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id="toc-Nazi_takeover_and_initial_crackdown_(1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_takeover_and_initial_crackdown_(1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Nazi takeover and initial crackdown (1933) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_takeover_and_initial_crackdown_(1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Röhm_purge_and_expanding_persecution_(1934–1935)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Röhm_purge_and_expanding_persecution_(1934–1935)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Röhm purge and expanding persecution (1934–1935) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Röhm_purge_and_expanding_persecution_(1934–1935)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peak_of_persecution_(1936–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peak_of_persecution_(1936–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Peak of persecution (1936–1939) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peak_of_persecution_(1936–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annexed_territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annexed_territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Annexed territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annexed_territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nazi_views_of_homosexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_views_of_homosexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Nazi views of homosexuality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_views_of_homosexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Methods </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Identification_and_arrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_and_arrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Identification and arrest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification_and_arrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_and_class-based_targeting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_and_class-based_targeting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Regional and class-based targeting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_and_class-based_targeting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogation_and_trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogation_and_trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Interrogation and trial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogation_and_trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Prisons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Castration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Castration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Castration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Castration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concentration_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentration_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Concentration camps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentration_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_penalty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_penalty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Death penalty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_penalty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Continued existence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition_as_victims_of_National_Socialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_as_victims_of_National_Socialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Recognition as victims of National Socialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_as_victims_of_National_Socialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chapters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Chapters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.3 Journal articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" > 33 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B7%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="اضطهاد المثليين في ألمانيا النازية والهولوكوست – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اضطهاد المثليين في ألمانيا النازية والهولوكوست" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasist_Almaniyas%C4%B1nda_homoseksuall%C4%B1q" title="Nasist Almaniyasında homoseksuallıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nasist Almaniyasında homoseksuallıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D1%83_%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BC_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%85%D1%83" title="Гомасексуальнасць у Трэцім рэйху – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гомасексуальнасць у Трэцім рэйху" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Холокост и хомосексуалност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Холокост и хомосексуалност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuci%C3%B3_dels_homosexuals_a_l%27Alemanya_nazi" title="Persecució dels homosexuals a l'Alemanya nazi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Persecució dels homosexuals a l'Alemanya nazi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pron%C3%A1sledov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_homosexu%C3%A1l%C5%AF_v_nacistick%C3%A9m_N%C4%9Bmecku" title="Pronásledování homosexuálů v nacistickém Německu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pronásledování homosexuálů v nacistickém Německu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_hoywon_yn_yr_Almaen_Nats%C3%AFaidd_a%27r_Holocost" title="Hanes hoywon yn yr Almaen Natsïaidd a'r Holocost – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes hoywon yn yr Almaen Natsïaidd a'r Holocost" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualit%C3%A4t_in_der_Zeit_des_Nationalsozialismus" title="Homosexualität in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Homosexualität in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%8C%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Ιστορία των ομοφυλόφιλων στη Ναζιστική Γερμανία και το Ολοκαύτωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία των ομοφυλόφιλων στη Ναζιστική Γερμανία και το Ολοκαύτωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuci%C3%B3n_de_los_homosexuales_en_la_Alemania_nazi" title="Persecución de los homosexuales en la Alemania nazi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Persecución de los homosexuales en la Alemania nazi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persekutado_de_samseksemuloj_en_Nazia_Germanio_kaj_la_Holoka%C5%ADsto" title="Persekutado