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[o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Word_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Word classes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sentence_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentence_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Sentence structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentence_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Modification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Loanwords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affixation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affixation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Affixation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affixation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication_and_compounding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication_and_compounding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Reduplication and compounding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication_and_compounding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" > 29 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C5%8Dng-k%C3%B3%CD%98_H%C3%A0n-g%C3%AD" title="Siōng-kó͘ Hàn-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siōng-kó͘ Hàn-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin%C3%A9s_antic" title="Xinés antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xinés antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altchinesische_Sprache" title="Altchinesische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altchinesische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chino_antiguo" title="Chino antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chino antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnova_%C4%89ina" title="Malnova ĉina – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnova ĉina" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_txinera" title="Antzinako txinera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako txinera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%87%D9%86" title="چینی کهن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چینی کهن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinois_archa%C3%AFque" title="Chinois archaïque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chinois archaïque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%EA%B3%A0_%ED%95%9C%EC%96%B4" title="상고 한어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="상고 한어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Tionghoa_Kuno" title="Bahasa Tionghoa Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Tionghoa Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_cinese_antica" title="Lingua cinese antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua cinese antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Cina_Kuna" title="Basa Cina Kuna – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Cina Kuna" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Sinica_antiqua" title="Lingua Sinica antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Sinica antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Cina_Kuno" title="Bahasa Cina Kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Cina Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B4ng-g%C5%AB_H%C3%A1ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Siông-gū Háng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Siông-gū Háng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%8F%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AA%9E" title="上古中国語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="上古中国語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelkinesisk" title="Gammelkinesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelkinesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_starochi%C5%84ski" title="Język starochiński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język starochiński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin%C3%AAs_antigo" title="Chinês antigo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Chinês antigo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнекитайский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнекитайский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Старокинески језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Старокинески језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starokineski_jezik" title="Starokineski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Starokineski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaiskiina" title="Muinaiskiina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinaiskiina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornkinesiska" title="Fornkinesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fornkinesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eski_%C3%87ince" title="Eski Çince – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eski Çince" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="قدیم چینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم چینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_H%C3%A1n_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_c%E1%BB%95" title="Tiếng Hán thượng cổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Hán thượng cổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%8F%A4%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="上古漢語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="上古漢語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Classic Chinese" redirects here. For the traditional style of <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Old Chinese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Archaic Chinese</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Characters incised on the inside base of the pot; the characters are partially simplified from pictorial forms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg/200px-British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg/300px-British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg/400px-British_Museum_Kang_Hou_Gui_Text.jpg 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="699" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Inscription on the <a href="/wiki/Kang_Hou_gui" title="Kang Hou gui">Kang Hou gui</a> (late 11th century BC)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy199761-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Ancient China</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a><a href="#cite_note-era-4">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Old Chinese</li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze script">Bronze script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/och" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:och">och</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/och">och</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/shan1294">shan1294</a></code>  Shanggu Hanyu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=79-AAA-a">79-AAA-a</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">上古漢語</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">上古汉语</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Shànggǔ hànyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Shang4-ku3 han4-yü3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ʂâŋ.kù xân.ỳ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization#Hakka" title="Guangdong Romanization">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Song-gu hon-ngi</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Seuhng-gú hon-yúh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Soeng6-gu2 hon3-jyu5</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Siōng-kó͘ hàn-gú</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a> <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization#Teochew" title="Guangdong Romanization">Peng'im</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ziên6-gou2 hang3-ghe2</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, and the ancestor of all modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-era-4">[a]</a> The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a> from around 1250 BC, in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze inscriptions</a> became plentiful during the following <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>. The latter part of the Zhou period saw a flowering of literature, including <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">classical works</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Zhuan</a>. These works served as models for Literary Chinese (or <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>), which remained the written standard until the early twentieth century, thus preserving the vocabulary and grammar of late Old Chinese. Old Chinese was written with several early forms of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracle bone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">seal scripts</a>. Throughout the Old Chinese period, there was a close correspondence between a character and a monosyllabic and monomorphemic word. Although the script is not alphabetic, the majority of characters were created based on phonetic considerations. At first, words that were difficult to represent visually were written using a "borrowed" character for a similar-sounding word (<a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus principle</a>). Later on, to reduce ambiguity, new characters were created for these phonetic borrowings by appending a <a href="/wiki/Radical_(Chinese_characters)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical (Chinese characters)">radical</a> that conveys a broad semantic category, resulting in compound xingsheng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">phono-semantic</a>) characters (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E8%81%B2%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:形聲字">形聲字</a>). For the earliest attested stage of Old Chinese of the late Shang dynasty, the phonetic information implicit in these xingsheng characters which are grouped into phonetic series, known as the <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_series_(Chinese_characters)" title="Phonetic series (Chinese characters)">xiesheng series</a>, represents the only direct source of phonological data for reconstructing the language. The corpus of xingsheng characters was greatly expanded in the following Zhou dynasty. In addition, the rhymes of the earliest recorded poems, primarily those of the <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a>, provide an extensive source of phonological information with respect to syllable finals for the Central Plains dialects during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn periods</a>. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Chu_Ci" title="Chu Ci">Chu Ci</a> provides rhyme data for the dialect spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a> region during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. These rhymes, together with clues from the phonetic components of xingsheng characters, allow most characters attested in Old Chinese to be assigned to one of 30 or 31 rhyme groups. For late Old Chinese of the Han period, the modern <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> languages, the oldest layer of <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a>, and a few early transliterations of foreign proper names, as well as names for non-native flora and fauna, also provide insights into language reconstruction. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differed from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> in lacking <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> but having initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a> of some sort, and in having voiceless <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquids</a>. Most recent reconstructions also describe Old Chinese as a language without tones, but having consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, which <a href="/wiki/Tonogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonogenesis">developed</a> into <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> distinctions in Middle Chinese. Most researchers trace the core vocabulary of Old Chinese to <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a>, with much early borrowing from neighbouring languages. During the Zhou period, the originally monosyllabic vocabulary was augmented with polysyllabic words formed by <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compounding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>, although monosyllabic vocabulary was still predominant. Unlike Middle Chinese and the modern Chinese languages, Old Chinese had a significant amount of derivational morphology. Several <a href="/wiki/Derivational_affix" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivational affix">affixes</a> have been identified, including ones for the verbification of nouns, conversion between transitive and intransitive verbs, and formation of causative verbs.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Like modern Chinese, it appears to be uninflected, though a pronoun case and number system seems to have existed during the Shang and early Zhou but was already in the process of disappearing by the Classical period.