">Cajori 1917</a>, pp. 48–49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymonline-physics-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymonline-physics_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&allowed_in_frame=0">"physics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161224191507/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphysics%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymonline-physic-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymonline-physic_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&allowed_in_frame=0">"physic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161224173651/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=physic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphysic%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSJ-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LSJ_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fu/sis"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φύσις</span></span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fusiko/s"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φυσική</span></span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=e)pisth/mh"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐπιστήμη</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aaboe1991-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aaboe1991_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAaboe1991">Aaboe 1991</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clagett1995-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clagett1995_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClagett1995">Clagett 1995</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thurston1994-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thurston1994_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThurston1994">Thurston 1994</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-singer2008p35-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-singer2008p35_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinger2008">Singer 2008</a>, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lloyd1970pp108-109-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lloyd1970pp108-109_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1970">Lloyd 1970</a>, pp. 108–109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-about-atomism-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-about-atomism_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill" class="citation web cs1">Gill, N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atomism+%E2%80%93+Pre-Socratic+Philosophy+of+Atomism&rft.pub=About+Education&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=N.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancienthistory.about.com%2Fod%2Fpresocraticphiloso%2Fp%2FAtomism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230106231001/https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf">"Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cal State LA</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cal+State+LA&rft.atitle=Daily+40+no.+2+%E2%80%93+Aristotle+and+the+Four+Simple+Bodies+and+Elements&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.calstatela.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdept%2Fchem%2F09summer%2F158%2Fdaily40-aristotle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFtbcaldwe2012" class="citation web cs1">tbcaldwe (14 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/">"Natural Philosophy: Aristotle | Physics 139"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Natural+Philosophy%3A+Aristotle+%7C+Physics+139&rft.date=2012-10-14&rft.au=tbcaldwe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.umass.edu%2Fp139ell%2F2012%2F10%2F14%2Fnatural-philosophy-aristotle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://galileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu/lectures/aristot2.html">"Aristotle"</a>. <i>galileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=galileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu&rft.atitle=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgalileoandeinstein.phys.virginia.edu%2Flectures%2Faristot2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992363-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992363_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg1992">Lindberg 1992</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111105753/http://homepages.wmich.edu/~mcgrew/philfall.htm">"John Philoponus, Commentary on Aristotle's Physics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.wmich.edu/~mcgrew/philfall.htm">the original</a> on 11 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Philoponus%2C+Commentary+on+Aristotle%27s+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.wmich.edu%2F~mcgrew%2Fphilfall.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dialogTwoNewSciences-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dialogTwoNewSciences_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileo1638" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> (1638). <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i>. <q>in order to better understand just how conclusive Aristotle's demonstration is, we may, in my opinion, deny both of his assumptions. And as to the first, I greatly doubt that Aristotle ever tested by experiment whether it be true that two stones, one weighing ten times as much as the other, if allowed to fall, at the same instant, from a height of, say, 100 cubits, would so differ in speed that when the heavier had reached the ground, the other would not have fallen more than 10 cubits.<br />Simp. – His language would seem to indicate that he had tried the experiment, because he says: We see the heavier; now the word see shows that he had made the experiment.<br />Sagr. – But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure[107] you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+New+Sciences&rft.date=1638&rft.au=Galileo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992162_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg1992">Lindberg 1992</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/">"John Philoponus"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180422010906/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Philoponus&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/">"John Buridan"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180422012611/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 38. <q>Within two centuries, the field of optics was radically transformed</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Science%2C+and+the+Challenge+of+History&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Dallal&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTbakhiAmr2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tbakhi, Abdelghani; Amr, Samir S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DONUT&rft.atitle=The+Standard+Model&rft.date=2001-06-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-donut.fnal.gov%2Fweb_pages%2Fstandardmodelpg%2FTheStandardModel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cho2012-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cho2012_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCho2012">Cho 2012</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWomersley2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Womersley, J. 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Vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 22–25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924114111/http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200502/beyond_the_standard_model.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Symmetry&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Standard+Model&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-25&rft.date=2005-02&rft.aulast=Womersley&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.symmetrymagazine.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Flegacy%2Fpdfs%2F200502%2Fbeyond_the_standard_model.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-acoustics-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica-acoustics_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/4044/acoustics">"acoustics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618235952/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/4044/acoustics">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/research/conferences/convergence/roundtable-discussion-questions/has-theoretical-physics-moved-too">the original</a> on 21 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Has+theoretical+physics+moved+too+far+away+from+experiments%3F+Is+the+field+entering+a+crisis+and%2C+if+so%2C+what+should+we+do+about+it%3F&rft.pub=Perimeter+Institute+for+Theoretical+Physics&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perimeterinstitute.ca%2Fresearch%2Fconferences%2Fconvergence%2Froundtable-discussion-questions%2Fhas-theoretical-physics-moved-too&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307105406/https://www.mpp.mpg.de/english/research/theory/phenomenologie/index.html">"Phenomenology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Physics" title="Max Planck Institute for Physics">Max Planck Institute for Physics</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CERN+experiments+observe+particle+consistent+with+long-sought+Higgs+boson&rft.pub=CERN&rft.date=2012-07-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-archived.web.cern.ch%2Fpress-archived%2FPressReleases%2FReleases2012%2FPR17.12E.