de samseksemuloj en Nazia Germanio kaj la Holokaŭsto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Persekutado de samseksemuloj en Nazia Germanio kaj la Holokaŭsto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B0%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%88_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%87%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="اذیت و آزار همجنس‌گرایان در آلمان نازی و هولوکاست – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اذیت و آزار همجنس‌گرایان در آلمان نازی و هولوکاست" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_et_d%C3%A9portation_des_homosexuels_sous_le_Troisi%C3%A8me_Reich" title="Discrimination et déportation des homosexuels sous le Troisième Reich – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Discrimination et déportation des homosexuels sous le Troisième Reich" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EC%B9%98_%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%EB%8F%99%EC%84%B1%EC%95%A0%EC%9E%90_%EB%B0%95%ED%95%B4" title="나치 독일의 동성애자 박해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나치 독일의 동성애자 박해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progon_homoseksualaca_u_nacisti%C4%8Dkoj_Njema%C4%8Dkoj_i_holokaustu" title="Progon homoseksualaca u nacističkoj Njemačkoj i holokaustu – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Progon homoseksualaca u nacističkoj Njemačkoj i holokaustu" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penindasan_homoseksual_di_Jerman_Nazi" title="Penindasan homoseksual di Jerman Nazi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penindasan homoseksual di Jerman Nazi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_omosessuali_nella_Germania_nazista_e_durante_l%27Olocausto" title="Storia degli omosessuali nella Germania nazista e durante l'Olocausto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli omosessuali nella Germania nazista e durante l'Olocausto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%AA" title="רדיפת הומוסקסואלים בגרמניה הנאצית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רדיפת הומוסקסואלים בגרמניה הנאצית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilm%C3%AAn_li_ser_hevzayendan_li_Almanyaya_naz%C3%AE" title="Zilmên li ser hevzayendan li Almanyaya nazî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zilmên li ser hevzayendan li Almanyaya nazî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoseksualiteit_in_nazi-Duitsland" title="Homoseksualiteit in nazi-Duitsland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Homoseksualiteit in nazi-Duitsland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%81%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%89%E3%82%A4%E3%83%84%E3%81%A8%E3%83%9B%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B3%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E5%90%8C%E6%80%A7%E6%84%9B%E8%80%85%E8%BF%AB%E5%AE%B3" title="ナチス・ドイツとホロコーストによる同性愛者迫害 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナチス・ドイツとホロコーストによる同性愛者迫害" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homofile_i_det_nasjonalsosialistiske_Tyskland_og_under_holocaust" title="Homofile i det nasjonalsosialistiske Tyskland og under holocaust – 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For lesbians, see <a href="/wiki/Lesbians_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Lesbians in Nazi Germany">Lesbians in Nazi Germany</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg/220px-Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg/330px-Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg/440px-Gedenktafel_Rosa_Winkel_Nollendorfplatz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1666" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Memorial in <a href="/wiki/Nollendorfplatz" title="Nollendorfplatz">Nollendorfplatz</a>, Berlin. Text in triangle: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>"Struck Dead</li><li>Hushed Up</li><li>[dedicated to] The homosexual victims of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">National Socialism</a>"</li></ul></div> Text below: "The '<a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">pink triangle</a>' was the sign with which the National Socialists marked homosexuals in the concentration camps in a defamatory way. From January 1933 almost all homosexual locales in and around <a href="/wiki/Nollendorfplatz" title="Nollendorfplatz">Nollendorfplatz</a> were closed by the National Socialists or misused by raids to create 'pink lists' (homosexual files)."</figcaption></figure> Before 1933, male homosexual acts were illegal in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a> under <a href="/wiki/Paragraph_175" title="Paragraph 175">Paragraph 175</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Criminal_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="German Criminal Code">German Criminal Code</a>. The law was not consistently enforced, however, and a <a href="/wiki/Weimar_culture#Status_of_homosexuality" title="Weimar culture">thriving gay culture</a> existed in major German cities. After the <a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" class="mw-redirect" title="Machtergreifung">Nazi takeover in 1933</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_homosexual_movement" title="First homosexual movement">first homosexual movement</a>'s infrastructure of clubs, organizations, and publications was shut down. After the <a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">Röhm purge</a> in 1934, persecuting homosexuals became a priority of the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a>. A 1935 revision of Paragraph 175 made it easier to bring criminal charges for homosexual acts, leading to a large increase in arrests and convictions. Persecution peaked in the years prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and was extended to <a href="/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Areas annexed by Germany">areas annexed by Germany</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Austria_under_National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Austria under National Socialism">Austria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>. The Nazi regime considered the elimination of all manifestations of homosexuality in Germany one of its goals. Men were often arrested after <a href="/wiki/Denunciation" title="Denunciation">denunciation</a>, police raids, and through information uncovered during interrogations of other homosexuals. Those arrested were presumed guilty, and subjected to harsh interrogation and torture to elicit a confession. Between 1933 and 1945, an estimated 100,000 men were arrested as homosexuals; around 