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> Likewise, by the Classical period, most morphological derivations had become unproductive or vestigial, and grammatical relationships were primarily indicated using word order and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">grammatical particles</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Middle Chinese and its southern neighbours <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vietic_languages" title="Vietic languages">Vietic</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> have similar tone systems, syllable structure, grammatical features and lack of inflection, but these are believed to be <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal features</a> spread by diffusion rather than indicating common descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19888–12-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield2005186–193-8">[7]</a> The most widely accepted hypothesis is that Chinese belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan language family">Sino-Tibetan language family</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan languages">Tibetan</a> and many other languages spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Massif" title="Southeast Asian Massif">Southeast Asian Massif</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198812–13-9">[8]</a> The evidence consists of some hundreds of proposed cognate words,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198635–164-10">[9]</a> including such basic vocabulary as the following:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198813-11">[10]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Old Chinese<a href="#cite_note-13">[b]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Tibetan" title="Old Tibetan">Old Tibetan</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>'I' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%BE#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:吾">吾</a> *ŋa<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> </td> <td>ṅa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td> <td>ṅā<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:汝">汝</a> *njaʔ<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> </td> <td style="background-color:#ccc"> </td> <td>naṅ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201248-17">[15]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'not' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:無">無</a> *mja<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> </td> <td>ma<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td> <td>ma<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'two' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:二">二</a> *njijs<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> </td> <td>gñis<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20128-20">[18]</a> </td> <td>nhac < *nhik<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20128-20">[18]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'three' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a> *sum<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> </td> <td>gsum<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td> <td>sumḥ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'five' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:五">五</a> *ŋaʔ<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> </td> <td>lṅa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td> <td>ṅāḥ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'six' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:六">六</a> *C-rjuk<a href="#cite_note-*C--25">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> </td> <td>drug<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td> <td>khrok < *khruk<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'sun' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a> *njit<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> </td> <td>ñi-ma<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20129-28">[25]</a> </td> <td>niy<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20129-28">[25]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'name' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%8D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:名">名</a> *mjeŋ<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> </td> <td>myiṅ < *myeŋ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201212-30">[27]</a> </td> <td>maññ < *miŋ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201212-30">[27]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'ear' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%B3#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:耳">耳</a> *njəʔ<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> </td> <td>rna<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201215-32">[29]</a> </td> <td>nāḥ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201215-32">[29]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'joint' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AF%80#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:節">節</a> *tsik<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> </td> <td>tshigs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20129-28">[25]</a> </td> <td>chac < *chik<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20129-28">[25]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'fish' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AD%9A#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:魚">魚</a> *ŋja<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a> </td> <td>ña < *ṅʲa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td> <td>ṅāḥ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'bitter' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8B%A6#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:苦">苦</a> *kʰaʔ<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> </td> <td>kha<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td> <td>khāḥ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'kill'</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AE%BA#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:殺">殺</a> *srjat<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> </td> <td>-sad<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201251-37">[34]</a> </td> <td>sat<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201251-37">[34]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'poison' </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:毒">毒</a> *duk<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> </td> <td>dug<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td> <td>tok < *tuk<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">[20]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> or <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008422-39">[36]</a> Although Old Chinese is by far the earliest attested member of the family, its logographic script does not clearly indicate the pronunciation of words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198814-40">[37]</a> Other difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are poorly described because they are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, including several sensitive border zones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008434–436-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198815–16-42">[39]</a> Initial consonants generally correspond regarding <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspiration</a> are much less regular, and prefixal elements vary widely between languages. Some researchers believe that both these phenomena reflect lost <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198611-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008425–426-44">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a> as reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Benedict</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Matisoff" title="James Matisoff">Matisoff</a> lacks an aspiration distinction on initial stops and affricates. Aspiration in Old Chinese often corresponds to pre-initial consonants in Tibetan and <a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese" class="mw-redirect" title="Lolo-Burmese">Lolo-Burmese</a>, and is believed to be a Chinese innovation arising from earlier prefixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200758–63-45">[42]</a> Proto-Sino-Tibetan is reconstructed with a six-vowel system as in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, with the <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman languages</a> distinguished by the <a href="/wiki/Vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel merger">merger</a> of the mid-central vowel *-ə- with *-a-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong1980476–479-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler20072,_105-47">[44]</a> The other vowels are preserved by both, with some alternation between *-e- and *-i-, and between *-o- and *-u-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007110–117-48">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Texts">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable floatright mw-collapsible {{{class}}}" style="width:22em; font-size: 88%"> <caption>Timeline of early Chinese history and available texts</caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid;"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a> 1250 BC</th><td style="border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Late Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a></li> <li>isolated inscriptions</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid;"> c. 1046 BC</th><td style="border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">bronze inscriptions</a></li> <li>early <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Shu (Documents)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Shi (Poetry)</a>, <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid;"> 771 BC</th><td style="border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Annals</a>, later Shu</li> <li>bronze inscriptions</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid;"> 476 BC</th><td style="border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a></li> <li>received <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">classic texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">excavated texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal; border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid;"> 221 BC</th><td style="border-bottom:#dcdcdc 1px solid"> <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin unification</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The earliest known written records of the Chinese language were found at the <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yinxu</a> site near modern <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a> identified as the last capital of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, and date from about 1250 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart20141-49">[46]</a> These are the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>, short inscriptions carved on turtle <a href="/wiki/Plastron" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastron">plastrons</a> and ox <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapulae</a> for divinatory purposes, as well as a few brief <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">bronze inscriptions</a>. The language written is undoubtedly an early form of Chinese, but is difficult to interpret due to the limited subject matter and high proportion of proper names. Only half of the 4,000 characters used have been identified with certainty. Little is known about the grammar of this language, but it seems much less reliant on <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">grammatical particles</a> than Classical Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199988–89-50">[47]</a> From early in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> period, around 1000 BC, the most important recovered texts are bronze inscriptions, many of considerable length.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199989-51">[48]</a> These texts are found throughout the Zhou area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr201712-52">[49]</a> Although their language changed over time, it was highly uniform across this range at each point in time, suggesting that it reflected the prestige form used by the Zhou elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr201713-53">[50]</a> Even longer pre-Classical texts on a wide range of subjects have also been transmitted through the literary tradition. The oldest sections of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a> and the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a>, also date from the early Zhou period, and closely resemble the bronze inscriptions in vocabulary, syntax, and style. A greater proportion of this more varied vocabulary has been identified than for the oracular period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199989-51">[48]</a> The four centuries preceding the unification of China in 221 BC (the later <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>) constitute the Chinese classical period in the strict sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19964-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199990-55">[52]</a> There are many bronze inscriptions from this period, but they are vastly outweighed by a rich literature written in ink on <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">bamboo and wooden slips</a> and (toward the end of the period) silk. Although these are perishable materials, a significant number of texts were transmitted as copies, and a few of these survived to the present day as the received classics. Works from this period, including the <a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Commentary of Zuo</a>, have been admired as models of prose style by later generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199990-55">[52]</a> As a result, the syntax and vocabulary of Old Chinese was preserved in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> (wenyan), the standard for formal writing in China and neighboring <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">Sinosphere</a> countries until the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198883–84-56">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19963-57">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Script">Script</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Script">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of bone fragment with carved characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/170px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/255px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/340px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2669" /></a><figcaption>Shang dynasty oracle bone script on an ox scapula</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></div> Each character of the script represented a single Old Chinese <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, originally identical to a word. Most scholars believe that these words were monosyllabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198858-58">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">William Baxter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> propose that some words consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllable</a> followed by a full syllable, as in modern <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>, but still written with a single character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201450–53-59">[56]</a> The development of characters to signify the words of the language follows the same three stages that characterized <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199452–72-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999109-61">[58]</a> Some words could be represented by pictures (later stylized) such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a> rì 'sun', <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a> rén 'person' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%A8#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:木">木</a> mù 'tree, wood', by abstract symbols such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a> sān 'three' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a> shàng 'up', or by composite symbols such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:林">林</a> lín 'forest' (two trees). About 1,000 of the oracle bone characters, nearly a quarter of the total, are of this type, though 300 of them have not yet been deciphered. Though the pictographic origins of these characters are apparent, they have already undergone extensive simplification and conventionalization. Evolved forms of most of these characters are still in common use today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201236-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199452–57-63">[60]</a> Next, words that could not be represented pictorially, such as abstract terms and grammatical particles, were signified by borrowing characters of pictorial origin representing similar-sounding words (the "<a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus</a> strategy"):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199459–62-64">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999114–118-65">[62]</a> <ul><li>The word lì 'tremble' was originally written with the character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A0%97#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:栗">栗</a> for lì 'chestnut'.