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/physics/research/abcp/areas.html#amo">"Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics"</a>. <i>MIT Department of Physics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140227043906/http://web.mit.edu/physics/research/abcp/areas.html#amo">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+Department+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Atomic%2C+Molecular%2C+and+Optical+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fphysics%2Fresearch%2Fabcp%2Fareas.html%23amo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140301112653/http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php">"Korea University, Physics AMO Group"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php">the original</a> on 1 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aarhus+Universitet%2C+AMO+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphys.au.dk%2Fforskning%2Fforskningsomraader%2Famo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylorheinonen2002-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylorheinonen2002_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylorHeinonen2002">Taylor & Heinonen 2002</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirvinYang2019" class="citation book cs1">Girvin, Steven M.; Yang, Kun (28 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ"><i>Modern Condensed Matter Physics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-57347-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-57347-4"><bdi>978-1-108-57347-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225152053/https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Condensed+Matter+Physics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019-02-28&rft.isbn=978-1-108-57347-4&rft.aulast=Girvin&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rft.au=Yang%2C+Kun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2ESIDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cohen2008-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cohen2008_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohen2008_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohen2008_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen2008">Cohen 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moore2011-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-moore2011_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2011">Moore 2011</a>, pp. 255–258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-leggett1999-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leggett1999_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeggett1999">Leggett 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-levy2001-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-levy2001_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevy2001">Levy 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stajiccoontzosborne2011-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stajiccoontzosborne2011_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStajicCoontzOsborne2011">Stajic, Coontz & Osborne 2011</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mattis2006-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mattis2006_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattis2006">Mattis 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aps-dcmp-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aps-dcmp_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aps-dcmp_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/units/dcmp/history.cfm">"History of Condensed Matter Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912081611/http://www.aps.org/units/dcmp/history.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Condensed+Matter+Physics&rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Funits%2Fdcmp%2Fhistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-princeton-anderson-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-princeton-anderson_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/physics/people/display_person.xml?netid=pwa&display=faculty">"Philip Anderson"</a>. Princeton University, Department of Physics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111008123438/http://www.princeton.edu/physics/people/display_person.xml?netid=pwa&display=faculty">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Philip+Anderson&rft.pub=Princeton+University%2C+Department+of+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2Fphysics%2Fpeople%2Fdisplay_person.xml%3Fnetid%3Dpwa%26display%3Dfaculty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160404195943/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/astronomy/bs-in-astrophysics/">"BS in Astrophysics"</a>. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manoa.hawaii.edu/astronomy/bs-in-astrophysics/">the original</a> on 4 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BS+in+Astrophysics&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+at+Manoa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmanoa.hawaii.edu%2Fastronomy%2Fbs-in-astrophysics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa-glast-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasa-glast_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/main/questions_answers.html">"NASA – Q&A on the GLAST Mission"</a>. <i>Nasa: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</i>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 28 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090425121001/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/main/questions_answers.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nasa%3A+Fermi+Gamma-ray+Space+Telescope&rft.atitle=NASA+%E2%80%93+Q%26A+on+the+GLAST+Mission&rft.date=2008-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2FGLAST%2Fmain%2Fquestions_answers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/index.html">Nasa – Fermi Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100403041501/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/index.html">Archived</a> 3 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/unidentified_sources.html">NASA – Scientists Predict Major Discoveries for GLAST</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090302071338/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/unidentified_sources.html">Archived</a> 2 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa-glast-darkmatter-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasa-glast-darkmatter_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/dark_matter.html">"Dark Matter"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 28 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060142/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/dark_matter.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dark+Matter&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2008-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2FGLAST%2Fscience%2Fdark_matter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kerr2009-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kerr2009_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKerr2009">Kerr 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legg2006-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Legg2006_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggett2006" class="citation journal cs1">Leggett, A. J. 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Pi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-236678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-236678-6"><bdi>978-0-13-236678-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Almost+Everything%3A+The+Standard+Model%2C+the+Unsung+Triumph+of+Modern+Physics&rft.pub=Pi+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-13-236678-6&rft.aulast=Oerter&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofalmostev0000oert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenroseShimonyCartwrightHawking1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a>; Shimony, A.; Cartwright, N.; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, S.</a> (1997). <a href="/wiki/The_Large,_the_Small_and_the_Human_Mind" title="The Large, the Small and the Human Mind"><i>The Large, the Small and the Human Mind</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78572-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78572-3"><bdi>978-0-521-78572-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Large%2C+the+Small+and+the+Human+Mind&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78572-3&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Shimony%2C+A.&rft.au=Cartwright%2C+N.&rft.au=Hawking%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose, R.</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality" title="The Road to Reality"><i>The Road to Reality</i></a>. A.A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45443-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45443-4"><bdi>978-0-679-45443-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Reality&rft.pub=A.A.