50,000 of these were sentenced by civilian courts, 6,400 to 7,000 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_courts_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military courts in Nazi Germany (page does not exist)">military courts</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milit%C3%A4rgerichtsbarkeit_(Nationalsozialismus)" class="extiw" title="de:Militärgerichtsbarkeit (Nationalsozialismus)">de</a>], and an unknown number by <a href="/wiki/Sondergericht" title="Sondergericht">special courts</a>. Most of these men served time in regular prisons, and between 5,000 and 6,000 were imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camps</a>. The death rate of these prisoners has been estimated at 60 percent, a higher rate than those of other prisoner groups. A smaller number of men were sentenced to death or killed at Nazi euthanasia centres. Nazi Germany's persecution of homosexuals is considered to be the most severe episode in a long history of discrimination and violence targeting <a href="/wiki/Sexual_minorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual minorities">sexual minorities</a>. After the war, homosexuals were initially not counted as victims of Nazism because homosexuality continued to be illegal in Nazi Germany's <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">successor states</a>. Few victims came forward to discuss their experiences. The persecution came to wider public attention during the <a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">gay liberation</a> movement of the 1970s, and the <a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">pink triangle</a> was <a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">reappropriated</a> as an <a href="/wiki/LGBT_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT symbol">LGBT symbol</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500,_Berlin,_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0121-500%2C_Berlin%2C_Bar_%22Eldorado%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eldorado_(Berlin)" title="Eldorado (Berlin)">Eldorado</a> (pictured in 1932), the most famous gay establishment in Germany<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant201692-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Germany was the home of the <a href="/wiki/First_homosexual_movement" title="First homosexual movement">first homosexual movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015214-3">[3]</a> The word <a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_homosexuality" title="Terminology of homosexuality">homosexual</a> was coined by German-language writer <a href="/wiki/Karl_Maria_Kertbeny" title="Karl Maria Kertbeny">Karl Maria Kertbeny</a>; the first periodicals intended for a gay, lesbian, and transgender readership were published in Germany, and the world's <a href="/wiki/Scientific-Humanitarian_Committee" title="Scientific-Humanitarian Committee">first homosexual rights organization</a> was founded in Berlin in 1897.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164,_17-4">[4]</a> In the 1920s <a href="/wiki/LGBT_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT culture">gay culture</a> flourished in Germany's major cities, especially Berlin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010385-5">[5]</a> Political compromises allowed many homosexuals to live freely in their private lives and in dedicated <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">subcultural spaces</a>, provided they did not significantly infringe on the public sphere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015202–203-6">[6]</a> One theory holds the <a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" class="mw-redirect" title="Machtergreifung">Nazis' rise to power</a> was fueled by a conservative backlash against perceived immorality, but according to historian <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Marhoefer" title="Laurie Marhoefer">Laurie Marhoefer</a>, this was not a significant factor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016200-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015176-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paragraph_175" title="Paragraph 175">Paragraph 175</a> of the German penal code, which was passed after the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a> in 1871, <a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">criminalized sexual acts between males</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Reichsgericht" title="Reichsgericht">German supreme court</a> ruled that a conviction required proof the men had had <a href="/wiki/Penetrative_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Penetrative sex">penetrative sex</a>, typically <a href="/wiki/Anal_sex" title="Anal sex">anal</a> but sometimes <a href="/wiki/Oral_sex" title="Oral sex">oral sex</a>; other sexual activities were not punishable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2001240-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387-10">[10]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rechtsstaat" title="Rechtsstaat">Rechtsstaat</a> limited the enforcement of the law because men were not arrested or indicted without concrete evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016106-11">[11]</a> As a consequence, conviction rates were low<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144-12">[12]</a> and a significant number of those convicted were sentenced to pay a fine rather than serve a jail sentence. Terms exceeding one year were rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146-13">[13]</a> In 1928, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> responded negatively to a questionnaire about their view of Paragraph 175, saying: "Anyone who even thinks of homosexual love is our enemy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015151–152-14">[14]</a> Nazi politicians regularly railed against homosexuality, claiming that it was a Jewish conspiracy to undermine the German people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015152-15">[15]</a> In 1931 and 1932, the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democrats</a> publicized the homosexuality of <a href="/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm" title="Ernst Röhm">Ernst Röhm</a>, a prominent Nazi politician, in an attempt to discredit the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016206–207-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6hm_scandal" title="Röhm scandal">Röhm scandal</a> fuelled the long-lasting but false idea that the <a href="/wiki/Gay_Nazis_myth" title="Gay Nazis myth">Nazi Party was dominated by homosexuals</a>, a recurring theme