<a href="#cite_note-GSR_403-66">[63]</a></li> <li>The pronoun and modal particle qí was written with the character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%B6#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:其">其</a> originally representing jī 'winnowing basket'.<a href="#cite_note-GSR_952-67">[64]</a></li></ul> Sometimes the borrowed character would be modified slightly to distinguish it from the original, as with <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:毋">毋</a> wú 'don't', a borrowing of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%8D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:母">母</a> mǔ 'mother'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201236-62">[59]</a> Later, phonetic loans were systematically disambiguated by the addition of semantic indicators, usually to the less common word: <ul><li>The word lì 'tremble' was later written with the character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%84#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:慄">慄</a>, formed by adding the symbol <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%84#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:忄">忄</a>, a variant of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:心">心</a> xīn 'heart'.<a href="#cite_note-GSR_403-66">[63]</a></li> <li>The less common original word jī 'winnowing basket' came to be written with the compound <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AE%95#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:箕">箕</a>, obtained by adding the symbol <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%B9#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:竹">竹</a> zhú 'bamboo' to the character.<a href="#cite_note-GSR_952-67">[64]</a></li></ul> Such phono-semantic compound characters were already used extensively on the oracle bones, and the vast majority of characters created since then have been of this type.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199467–72-68">[65]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a>, a dictionary compiled in the 2nd century, 82% of the 9,353 characters are classified as phono-semantic compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201236–37-69">[66]</a> In the light of the modern understanding of Old Chinese phonology, researchers now believe that most of the characters originally classified as semantic compounds also have a phonetic nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994147–149-70">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200931–32,_35-71">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TaiYiShengShui1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of strips of bamboo with vertical writing in an early Chinese seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/TaiYiShengShui1.jpg/220px-TaiYiShengShui1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/TaiYiShengShui1.jpg/330px-TaiYiShengShui1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/TaiYiShengShui1.jpg/440px-TaiYiShengShui1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guodian_Chu_Slips" title="Guodian Chu Slips">Guodian Chu Slips</a> (c. 300 BC) with transcriptions in modern characters</figcaption></figure> These developments were already present in the oracle bone script,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999110-72">[69]</a> possibly implying a significant period of development prior to the extant inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198858-58">[55]</a> This may have involved writing on perishable materials, as suggested by the appearance on oracle bones of the character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%8A#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:冊">冊</a> cè 'records'. The character is thought to depict bamboo or wooden strips tied together with leather thongs, a writing material known from later archaeological finds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999107-73">[70]</a> Development and simplification of the script continued during the pre-Classical and Classical periods, with characters becoming less pictorial and more linear and regular, with rounded strokes being replaced by sharp angles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198861–62-74">[71]</a> The language developed compound words, though almost all constituent morphemes could also be used as independent words. Hundreds of morphemes of two or more syllables also entered the language, and were written with one phono-semantic compound character per syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994171–172-75">[72]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, writing became more widespread, with further simplification and variation, particularly in the eastern states. The most conservative script prevailed in the western state of <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a>, which would later impose its standard on the whole of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198862–63-76">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old Chinese phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Reconstructions of Old Chinese</a></div> Old Chinese phonology has been reconstructed using a unique method relying on textual sources. The starting point is the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> dictionary (601 AD), which classifies the reading pronunciation of each character found in texts to that time within a precise, but abstract, phonological system. Scholars have sought to assign phonetic values to these <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> categories by comparing them with modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic pronunciations">Sino-Xenic pronunciations</a> and transcriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart19999-77">[74]</a> Next, the phonology of Old Chinese is reconstructed by comparing the Qieyun categories to the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry (early 1st millennium BC) and the shared phonetic components of Chinese characters, some of which are slightly older.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart199910-78">[75]</a> More recent efforts have supplemented this method with evidence from Old Chinese <a href="/wiki/Derivational_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivational morphology">derivational morphology</a>, from Chinese varieties preserving distinctions not found in the Qieyun, such as <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waxiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Waxiang">Waxiang</a>, and from early transcriptions and loans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart20143–4,_30–37-79">[76]</a> Although many details are still disputed, recent formulations are in substantial agreement on the core issues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2009x-80">[77]</a> For example, the Old Chinese initial consonants recognized by <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">William Baxter</a> are given below, with Baxter's (mostly tentative) additions given in parentheses:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi1974–1975237-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198846-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992188–215-83">[80]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align: center;"> <caption>Reconstructed Old Chinese initial consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> <a href="#cite_note-85">[d]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th>labialized </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a> or <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td>*p</td> <td>*t</td> <td>*ts</td> <td></td> <td>*k</td> <td>*kʷ</td> <td>*ʔ</td> <td>*ʔʷ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirate</a> </th> <td>*pʰ</td> <td>*tʰ</td> <td>*tsʰ</td> <td></td> <td>*kʰ</td> <td>*kʷʰ</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td>*b</td> <td>*d</td> <td>*dz</td> <td></td> <td>*ɡ</td> <td>*ɡʷ</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <th>voiceless </th> <td>*m̥</td> <td>*n̥</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*ŋ̊</td> <td>*ŋ̊ʷ</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>voiced </th> <td>*m</td> <td>*n</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*ŋ</td> <td>*ŋʷ</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <th>voiceless </th> <td></td> <td>*l̥</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>voiced </th> <td></td> <td>*l</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">approximant</a> </th> <th>voiceless </th> <td></td> <td>(*r̥)</td> <td>*s</td> <td>(*j̊)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*h</td> <td>*hʷ </td></tr> <tr> <th>voiced </th> <td></td> <td>*r</td> <td>(*z)</td> <td>(*j)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>(*ɦ)</td> <td>(*w) </td></tr></tbody></table> Various initial clusters have been proposed, especially clusters of *s- with other consonants, but this area remains unsettled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992222–232-86">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a> and many later scholars posited the medials *-r-, *-j- and the combination *-rj- to explain the retroflex and palatal <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> of Middle Chinese, as well as many of its vowel contrasts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992235–236-87">[83]</a> *-r- is generally accepted. However, although the distinction denoted by *-j- is universally accepted, its realization as a palatal glide has been challenged on a number of grounds, and a variety of different realizations have been used in recent constructions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200795-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201468–71-89">[85]</a> Reconstructions since the 1980s usually propose six <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992180-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[f]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; width: 9em; text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>*i</td> <td>*ə</td> <td>*u </td></tr> <tr> <td>*e</td> <td>*a</td> <td>*o </td></tr></tbody></table> Vowels could optionally be followed by the same codas as in Middle Chinese: a glide *-j or *-w, a nasal *-m, *-n or *-ŋ, or a stop *-p, *-t or *-k. Some scholars also allow for a labiovelar coda *-kʷ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992291-96">[90]</a> Most scholars now believe that Old Chinese lacked the <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a> found in later stages of the language, but had optional post-codas *-ʔ and *-s, which developed into the Middle Chinese rising and departing tones respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992181–183-97">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese grammar</a></div> Little is known of the grammar of the language of the Oracular and pre-Classical periods, as the texts are often of a ritual or formulaic nature, and much of their vocabulary has not been deciphered. In contrast, the rich literature of the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> has been extensively analysed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerforth200359-98">[92]</a> Having no <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, Old Chinese was heavily reliant on word order, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">grammatical particles</a>, and inherent <a href="/wiki/Word_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Word class">word classes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerforth200359-98">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200712-99">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_classes">Word classes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Word classes">edit</a>]</div> Classifying Old Chinese words is not always straightforward, as words were not marked for function, word classes overlapped, and words of one class could sometimes be used in roles normally reserved for a different class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887–88-100">[94]</a> The task is more difficult with written texts than it would have been for speakers of Old Chinese, because the derivational morphology is often hidden by the writing system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerforth200360-101">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201341–42-102">[96]</a> For example, the verb *sək 'to block' and the derived noun *səks 'frontier' were both written with the same character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A1%9E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:塞">塞</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992136-103">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal pronouns</a> exhibit a wide variety of forms in Old Chinese texts, possibly due to dialectal variation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198889-104">[98]</a> There were two groups of first-person pronouns:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198889-104">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199676-105">[99]</a> <ul><li>*lja <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BD%99#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:余">余</a>, *ljaʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%88#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:予">予</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[g]</a> *ljə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:台">台</a> and *lrjəmʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%95#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:朕">朕</a></li> <li>*ŋa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%BE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:吾">吾</a>, *ŋajʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%91#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:我">我</a> and *ŋaŋ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%AC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:卬">卬</a></li></ul> In the oracle bone inscriptions, the *l- pronouns were used by the king to refer to himself, and the *ŋ- forms for the Shang people as a whole. This distinction is largely absent in later texts, and the *l- forms disappeared during the classical period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199676-105">[99]</a> In the post-Han period, 我 (modern Mandarin wǒ) came to be used as the general first-person pronoun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988118-108">[101]</a> Second-person pronouns included *njaʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:汝">汝</a>, *njəjʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%BE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:爾">爾</a>, *njə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%8C#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:而">而</a> and *njak <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8B%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:若">若</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199677-109">[102]</a> The forms 汝 and 爾 continued to be used interchangeably until their replacement by the northwestern variant <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BD%A0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:你">你</a> (modern Mandarin nǐ) in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198889,_118-110">[103]</a> However, in some <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> dialects the second-person pronoun is derived from 汝.