+Knopf&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-679-45443-4&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Alex (2006). <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34317-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34317-6"><bdi>978-0-415-34317-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-34317-6&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrödinger1983" class="citation book cs1">Schrödinger, E. (1983). <i>My View of the World</i>. Ox Bow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918024-30-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-918024-30-5"><bdi>978-0-918024-30-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+View+of+the+World&rft.pub=Ox+Bow+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-918024-30-5&rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6dinger&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrödinger1995" class="citation book cs1">Schrödinger, E. (1995). <i>The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics</i>. Ox Bow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881987-09-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881987-09-3"><bdi>978-1-881987-09-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Interpretation+of+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.pub=Ox+Bow+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-881987-09-3&rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6dinger&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2008" class="citation book cs1">Singer, C. (2008). <i>A Short History of Science to the 19th Century</i>. Streeter Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+19th+Century&rft.pub=Streeter+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001). <a href="/wiki/De_Aspectibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Aspectibus"><i>Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's </i>De Aspectibus<i>, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's </i>Kitāb al-Manāẓir<i>, 2 vols</i></a>. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 91. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5"><bdi>978-0-87169-914-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47168716">47168716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%2C+2+vols&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47168716&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-914-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. 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"Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>91</b> (4): i–clxxxi, 1–337. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3657358">10.2307/3657358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">3657358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+One&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=i-clxxxi%2C+1-337&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657358%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001b). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>91</b> (5): 339–819. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3657357">10.2307/3657357</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357">3657357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+Two&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=339-819&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657357&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657357%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStajicCoontzOsborne2011" class="citation journal cs1">Stajic, Jelena; Coontz, R.; Osborne, I. (8 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.332.6026.189">"Happy 100th, Superconductivity!"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>332</b> (6026): 189. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...332..189S">2011Sci...332..189S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.332.6026.189">10.1126/science.332.6026.189</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21474747">21474747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Happy+100th%2C+Superconductivity%21&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=6026&rft.pages=189&rft.date=2011-04-08&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21474747&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.332.6026.189&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...332..189S&rft.aulast=Stajic&rft.aufirst=Jelena&rft.au=Coontz%2C+R.&rft.au=Osborne%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.332.6026.189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHeinonen2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, P.L.; Heinonen, O. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hyx6BjEX4U8C"><i>A Quantum Approach to Condensed Matter Physics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77827-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77827-5"><bdi>978-0-521-77827-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Quantum+Approach+to+Condensed+Matter+Physics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77827-5&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=P.L.&rft.au=Heinonen%2C+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhyx6BjEX4U8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1994" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, H. (1994). <i>Early Astronomy</i>. Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiplerLlewellyn2003" class="citation book cs1">Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2003). <i>Modern Physics</i>. W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-4345-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3&rft.aulast=Tipler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToraldo_Di_Francia1976" class="citation book cs1">Toraldo Di Francia, G. (1976). <i>The Investigation of the Physical World</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plotting+the+Future+for+Computing+in+High-Energy+and+Nuclear+Physics&rft.pub=Brookhaven+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2012-06-01&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=K.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bnl.gov%2Fnewsroom%2Fnews.php%3Fa%3D23098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungFreedman2014" class="citation book cs1">Young, H.D.; Freedman, R.A. (2014). <a href="/wiki/University_Physics" title="University Physics"><i>Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update</i></a> (13th ed.). Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-292-02063-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-292-02063-1"><bdi>978-1-292-02063-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sears+and+Zemansky%27s+University+Physics+with+Modern+Physics+Technology+Update&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-292-02063-1&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=H.D.&rft.au=Freedman%2C+R.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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/></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Physics" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Physics">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Physics" class="extiw" title="c:Physics">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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title="s:Portal:Physics">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Physics" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Physics">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Physics" class="extiw" title="v:Physics">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quantamagazine.org/physics">Physics at Quanta Magazine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/">Usenet Physics FAQ</a> – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/">Website of the Nobel Prize in physics</a> – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/">World of Physics</a> – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/nphys/"><i>Nature Physics</i></a> – Academic journal</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.aps.org/">Physics</a> – Online magazine by the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a></li></ul> <pre>– Directory of physics related media </pre> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/">The Vega Science Trust</a> – Science videos, including physics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/hframe.html">HyperPhysics website</a> – Physics and astronomy mind-map from <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/">Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare</a> – Online course material from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fundamental_interactions" title="Template:Fundamental interactions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fundamental_interactions" title="Template talk:Fundamental interactions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fundamental_interactions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fundamental interactions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fundamental_interactions_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Fundamental interactions</a> of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">Physical forces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a> <ul><li>fundamental</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">residual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak interaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hypothetical forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_force" title="Fifth force">Fifth force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Glossary of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_branches_of_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_physics" title="Template talk:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Applied_and_interdisciplinary_physics" title="Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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