in 1930s left-wing propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016208-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015154-18">[18]</a> The Nazi Party temporarily tolerated a few known homosexuals, including Röhm, but never adopted such tolerance as a general principle or changed its views on homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHancock1998635-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnoll2017227-20">[20]</a> There is no evidence that homosexuals were over-represented in the Nazi Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015155-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazi_takeover_and_initial_crackdown_(1933)">Nazi takeover and initial crackdown (1933)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nazi takeover and initial crackdown (1933)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg/220px-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg/330px-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg/440px-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft_-_Bibliothek_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Raid on the <a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft" title="Institut für Sexualwissenschaft">Institute for Sex Research</a>, 6 May 1933</figcaption></figure> In mid-1932 a crackdown on homosexual subcultures in <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Prussia</a> began after Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a> <a href="/wiki/1932_Prussian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1932 Prussian coup d'état">deposed the Prussian government</a>. Some homosexual bars and clubs in Berlin had to shut down after police raids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016201-22">[22]</a> In January 1933 the Nazi Party took power;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016208-17">[17]</a> immediately, their real and perceived enemies were the subject of a violent crackdown. On 23 February of that year the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Ministry_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Ministry of the Interior">Prussian Ministry of the Interior</a> ordered Berlin police to shut down any remaining establishments catering to "persons who indulge in unnatural sexual practices".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209-23">[23]</a> This order was extended to other parts of Germany. In <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, almost all gay bars were forced to close. In <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> all had closed by the end of the year. In <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> police targeted both prostitutes and homosexual spaces, including the <a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Hauptbahnhof" title="Hamburg Hauptbahnhof">main train station</a>, public toilets, and gay bars, leading to a more-than-sixfold increase in indictments under Paragraph 175 by 1934.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209-23">[23]</a> The anti-homosexual crackdown was intended to please the Nazis' conservative backers, who had put them into power, as well as socially conservative voters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386–387-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015193-25">[25]</a> Both the Vatican and Protestant churches praised the crackdown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzog201171-27">[27]</a> For example, in October 1933 <a href="/wiki/Clemens_August_Graf_von_Galen" title="Clemens August Graf von Galen">Clemens August Graf von Galen</a>, the Bishop of Münster, wrote approvingly of the Nazis' efforts to "eradicate" the "open propaganda for godlessness and immorality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015175–176-28">[28]</a> In March 1933 the Nazi authorities began to confiscate printed material on homosexual topics. Any LGBT-related magazines that had survived earlier censorship were closed down and copies were burned. Their publishers were targeted; <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Brand" title="Adolf Brand">Adolf Brand</a>'s house was raided five times and police stole all of his photographs, 6,000 magazine issues, and many books. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Radszuweit" title="Friedrich Radszuweit">Friedrich Radszuweit</a>'s company was subjected to similar raids. During the Nazi takeover, German–Jewish homosexual-rights campaigner <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld" title="Magnus Hirschfeld">Magnus Hirschfeld</a> was abroad on a <a href="/wiki/Lecture_tour" class="mw-redirect" title="Lecture tour">lecture tour</a> for the <a href="/wiki/World_League_for_Sexual_Reform" title="World League for Sexual Reform">World League for Sexual Reform</a>. On 6 May the Nazis' paramilitary wing, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_SA" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi SA">SA</a>, raided his <a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft" title="Institut für Sexualwissenschaft">Institute for Sex Research</a> in coordination with German students. The institute's library of more than 12,000 books was <a href="/wiki/Nazi_book_burnings" title="Nazi book burnings">publicly burned</a> on 10 May on the <a href="/wiki/Opernplatz_(Berlin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opernplatz (Berlin)">Opernplatz</a>; and its offices, together with those of The World League for Sexual Reform, were destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209–210-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015174–175-30">[30]</a> On 8 June the law-reform organization <a href="/wiki/Scientific-Humanitarian_Committee" title="Scientific-Humanitarian Committee">Scientific-Humanitarian Committee</a> voted to dissolve itself. In 1933, many homosexual organizations attempted to destroy membership lists and other information the Nazis could use to target dissidents. Former activists made agreements to keep quiet to protect others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016210-31">[31]</a> Some homosexuals, including <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Mann" title="Klaus Mann">Klaus Mann</a>, went into exile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016211-32">[32]</a> The Swiss city of <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> in particular was a destination for homosexuals fleeing Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzog201181-33">[33]</a> Other homosexuals of a more right-wing inclination, including <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bl%C3%BCher" title="Hans Blüher">Hans Blüher</a>, who