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart1999143-111">[104]</a> Case distinctions were particularly marked among third-person pronouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201343-112">[105]</a> There was no third-person subject pronoun, but *tjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:之">之</a>, originally a distal <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a>, came to be used as a third-person object pronoun in the classical period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201343-112">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199679-113">[106]</a> The possessive pronoun was originally *kjot <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:厥">厥</a>, replaced in the classical period by *ɡjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%B6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:其">其</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199680-114">[107]</a> In the post-Han period, 其 came to be used as the general third-person pronoun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988118-108">[101]</a> It survives in some <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> dialects, but has been replaced by a variety of forms elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988118-108">[101]</a> There were demonstrative and <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronoun">interrogative pronouns</a>, but no <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a> with the meanings 'something' or 'nothing'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198890–91-115">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">distributive pronouns</a> were formed with a *-k suffix:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891-116">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200770,_457-117">[110]</a> <ul><li>*djuk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:孰">孰</a> 'which one' from *djuj <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AA%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:誰">誰</a> 'who'</li> <li>*kak <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:各">各</a> 'each one' from *kjaʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:舉">舉</a> 'all'</li> <li>*wək <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:或">或</a> 'someone' from *wjəʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:有">有</a> 'there is'</li> <li>*mak <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8E%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:莫">莫</a> 'no-one' from *mja <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:無">無</a> 'there is no'</li></ul> As in the modern language, localizers (compass directions, 'above', 'inside' and the like) could be placed after nouns to indicate relative positions. They could also precede verbs to indicate the direction of the action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891-116">[109]</a> Nouns denoting times were another special class (time words); they usually preceded the subject to specify the time of an action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891,_94-118">[111]</a> However the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">classifiers</a> so characteristic of Modern Chinese only became common in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han period</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988115–116-119">[112]</a> Old Chinese <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>, like their modern counterparts, did not show tense or aspect; these could be indicated with adverbs or particles if required. Verbs could be <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intransitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Intransitive">intransitive</a>. As in the modern language, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> were a special kind of intransitive verb, and a few transitive verbs could also function as <a href="/wiki/Modal_auxiliary" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal auxiliary">modal auxiliaries</a> or as <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891–94-120">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverbs</a> described the scope of a statement or various temporal relationships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894-121">[114]</a> They included two families of negatives starting with *p- and *m-, such as *pjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:不">不</a> and *mja <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:無">無</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198897–98-122">[115]</a> Modern northern varieties derive the usual negative from the first family, while southern varieties preserve the second.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007172–173,_518–519-123">[116]</a> The language had no adverbs of degree until late in the Classical period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_127-124">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese particle">Particles</a> were <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a> serving a range of purposes. As in the modern language, there were sentence-final particles marking <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yes/no_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes/no question">yes/no questions</a>. Other sentence-final particles expressed a range of connotations, the most important being *ljaj <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:也">也</a>, expressing static factuality, and *ɦjəʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:矣">矣</a>, implying a change. Other particles included the subordination marker *tjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:之">之</a> and the nominalizing particles *tjaʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:者">者</a> (agent) and *srjaʔ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%89%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:所">所</a> (object).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_98–100,_105–106-125">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunctions</a> could join nouns or clauses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_106–108-126">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentence_structure">Sentence structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sentence structure">edit</a>]</div> As with English and modern Chinese, Old Chinese sentences can be analysed as a <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> (a noun phrase, sometimes understood) followed by a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>, which could be of either nominal or verbal type.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199613–14-127">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198895-128">[121]</a> Before the Classical period, nominal predicates consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copular</a> particle *wjij <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%83%9F#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:惟">惟</a> followed by a noun phrase:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199622-129">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714-130">[123]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">予*ljaʔI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">惟*wjij<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="'be' verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">BE</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">小*sjewʔsmall</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">子*tsjəʔchild</div>予惟小子*ljaʔ *wjij *sjewʔ *tsjəʔI BE small child'I am a young person.' ("Great Announcement", <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714-130">[123]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The negated copula *pjə-wjij <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:不">不</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%83%9F#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:惟">惟</a> is attested in oracle bone inscriptions, and later fused as *pjəj <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%9E#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:非">非</a>. In the Classical period, nominal predicates were constructed with the sentence-final particle *ljaj <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%9F#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:也">也</a> instead of the copula 惟, but 非 was retained as the negative form, with which 也 was optional:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199616–18,_22-131">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007232-132">[125]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">其*ɡjəits</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">至*tjitsarrive</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">爾*njəjʔyou</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">力*C-rjəkstrength</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">也*ljajʔ<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="final particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">其*ɡjəits</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">中*k-ljuŋcentre</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">非*pjəj<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">爾*njəjʔyou</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">力*C-rjəkstrength</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">也*ljajʔ<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="final particle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FP</abbr></div>其至爾力也其中非爾力也*ɡjə *tjits *njəjʔ *C-rjək *ljajʔ *ɡjə *k-ljuŋ *pjəj *njəjʔ *C-rjək *ljajʔits arrive you strength FP its centre NEG you strength FP(of shooting at a mark a hundred paces distant) 'That you reach it is owing to your strength, but that you hit the mark is not owing to your strength.' (<a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a> 10.1/51/13)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerforth200360-101">[95]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The copular verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a> (shì) of Literary and Modern Chinese dates from the Han period. In Old Chinese the word was a near <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> ('this').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988125–126-133">[126]</a> As in Modern Chinese, but unlike most Tibeto-Burman languages, the basic word order in a verbal sentence was <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199614-134">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198810–11,_96-135">[128]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">孟子*mraŋs-*tsjəʔMencius</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">見*kenssee</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">梁*C-rjaŋLiang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">惠*wetsHui</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">王*wjaŋking</div>孟子見梁惠王*mraŋs-*tsjəʔ *kens *C-rjaŋ *wets *wjaŋMencius see Liang Hui king'Mencius saw King Hui of Liang.' (Mencius 1.1/1/3)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199613-136">[129]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Besides inversions for emphasis, there were two exceptions to this rule: a pronoun object of a negated sentence or an interrogative pronoun object would be placed before the verb:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199614-134">[127]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">歲*swjatsyear</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">不*pjə<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">我*ŋajʔme</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">與*ljaʔwait</div>歲不我與*swjats *pjə *ŋajʔ *ljaʔyear NEG me wait'The years do not wait for us.' (<a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a> 17.1/47/23)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> An additional noun phrase could be placed before the subject to serve as the <a href="/wiki/Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">topic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerforth200366–67-137">[130]</a> Like the modern language, Old Chinese used in situ questions, forming <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no questions</a> by adding a sentence-final particle, and <a href="/wiki/Open_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="Open questions">open questions</a> by substituting an <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronoun">interrogative pronoun</a> for the requested element.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198890–91,_98–99-138">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modification">Modification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modification">edit</a>]</div> In general, Old Chinese modifiers preceded the words they modified. Thus <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a> were placed before the noun, usually marked by the particle *tjə 之 (in a role similar to Modern Chinese de 的):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199662-139">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988104–105-140">[133]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">不*pjə<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">忍*njənʔendure</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">人*njinperson</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">之*tjə<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="relative(izer)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REL</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">心*sjəmheart</div>不忍人之心*pjə *njənʔ *njin *tjə *sjəmNEG endure person REL heart'... the heart that cannot bear the afflictions of others.' (Mencius 3.6/18/4)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199662-139">[132]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> A common instance of this construction was adjectival modification, since the Old Chinese adjective was a type of verb (as in the modern language), but 之 was usually omitted after monosyllabic adjectives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199662-139">[132]</a> Similarly, adverbial modifiers, including various forms of negation, usually occurred before the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988105-141">[134]</a> As in the modern language, time <a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">adjuncts</a> occurred either at the start of the sentence or before the verb, depending on their scope, while duration adjuncts were placed after the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988103–104-142">[135]</a> Instrumental and place adjuncts were usually placed after the verb phrase. These later moved to a position before the verb, as in the modern language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988103,_130–131-143">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> The improved understanding of Old Chinese <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> has enabled the study of the origins of Chinese words (rather than the characters with which they are written). Most researchers trace the core vocabulary to a <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> ancestor language, with much early borrowing from other neighbouring languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007xi,_1–5,_7–8-144">[137]</a> The traditional view was that Old Chinese was an <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">isolating language</a>. Linguists still believe that the language lacked <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, but it has become clear that words could be formed by <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational affixation</a>, reduplication and compounding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200712-99">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199835–36-145">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loanwords">Loanwords</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Loanwords">edit</a>]</div> During the Old Chinese period, Chinese civilization expanded from a compact area around the lower <a href="/wiki/Wei_River" title="Wei River">Wei River</a> and middle <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> eastwards across the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a> to <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and then south into the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>. There are no records of the non-Chinese languages formerly spoken in those areas and subsequently displaced by the Chinese expansion. However they are believed to have contributed to the vocabulary of Old Chinese, and may be the source of some of the many Chinese words whose origins are still unknown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19884,_16–17-146">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199975–76-147">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei Tsu-lin</a> have identified early <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> loanwords in Old Chinese, possibly from the peoples of the lower <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> basin known to ancient Chinese as the <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Yue</a>. For example, the early Chinese name *kroŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:江">江</a> jiāng) for the Yangtze was later extended to a general word for 'river' in south China. Norman and Mei suggest that the word is cognate with <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> sông (from *krong) and <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a> kruŋ 'river'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976280–283-148">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198817–18-149">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992573-150">[143]</a> Haudricourt and Strecker have proposed a number of borrowings from the <a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien languages</a>. These include terms related to <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> cultivation, which began in the middle Yangtze valley: <ul><li>*ʔjaŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A7%A7#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:秧">秧</a> yāng) 'rice seedling' from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien">proto-Hmong–Mien</a> *jaŋA,<a href="#cite_note-151">[144]</a></li> <li>*luʔ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A8%BB#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:稻">稻</a> dào) 'unhulled rice' from proto-Hmong–Mien *mblauA.<a href="#cite_note-152">[145]</a></li></ul> Other words are believed to have been borrowed from languages to the south of the Chinese area, but it is not clear which was the original source, e.g. <ul><li>*zjaŋʔ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B1%A1#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:象">象</a> xiàng) 'elephant' can be compared with Mon coiŋ, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tai" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tai">proto-Tai</a> *jaŋC and Burmese chaŋ.<a href="#cite_note-153">[146]</a></li> <li>*ke (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9E#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雞">雞</a> jī) 'chicken' versus proto-Tai *kəiB, proto-Hmong–Mien *kai and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Viet%E2%80%93Muong" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Viet–Muong">proto-Viet–Muong</a> *r-ka.<a href="#cite_note-154">[147]</a></li></ul> In ancient times, the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> was occupied by speakers of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a>, the source of *mjit (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9C%9C#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蜜">蜜</a> mì) 'honey', from proto-Tocharian *ḿət(ə) (where *ḿ is <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a>; cf. Tocharian B mit), cognate with English <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mead" class="extiw" title="wikt:mead">mead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[h]</a> The northern neighbours of Chinese contributed such words as *dok (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8A%A2#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:犢">犢</a> dú) 'calf' – compare <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a> tuɣul and <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> tuqšan.<a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affixation">Affixation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Affixation">edit</a>]</div> Chinese philologists have long noted words with related meanings and similar pronunciations, sometimes written using the same character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201576-160">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart19991-161">[153]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henri_Maspero" title="Henri Maspero">Henri Maspero</a> attributed some of these alternations to consonant clusters resulting from derivational affixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero1930323–324-162">[154]</a> Subsequent work has identified several such affixes, some of which appear to have cognates in other Sino-Tibetan languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201453–60-163">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714–22-164">[156]</a> A few of these were still productive or transparent in Old Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200717-165">[157]</a> A common case is "derivation by tone change", in which words in the departing tone appear to be derived from words in other tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowner1959258–259-166">[158]</a> If Haudricourt's theory of the origin of the departing tone is accepted, these tonal derivations can be interpreted as the result of a derivational suffix *-s with a range of functions. As Tibetan has a similar suffix, it may be inherited from Sino-Tibetan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315–317-167">[159]</a> The most common function was <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalization</a> of verbs, as in the following examples:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315-168">[160]</a> <ul><li>*drjon (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:傳">傳</a> chuán) 'to transmit' and *drjons (傳 zhuàn) 'a record'<a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a></li> <li>*nup (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B4%8D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:納">納</a> nà) 'to bring in' and *nuts < *nups (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:內">內</a> nèi) 'inside'<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a></li> <li>*tjək (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B9%94#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:織">織</a> zhī) 'to weave' and *tjəks (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B9%94#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:織">織</a> zhì) 'silk cloth' (compare Written Tibetan ʼthag 'to weave' and thags 'woven, cloth')<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a></li></ul> The *-s suffix also formed <a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">denominal verbs</a>, as in these examples:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992316-172">[164]</a> <ul><li>*kon (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%A0#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:冠">冠</a> guān) 'cap' and *kons (冠 guàn) 'to cap'<a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a></li> <li>*ʔjəj (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A3#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:衣">衣</a> yī) 'clothes' and *ʔjəjs (衣 yì) 'to wear, to clothe'<a href="#cite_note-174">[166]</a></li> <li>*wjaŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:王">王</a> wáng) 'king' and *wjaŋs (王 wàng) 'be king'<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a></li></ul> Another alternation involves transitive verbs with an unvoiced initial and passive or stative verbs with a voiced initial:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200749-176">[168]</a> <ul><li>*kens (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A6%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:見">見</a> jiàn) 'to see' and *ɡens (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:現">現</a> xiàn) 'to appear'<a href="#cite_note-177">[169]</a></li> <li>*kraw (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%A4#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:交">交</a> jiāo) 'to mix' and *ɡraw (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AE%BD#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:殽">殽</a> yáo) 'mixed, confused'<a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a></li> <li>*trjaŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B5#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:張">張</a> zhāng) 'to stretch' and *drjaŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%95%B7#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:長">長</a> cháng) 'long'<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a></li></ul> Some scholars hold that the transitive verbs with voiceless initials are basic and the voiced initials reflect a de-transitivizing nasal prefix.