initially welcomed the Nazi takeover, remained in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016211-32">[32]</a> Some joined the SA, mistakenly believing that Röhm would protect them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386-26">[26]</a> The most-visible members of the LGBT community, including prostitutes, transvestites, and activist leaders, were targeted, and high-profile locations were shut down. The average homosexual's daily life, however, did not change, and some gay bars in Hamburg and smaller cities remained open. Some men were able to adapt to the closures by meeting with gay friends in primarily heterosexual establishments. Most homosexuals were not yet afraid of the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016212-34">[34]</a> They believed they could keep a low profile until the end of the Nazi regime, seen as coming soon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387-10">[10]</a> During the initial years of Nazi rule, the number of men sentenced to prison under Paragraph 175 increased, from 464 in 1932 to 575 in 1933 and 635 in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015145-35">[35]</a> There was no systematic persecution of individual homosexual behavior, and until 1935, convictions remained below the high of 1,107 convictions set in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021385-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Röhm_purge_and_expanding_persecution_(1934–1935)">Röhm purge and expanding persecution (1934–1935)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Röhm purge and expanding persecution (1934–1935)">edit</a>]</div> After the 1933 revolution, Hitler began to see Röhm as a threat to his power and the SA as a liability due to their random acts of violence, which detracted from the Nazis' desired image as the party of law and order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016213-37">[37]</a> On 30 June 1934 Röhm and several other SA leaders were <a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">suddenly arrested and executed</a>. This event was later justified in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi propaganda">Nazi propaganda</a>, mainly by the alleged corruption and scheming with foreign powers, but also citing Röhm's homosexuality and the fact one of the victims of the purge, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Heines" title="Edmund Heines">Edmund Heines</a>, had allegedly been arrested while in bed with another man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016213–214-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a>, leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi SS">SS</a> (a rival of Röhm's SA), supported the purge to assert their control over the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016214-39">[39]</a> Eventually Himmler, who is described by historian <a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Wachsmann" title="Nikolaus Wachsmann">Nikolaus Wachsmann</a> as "one of the most obsessive homophobes" in the Nazi government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144-12">[12]</a> became commander of the SS, the Gestapo, and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camp system</a>, making him the second-most-powerful man in Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzog201173-40">[40]</a> The purge ended the sense of safety many German homosexuals still felt. Some homosexual Nazis ceased participating in the party<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016214-39">[39]</a> while others, themselves former perpetrators of violence against Nazi opponents, became victims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021386-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg/220px-Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg/330px-Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg/440px-Gestapo_radio-telegram_for_list_of_suspected_homosexuals._Transcribed_for_chief_of_police_in_Dortmund.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Gestapo Radio Telegram for a list of suspected homosexuals for the Chief of Police in <a href="/wiki/Dortmund" title="Dortmund">Dortmund</a>, 24 October 1934</figcaption></figure> Anti-gay repression began immediately after the purge, initially focusing on alleged homosexual cliques in the party and state bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016214-39">[39]</a> In October 1934 Heydrich ordered the police of all large cities to make a list of homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> A separate Gestapo department, the Special Commission for Homosexuality in Berlin, was set up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> In late 1934 the Gestapo targeted Berlin and Munich, raiding gay bars and making mass arrests of homosexual men; most of those arrested were not involved in politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a> Many men accused of homosexuality would admit to acts that were not punishable under Paragraph 175, expecting to be released;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387-10">[10]</a> instead, they were mistreated and incarcerated in <a href="/wiki/Columbia-Haus" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia-Haus">Columbia-Haus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lichtenburg_concentration_camp" title="Lichtenburg concentration camp">Lichtenburg</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camp</a>. By early 1935, 80 percent of the prisoners held in <a href="/wiki/Protective_custody_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Protective custody (Nazi Germany)">protective custody</a> in the concentration camps were there for alleged homosexuality. To convict these men, it was decided to change the criminal code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a> Almost exactly a year after Röhm was killed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015145-35">[35]</a> Paragraph 175 was amended. The changes were demanded, especially by prosecutors and other legal professionals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387-10">[10]</a> The new version of the law punished all homosexual acts, defined broadly; "objectively when a general sense of shame is harmed and subjectively when there exists the lustful intention to excite either of the two men or a third party".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> In theory, it became a crime to look at another man with desire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2007104-44">[44]</a> Men were convicted for mutual masturbation or simply embracing each other,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> and in a few cases when no physical contact had occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010388-45">[45]</a> Under the new law, typically all participants were viewed as equally guilty, whereas under the previous law, the "active" and "passive" participants were differentiated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010388-45">[45]</a> The new law made it much easier to arrest and convict homosexual men,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015145-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> leading to a large increase in convictions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021387-46">[46]</a> Under a new section 175a, the law also introduced harsher penalties for <a href="/wiki/Male_prostitution" title="Male prostitution">male prostitution</a>, sex with a man younger than 21, or sex with a student or employee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a> The change in the law was not publicized for fear of spreading knowledge of homosexuality. Most Germans were unaware the law had changed and many of those arrested under the new law had no knowledge they were committing a crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010388-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017122-47">[47]</a> The law was also applied retroactively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017122-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peak_of_persecution_(1936–1939)">Peak of persecution (1936–1939)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Peak of persecution (1936–1939)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png/350px-%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png/525px-%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png/700px-%C2%A7175_chart_of_convictions.png 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption>Number of convictions under Paragraph 175 over time</figcaption></figure> From 1936 to 1939, German police focused on homosexuality as a top priority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011231-48">[48]</a> In 1936 the Special Commission for Homosexuality in Berlin became the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Central_Office_for_the_Combating_of_Homosexuality_and_Abortion" title="Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion">Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion</a>, working with Gestapo Special Bureau II S.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016215-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b8-49">[49]</a> The new office organized conferences and issued directives to increase the effectiveness of anti-homosexual persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b8-49">[49]</a> During the first years of Nazi rule, regional differences in the prosecution of homosexuals reflected pre-Nazi trends in policing but in 1936, the police launched a nationwide campaign against homosexual meeting places. This campaign was less effective in rural than urban areas, which saw a greater number of prosecutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021386-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020a21-51">[51]</a> If the Gestapo believed there were not enough charges for homosexuality being brought in a certain area, they would send in a special unit to train and encourage local criminal police.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b11-52">[52]</a> In March 1937, Himmler ordered police departments to make lists of suspected homosexuals and oblige them to register changes of address, and to monitor suspected homosexual meeting places, hotels, and personal ads in newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn201831-53">[53]</a> The assigning of responsibility for carrying out the anti-homosexuality campaign to police and courts, which were not given any additional personnel or resources, caused serious operational difficulties. Besides the significant increase in the number of criminal cases to be prosecuted, cases of homosexuality demanded more time and attention because of the difficulty of proving private conduct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b8,_10-54">[54]</a> Because of the difficulty in identifying homosexuals, some police departments resorted to calling in entire classes of teenage boys and asking them about their sexual experiences. In this manner, it was possible to increase the number of charges of homosexuality brought; by 1939, such youthful relationships were the basis of 23.9 percent of charges. Himmler approved of such methods, arguing that without them, homosexuality would spread unchecked in all-male Nazi institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b11-52">[52]</a> Between 1937 and 1939 nearly 95,000 men were arrested for homosexuality – more than 600 per week – representing a major investment from the Nazi police state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010392-55">[55]</a> From 1936 to 1939, nearly 30,000 men were convicted under Paragraph 175. Unlike in the past, these men were virtually guaranteed to receive a jail sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146-13">[13]</a> The length of sentences increased; many men were sentenced to years in jail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b8-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216-50">[50]</a> Prosecutors, judges, and others involved in the cases increasingly cited Nazi ideology to justify harsh punishment, adopting the regime's rhetoric of "stamping out the plague of homosexuality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216-50">[50]</a> The use of concentration camp imprisonment increased; after 1937, those considered to have seduced others into homosexuality were confined to concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_(Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord).Stolperstein.nnw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg/180px-Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg/270px-Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg/360px-Kurt_Wilcke_-_Mildestieg_27_%28Hamburg-Barmbek-Nord%29.Stolperstein.nnw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2379" data-file-height="2379" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stolperstein" title="Stolperstein">Stolperstein</a> of Kurt Wilcke (1908–1944); imprisoned for his homosexuality in <a href="/wiki/Fuhlsb%C3%BCttel_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuhlsbüttel concentration camp">Fuhlsbüttel concentration camp</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/KZ_Fuhlsb%C3%BCttel" class="extiw" title="de:KZ Fuhlsbüttel">de</a>]; later transferred to a <a href="/wiki/Strafbataillon" title="Strafbataillon">penal battalion</a>; died during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Battle of Narva</a>.