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_68–69-180">[172]</a> Others suggest that the transitive verbs were derived by the addition of a causative prefix *s- to a stative verb, causing devoicing of the following voiced initial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_70–71-181">[173]</a> Both postulated prefixes have parallels in other Sino-Tibetan languages, in some of which they are still productive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201265–68-182">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESun2014638–640-183">[175]</a> Several other affixes have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199845–64-184">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200738–50-185">[177]</a> The derivational affixes lost their productivity towards the end of the Zhou period, and their functions were taken over by forms such as auxiliary verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201342-186">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduplication_and_compounding">Reduplication and compounding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reduplication and compounding">edit</a>]</div> Old Chinese morphemes were originally monosyllabic, but during the Western Zhou period many new disyllabic words entered the language. By the classical period, 25–30% of the lexicon was polysyllabic, though monosyllabic words occurred more frequently and made up 80–90% of the text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222–23-187">[179]</a> Disyllabic morphemes include the <a href="/wiki/The_Butterfly_Dream" class="mw-redirect" title="The Butterfly Dream">famous</a> *ɡa-lep (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E8%9D%B6#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:胡蝶">胡蝶</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[i]</a> húdié) 'butterfly' from the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992411-191">[182]</a> Many disyllabic, monomorphemic words, particularly names of insects, birds and plants, and expressive adjectives and adverbs, were formed by varieties of <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887-192">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[j]</a> <ul><li>full reduplication (diézì 疊字 'repeated words'), in which the syllable is repeated, as in *ʔjuj-ʔjuj (威威 wēiwēi) 'tall and grand' and *ljo-ljo (俞俞 yúyú) 'happy and at ease'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887-192">[183]</a></li> <li>rhyming semi-reduplication (diéyùn 疊韻 'repeated rhymes'), in which only the final is repeated, as in *ʔiwʔ-liwʔ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AA%88%E7%AA%95#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:窈窕">窈窕</a> yǎotiǎo) 'elegant, beautiful' and *meŋ-reŋ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9E%9F%E8%9B%89#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:螟蛉">螟蛉</a> mínglíng) 'bollworm'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887-192">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865-194">[184]</a> The initial of the second syllable is often *l- or *r-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200724-195">[185]</a></li> <li>alliterative semi-reduplication (shuāngshēng 雙聲 'paired initials'), in which the initial is repeated, as in *tsʰrjum-tsʰrjaj (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%83%E5%B7%AE#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:參差">參差</a> cēncī) 'irregular, uneven' and *ba-bjək (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8C%8D%E5%8C%90#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:匍匐">匍匐</a> púfú) 'to crawl'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887-192">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865-194">[184]</a></li> <li>vowel alternation, especially of *-e- and *-o-, as in *tsʰjek-tsʰjok (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%88%BA%E4%BF%83#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:刺促">刺促</a> qìcù) 'busy' and *ɡreʔ-ɡroʔ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%82%82%E9%80%85#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:邂逅">邂逅</a> xièhòu) 'carefree and happy'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865–66-196">[186]</a> Alternation between *-i- and *-u- also occurred, as in *pjit-pjut (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%B1%E6%B2%B8#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:觱沸">觱沸</a> bìfú) 'rushing (of wind or water)' and *srjit-srjut (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9F%8B%E8%9F%80#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蟋蟀">蟋蟀</a> xīshuài) 'cricket'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199866-197">[187]</a></li></ul> More words, especially nouns, were formed by <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compounding</a>, including: <ul><li>qualification of one noun by another (placed in front), as in *mok-kʷra (木瓜 mùguā) 'quince' (literally 'tree-melon'), and *trjuŋ-njit (中日 zhōngrì) 'noon' (literally 'middle-day').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199867-198">[188]</a></li> <li>verb–object compounds, as in *sjə-mraʔ (司馬 sīmǎ) 'master of the household' (literally 'manage-horse'), and *tsak-tsʰrek (作册 zuòcè) 'scribe' (literally 'make-writing').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199868-199">[189]</a></li></ul> However the components of compounds were not <a href="/wiki/Bound_morpheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound morpheme">bound morphemes</a>: they could still be used separately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198886-200">[190]</a> Compounding became more productive during the following Han period and has continued to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988112–117,_156-201">[191]</a> A number of bimorphemic syllables appeared in the Classical period, resulting from the fusion of words with following unstressed particles or pronouns. Thus the negatives *pjut <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:弗">弗</a> and *mjut <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%BF#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:勿">勿</a> are viewed as fusions of the negators *pjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:不">不</a> and *mjo <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:毋">毋</a> respectively with a third-person pronoun *tjə <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8B#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:之">之</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198885,_98-202">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-era-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-era_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-era_4-1">b</a> The time interval assigned to Old Chinese varies between authors. Some scholars limit it to the early <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a>, based on the availability of documentary evidence of the phonology. Many include the whole Zhou period and often the earliest written evidence from the late <a href="/wiki/Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Shang">Shang</a>, while some also include the Qin, Han and occasionally even later periods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaiChan1999225–233-2">[2]</a> The ancestor of the oldest layer of the <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> languages is believed to have split off from the other varieties of Chinese during the Han dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-3">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Reconstructed Old Chinese forms are starred, and follow <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a> with some graphical substitutions from his more recent work: *ə for *ɨ<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007122-12">[11]</a> and consonants rendered according to IPA conventions. </li> <li id="cite_note-*C--25"><a href="#cite_ref-*C-_25-0">^</a> The notation "*C-" indicates that there is evidence of an Old Chinese consonant before *r, but the particular consonant cannot be identified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992201-24">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Baxter describes his reconstruction of the palatal initials as "especially tentative, being based largely on scanty graphic evidence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992203-84">[81]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> The vowel here written as *ə is treated as *ɨ, *ə or *ɯ by different authors. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> The six-vowel system represents a re-analysis of a system proposed by Li and still used by some authors, comprising four vowels *i, *u, *ə and *a and three diphthongs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi1974–1975247-92">[87]</a> Li's diphthongs *ia and *ua correspond to *e and *o respectively, while Li's *iə becomes *i or *ə in different contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992253–256-93">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2003556–557-94">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> In the later reading tradition, 予 (when used as a pronoun) is treated as a graphical variant of 余. In the Shijing, however, both pronoun and verb usages of 予 rhyme in the rising tone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199676-105">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992805-106">[100]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Jacques</a> proposed a different, unattested, Tocharian form as the source.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacques2014-156">[149]</a> Meier and Peyrot recently defended the traditional Tocharian etymology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeierPeyrot2017-157">[150]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> During the Old Chinese period, the word for butterfly was written as 胡蝶.<a href="#cite_note-188">[180]</a> During later centuries, the 'insect' radical (虫) was added to the first character to give the modern 蝴蝶. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> All examples are found in the Shijing. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy199761-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy199761_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaughnessy1997">Shaughnessy (1997)</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaiChan1999225–233-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaiChan1999225–233_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaiChan1999">Tai & Chan (1999)</a>, pp. 225–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). "Morphology in Old Chinese". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 28 (1): 26–51. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23754003">23754003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Morphology+in+Old+Chinese&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-51&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23754003%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang,_Li,_1900–1986.王力,_1900–19861980" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Li, 1900–1986.; 王力, 1900–1986 (1980). Han yu shi gao (2010 reprint ed.). Beijing: Zhonghua shu ju. pp. 302–311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7101015530" title="Special:BookSources/7101015530"><bdi>7101015530</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17030714">17030714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han+yu+shi+gao&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=302-311&rft.edition=2010+reprint&rft.pub=Zhonghua+shu+ju&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17030714&rft.isbn=7101015530&rft.au=Wang%2C+Li%2C+1900%E2%80%931986.&rft.au=%E7%8E%8B%E5%8A%9B%2C+1900%E2%80%931986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19888–12-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19888–12_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 8–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnfield2005186–193-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnfield2005186–193_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnfield2005">Enfield (2005)</a>, pp. 186–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198812–13-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198812–13_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198635–164-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198635–164_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin1986">Coblin (1986)</a>, pp. 35–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198813-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198813_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007122-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007122_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 58f; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201246-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201246_15-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 94j; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 453. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201248-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201248_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 103a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 564a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20128-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20128_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20128_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 648a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 785. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201227-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201227_22-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 58a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 795. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992201-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992201_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 1032a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 774. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 404a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 785. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill20129-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20129_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20129_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20129_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill20129_28-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 826a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 777. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201212-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201212_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201212_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 981a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 756. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201215-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201215_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201215_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 399e; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 768. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 79a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 49u; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 771. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 319d; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill201251-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201251_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill201251_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 1016a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 520. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008422-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2008422_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2008">Handel (2008)</a>, p. 422. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198814-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198814_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008434–436-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2008434–436_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2008">Handel (2008)</a>, pp. 434–436. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198815–16-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198815–16_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 15–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198611-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198611_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin1986">Coblin (1986)</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2008425–426-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2008425–426_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2008">Handel (2008)</a>, pp. 425–426. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200758–63-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200758–63_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 58–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong1980476–479-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong1980476–479_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGong1980">Gong (1980)</a>, pp. 476–479. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler20072,_105-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler20072,_105_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 2, 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007110–117-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007110–117_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 110–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart20141-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart20141_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199988–89-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199988–89_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199989-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199989_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199989_51-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr201712-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr201712_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBehr2017">Behr (2017)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr201713-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehr201713_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBehr2017">Behr (2017)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19964-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19964_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199990-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199990_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199990_55-1">b</a> <a 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href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199677-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199677_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198889,_118-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198889,_118_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 89, 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart1999143-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart1999143_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSagart1999">Sagart (1999)</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201343-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAldridge201343_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAldridge201343_112-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAldridge2013">Aldridge (2013)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199679-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199679_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199680-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199680_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198890–91-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198890–91_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 90–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198891_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198891_116-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200770,_457-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200770,_457_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 70, 457. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891,_94-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198891,_94_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 91, 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988115–116-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988115–116_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 115–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198891–94-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198891–94_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 91–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198894_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198897–98-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198897–98_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 97–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007172–173,_518–519-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007172–173,_518–519_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 172–173, 518–519. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_127-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_127_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 94, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_98–100,_105–106-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_98–100,_105–106_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 94, 98–100, 105–106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_106–108-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198894,_106–108_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 94, 106–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199613–14-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199613–14_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198895-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198895_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199622-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199622_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1996">Pulleyblank (1996)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714-130">^ <a 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(1996)</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988104–105-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988104–105_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 104–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988105-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988105_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988103–104-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988103–104_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 103–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988103,_130–131-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988103,_130–131_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 103, 130–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007xi,_1–5,_7–8-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007xi,_1–5,_7–8_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. xi, 1–5, 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199835–36-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199835–36_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, pp. 35–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman19884,_16–17-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman19884,_16–17_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 4, 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199975–76-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199975–76_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976280–283-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976280–283_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNormanMei1976">Norman & Mei (1976)</a>, pp. 280–283. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198817–18-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198817–18_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992573-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992573_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 573. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaudricourtStrecker1991">Haudricourt & Strecker (1991)</a>, p. 338; <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 556–557. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaudricourtStrecker1991">Haudricourt & Strecker (1991)</a>, pp. 338–339; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 753; <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 1078h; <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 207–208. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 19; <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 728a; OC from <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 292; <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 876n; OC from <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 578. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 383; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 191; <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 405r; Proto-Tocharian and Tocharian B forms from <a href="#CITEREFPeyrot2008">Peyrot (2008)</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacques2014-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacques2014_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacques2014">Jacques (2014)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeierPeyrot2017-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeierPeyrot2017_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeierPeyrot2017">Meier & Peyrot (2017)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 18; <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 1023l. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201576-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201576_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2015">Handel (2015)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart19991-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart19991_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSagart1999">Sagart (1999)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero1930323–324-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaspero1930323–324_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaspero1930">Maspero (1930)</a>, pp. 323–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201453–60-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201453–60_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 53–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714–22-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200714–22_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 14–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200717-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200717_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowner1959258–259-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowner1959258–259_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowner1959">Downer (1959)</a>, pp. 258–259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315–317-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315–317_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 315–317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992315_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 943a'. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 695h,e; <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 920f; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 178; <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992316-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992316_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 316. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 160a. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 550a. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 160a. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200749-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200749_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 241a,e; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 1166a, 1167e; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 801. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 721h,a; <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_68–69-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_68–69_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2012">Handel (2012)</a>, pp. 63–64, 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_70–71-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201263–64,_70–71_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2012">Handel (2012)</a>, pp. 63–64, 70–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201265–68-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201265–68_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandel2012">Handel (2012)</a>, pp. 65–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESun2014638–640-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESun2014638–640_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSun2014">Sun (2014)</a>, pp. 638–640. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199845–64-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199845–64_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, pp. 45–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200738–50-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200738–50_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 38–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldridge201342-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAldridge201342_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAldridge2013">Aldridge (2013)</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222–23-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222–23_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson (2012)</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 49a'. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGSR">GSR</a> 633h. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992411-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992411_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, p. 411. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198887-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198887_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198887_192-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198887_192-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198887_192-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865_194-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200724-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200724_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865–66-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199865–66_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, pp. 65–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199866-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199866_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199867-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199867_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199868-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart199868_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart1998">Baxter & Sagart (1998)</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198886-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198886_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988112–117,_156-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988112–117,_156_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 112–117, 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198885,_98-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198885,_98_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 85, 98. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldridge2013" class="citation cs2">Aldridge, Edith (2013), "Survey of Chinese historical syntax part I: pre-Archaic and Archaic Chinese", Language and Linguistics Compass, 7 (1): 39–57, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Flnc3.12006">10.1111/lnc3.12006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Survey+of+Chinese+historical+syntax+part+I%3A+pre-Archaic+and+Archaic+Chinese&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-57&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Flnc3.12006&rft.aulast=Aldridge&rft.aufirst=Edith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter, William H.</a> (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1"><bdi>978-3-11-012324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Old+Chinese+Phonology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012324-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart1998" class="citation cs2">Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (1998), "Word formation in Old Chinese", in Packard, Jerome Lee (ed.), New approaches to Chinese word formation: morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 35–76, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015109-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015109-1"><bdi>978-3-11-015109-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Word+formation+in+Old+Chinese&rft.btitle=New+approaches+to+Chinese+word+formation%3A+morphology%2C+phonology+and+the+lexicon+in+modern+and+ancient+Chinese&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=35-76&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-11-015109-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart2014" class="citation cs2">———; ——— (2014), Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5"><bdi>978-0-19-994537-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Chinese%3A+A+New+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-994537-5&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehr2017" class="citation cs2">Behr, Wolfgang (2017), "The Language of the Bronze Inscriptions", in Shaughnessy, Edward L. (ed.), Imprints of Kinship: Studies of Recently Discovered Bronze Inscriptions from Ancient China, Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, pp. 9–32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Language+of+the+Bronze+Inscriptions&rft.btitle=Imprints+of+Kinship%3A+Studies+of+Recently+Discovered+Bronze+Inscriptions+from+Ancient+China&rft.pages=9-32&rft.pub=Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Boltz" title="William G. 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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1930" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Maspero" title="Henri Maspero">Maspero, Henri</a> (1930), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mmoiresling23soci#page/312/mode/2up">"Préfixes et dérivation en chinois archaïque"</a>, Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris (in French), 23 (5): 313–327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9moires+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+de+Linguistique+de+Paris&rft.atitle=Pr%C3%A9fixes+et+d%C3%A9rivation+en+chinois+archa%C3%AFque&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=313-327&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmmoiresling23soci%23page%2F312%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeierPeyrot2017" class="citation cs2">Meier, Kristin; Peyrot, Michaël (2017), "The Word for 'Honey' in Chinese, Tocharian and Sino-Vietnamese", Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 167 (1): 7–22, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.167.1.0007">10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.167.1.0007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=The+Word+for+%27Honey%27+in+Chinese%2C+Tocharian+and+Sino-Vietnamese&rft.volume=167&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-22&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2Fzeitdeutmorggese.167.1.0007&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Kristin&rft.au=Peyrot%2C+Micha%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNormanMei1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a>; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tlmei.com/tm17web/1976a_austroasiatics.pdf">"The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence"</a> (PDF), Monumenta Serica, 32: 274–301, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1976.11731121">10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726203">40726203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=The+Austroasiatics+in+Ancient+South+China%3A+Some+Lexical+Evidence&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=274-301&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1976.11731121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726203%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft.au=Mei%2C+Tsu-lin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftlmei.com%2Ftm17web%2F1976a_austroasiatics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeyrot2008" class="citation cs2">Peyrot, Michaël (2008), Variation and Change in Tocharian B, Amsterdam: Rodopoi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2401-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2401-4"><bdi>978-90-420-2401-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Variation+and+Change+in+Tocharian+B&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Rodopoi&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-420-2401-4&rft.aulast=Peyrot&rft.aufirst=Micha%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1996), Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar, University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0541-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0541-4"><bdi>978-0-7748-0541-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outline+of+Classical+Chinese+Grammar&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0541-4&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagart1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (1999), The Roots of Old Chinese, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3690-6"><bdi>978-90-272-3690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Old+Chinese&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3690-6&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2007" class="citation cs2">Schuessler, Axel (2007), ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2975-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-2975-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ABC+Etymological+Dictionary+of+Old+Chinese&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2975-9&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2009" class="citation cs2">——— (2009), Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3264-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-3264-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minimal+Old+Chinese+and+Later+Han+Chinese%3A+A+Companion+to+Grammata+Serica+Recensa&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3264-3&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaughnessy1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (1997), "Western Zhou bronze inscriptions", in Shaughnessy, Edward L. (ed.), New Sources of Early Chinese History: An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts, Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, pp. 57–84, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55729-058-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55729-058-8"><bdi>978-1-55729-058-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Western+Zhou+bronze+inscriptions&rft.btitle=New+Sources+of+Early+Chinese+History%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Reading+of+Inscriptions+and+Manuscripts&rft.pages=57-84&rft.pub=Society+for+the+Study+of+Early+China+and+the+Institute+of+East+Asian+Studies%2C+University+of+California&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55729-058-8&rft.aulast=Shaughnessy&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSun2014" class="citation cs2">Sun, Jackson T.-S. (2014), "Sino-Tibetan: Rgyalrong", in Lieber, Rochelle; Štekauer, Pavol (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 630–650, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165177-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-165177-9"><bdi>978-0-19-165177-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Tibetan%3A+Rgyalrong&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Derivational+Morphology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=630-650&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-165177-9&rft.aulast=Sun&rft.aufirst=Jackson+T.-S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaiChan1999" class="citation cs2">Tai, James H-Y.; Chan, Marjorie K.M. (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccunix.ccu.edu.tw/~lngsign/Tai_HY_James_1999d.pdf">"Some reflections on the periodization of the Chinese language"</a> (PDF), in Peyraube, Alain; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), In Honor of Mei Tsu-Lin: Studies on Chinese Historical Syntax and Morphology, Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, pp. 223–239, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-910216-02-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-910216-02-3"><bdi>978-2-910216-02-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+reflections+on+the+periodization+of+the+Chinese+language&rft.btitle=In+Honor+of+Mei+Tsu-Lin%3A+Studies+on+Chinese+Historical+Syntax+and+Morphology&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=223-239&rft.pub=Ecole+des+Hautes+Etudes+en+Sciences+Sociales&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-2-910216-02-3&rft.aulast=Tai&rft.aufirst=James+H-Y.&rft.au=Chan%2C+Marjorie+K.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccunix.ccu.edu.tw%2F~lngsign%2FTai_HY_James_1999d.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson" title="Endymion Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Endymion</a> (2012), Chinese History: A New Manual, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8"><bdi>978-0-674-06715-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06715-8&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Dobson, W.A.C.H. (1959), Late Archaic Chinese: A Grammatical Study, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7003-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7003-6"><bdi>978-0-8020-7003-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Archaic+Chinese%3A+A+Grammatical+Study&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-7003-6&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=W.A.C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1962), Early Archaic Chinese: A Descriptive Grammar, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186653632">186653632</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Archaic+Chinese%3A+A+Descriptive+Grammar&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186653632&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=W.A.C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Jacques, Guillaume</a> (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/969608">"The Genetic Position of Chinese"</a>, in Sybesma, Rint; Behr, Wolfgang; Gu, Yueguo; Handel, Zev; Huang, C.-T. James; Myers, James (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chinese Languages and Linguistics, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18643-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18643-9"><bdi>978-90-04-18643-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Genetic+Position+of+Chinese&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Chinese+Languages+and+Linguistics&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18643-9&rft.aulast=Jacques&rft.aufirst=Guillaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F969608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinese&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Character_List_for_Karlgren%27s_GSR" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Character List for Karlgren's GSR">Character List for Karlgren's GSR</a></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/clao_0153-3320_2001_num_30_2_1586">"Laurent Sagart : The Roots of Old Chinese"</a>, Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 30 (2): 257–268, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F19606028-90000092">10.1163/19606028-90000092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+de+Linguistique+Asie+Orientale&rft.atitle=Laurent+Sagart+%3A+The+Roots+of+Old+Chinese&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=257-268&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F19606028-90000092&rft.aulast=Miyake&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fweb%2Frevues%2Fhome%2Fprescript%2Farticle%2Fclao_0153-3320_2001_num_30_2_1586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"> (review of <a href="#CITEREFSagart1999">Sagart (1999)</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Schuessler, Axel (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/j2000_2_11_9343.pdf">"Book Review: The Roots of Old Chinese"</a> (PDF), Language and Linguistics, 1 (2): 257–267.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+The+Roots+of+Old+Chinese&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=257-267&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Axel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffiles%2Fpublication%2Fj2000_2_11_9343.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"> (review of <a href="#CITEREFSagart1999">Sagart (1999)</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Starostin, Georgiy</a> (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/schuessl.pdf">"Axel Schuessler : ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese"</a> (PDF), Journal of Language Relationship, 1: 155–162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=Axel+Schuessler+%3A+ABC+Etymological+Dictionary+of+Old+Chinese&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=155-162&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Starostin&rft.aufirst=Georgiy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstarling.rinet.ru%2FTexts%2Fschuessl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Chinese" class="Z3988"> (review of <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLFJadjKGLrZAD5ofsWGXhl4mHXeAYUknn">Recent Advances in Old Chinese Historical Phonology</a> at SOAS, 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colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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