</figcaption></figure> From 1939 to 1940, the number of men sentenced in civil courts under Paragraph 175 fell from 7,614 to 3,773. More men were subject to military jurisdiction<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146-13">[13]</a> and, with the onset of war, homosexuality was no longer the top priority of the <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei" title="Sicherheitspolizei">security police</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011238-57">[57]</a> In anticipation of the outbreak of war, at the end of August 1939, Heydrich ordered the Gestapo to transfer most homosexual cases to the <a href="/wiki/Kriminalpolizei" title="Kriminalpolizei">Kriminalpolizei</a> (criminal police or Kripo) to free up resources for the persecution of opposition groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011472-58">[58]</a> It is unknown how many Paragraph 175 cases were handled by the <a href="/wiki/Sondergericht" title="Sondergericht">special courts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201444-59">[59]</a> An estimated 6,400 to 7,000 men were convicted by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_courts_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military courts in Nazi Germany (page does not exist)">military courts in Nazi Germany</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milit%C3%A4rgerichtsbarkeit_(Nationalsozialismus)" class="extiw" title="de:Militärgerichtsbarkeit (Nationalsozialismus)">de</a>] under Paragraph 175.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201444-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021383-60">[60]</a> The military considered homosexuals to be predators who disrupted morale and unit cohesion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouthamel2018434-61">[61]</a> Prior to the war, homosexuals were offered re-education and if this failed, they could be dismissed and incarcerated in a concentration camp for the duration of their compulsory military service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder200733-62">[62]</a> Under the manpower requirements of war, it was felt necessary to recruit all available men;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouthamel2018434-61">[61]</a> it was also a concern that rejecting homosexuals from military service could open a loophole for draft evaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201814–15-63">[63]</a> Men considered sex offenders, including homosexuals, rapists, and child molesters, could serve in the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">German military</a> assuming they were willing to bear arms and remain celibate during their military service. Known homosexuals and some former concentration camp prisoners were conscripted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder200724,_110-64">[64]</a> Even castrated homosexual men could be drafted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201814–15-63">[63]</a> Military courts were generally more lenient than civilian courts with cases involving consensual sex but harsher in cases falling under 175a.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021388-65">[65]</a> Although military courts followed the 1935 version of Paragraph 175, they generally issued a conviction only when there was attempted or actual contact with another man's genitals. More than 90 percent of those convicted were reintegrated into the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2007106,_127-66">[66]</a> Although innate homosexuals were considered dangerous to the military, the German military assumed that most cases of homosexuality were <a href="/wiki/Situational_homosexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Situational homosexuality">situational</a>. Younger men, often seen as the victims of homosexual seducers, and one-time offenders were shown leniency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouthamel2018435-67">[67]</a> On average, soldiers convicted of homosexuality were sentenced to one-year prison sentences but served only a fraction of this before being paroled to the front. The length of time served decreased because of the increasing manpower shortage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder200754–55-68">[68]</a> In 1943 Himmler, who believed that the military was not hard enough on homosexuality, demanded a classification system that would see "incorrigible" homosexual offenders sent to concentration camps. The military attempted to ensure as many men as possible were retained under military jurisdiction to preserve vital manpower but cooperated with the Gestapo to rid itself of a few men who were seen as a threat to the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2007107–109-69">[69]</a> Beginning in 1944 some homosexual concentration camp prisoners were forcibly enlisted in the army, which continued until a week before the <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">unconditional surrender of Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201815-70">[70]</a> These men were typically recruited into <a href="/wiki/Strafbataillon" title="Strafbataillon">penal battalions</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Dirlewanger_Brigade" title="Dirlewanger Brigade">Dirlewanger Brigade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201832-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annexed_territories">Annexed territories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Annexed territories">edit</a>]</div> The persecution of homosexuals was extended to the <a href="/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Areas annexed by Germany">annexed territories</a> but not to the rest of <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">German-occupied Europe</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen20188-72">[72]</a> the Nazis were mostly uninterested in punishing homosexuals who were not considered ethnically German.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016228-73">[73]</a> Criminal prosecutions of men for homosexuality in Austria almost doubled <a href="/wiki/Austria_under_National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Austria under National Socialism">under Nazi rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirchknopf201848-74">[74]</a> Both regular and special courts applied draconian punishments, including the death penalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirchknopf201844-75">[75]</a> German law was applied in the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a> after <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Sudetenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Sudetenland">its annexation</a> in late 1938 and, in the case of homosexuals, applied retroactively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201812-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidl201854-77">[77]</a> German law was imposed in <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a> in January 1942; homosexuals there soon faced a harsh legal crackdown, including retroactive application of the law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201812-76">[76]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia</a>, German law applied to ethnic Germans and the old Austrian criminal code, which imposed lower penalties for male homosexuality, applied to non-Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidl201854–56-78">[78]</a> Czech men were not deported to concentration camps solely because of conviction for homosexuality, but sometimes they were deported in combination with other reasons, such as anti-Nazi activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidl201857–58-79">[79]</a> Although prosecutions increased dramatically during the German occupation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidl201854–55-80">[80]</a> the police focused their efforts on breaking up male prostitution rings rather than homosexual relationships between Czechs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201811-81">[81]</a> In 1945 <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Bene%C5%A1" title="Edvard Beneš">Edvard Beneš</a>, <a href="/wiki/President_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="President of Czechoslovakia">president of Czechoslovakia</a>, offered an amnesty to those convicted for homosexuality during the occupation, although the law remained in effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeidl201855-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nazi_views_of_homosexuality">Nazi views of homosexuality</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nazi views of homosexuality">edit</a>]</div> The Nazis were influenced by earlier ideas conflating homosexuality, child molestation, and the "seduction of youth".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a> Before the Nazis' rise to power, there was a widespread belief among Germans that homosexuality is not inborn but instead <a href="/wiki/Acquired_homosexuality" title="Acquired homosexuality">could be acquired and spread</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVendrell20204-83">[83]</a> The Nazis were particularly concerned that their all-male organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a>, SS, and SA must not be seen as hotbeds of homosexual "recruitment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021385-36">[36]</a> Based on the theories of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Bonhoeffer" title="Karl Bonhoeffer">Karl Bonhoeffer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Emil Kraepelin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2007105-84">[84]</a> the Nazis believed homosexuals seduced young men and infected them with homosexuality, permanently changing their <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">sexual orientation</a>. Rhetoric described homosexuality as a contagious disease<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010390–391-85">[85]</a> but not in the medical sense. Rather, homosexuality was a disease of the <a href="/wiki/Volksk%C3%B6rper" title="Volkskörper">Volkskörper</a> (national body), a metaphor for the desired national or racial community (<a href="/wiki/Volksgemeinschaft" title="Volksgemeinschaft">Volksgemeinschaft</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016227-86">[86]</a> The Nazis, especially Himmler, held conspiratorial beliefs about homosexuals, believing they were more loyal to each other than to the Nazi Party and Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010390-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2007105–106-88">[88]</a> After the Röhm purge, he told Gestapo personnel they had narrowly avoided the capture of the state by homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a> In 1937 a headline in the SS magazine <a href="/wiki/Das_Schwarze_Korps" title="Das Schwarze Korps">Das Schwarze Korps</a> declared homosexuals "<a href="/wiki/Enemies_of_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Enemies of the state">enemies of the state</a>", explaining they must be eradicated because "... they form a state within a state, a secret organization that runs counter to the interests of the people."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010390-87">[87]</a> The newspaper argued only two percent of those who engaged in homosexual acts were committed homosexuals and the rest could be turned away from homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011238-57">[57]</a> Forty thousand homosexuals were considered capable of "poisoning" two million men if left to roam free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> Homosexual men were also considered to be shirking their duty to repopulate the German nation after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and create sons who could be drafted into the military to fight Hitler's planned <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars of aggression">wars of aggression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a> On 18 February 1937 Himmler gave a speech about homosexuality in <a href="/wiki/Bad_T%C3%B6lz" title="Bad Tölz">Bad Tölz</a> that was based on the 1927 book Eroticism and Race by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herwig_Hartner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herwig Hartner (page does not exist)">Herwig Hartner</a>, which claimed homosexuality was a Jewish plot against Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010390-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011232-90">[90]</a> According to Himmler, homosexuality could lead to the end of Germany and cause depopulation by reducing the number of men who were available for reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011232–233-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389–390-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016226-93">[93]</a> The Nazis distinguished between congenital homosexuals who would require permanent imprisonment and others who had engaged in homosexuality but were thought to be curable with a short stay in a concentration camp or psychiatric treatment. Distinguishing between these categories was a difficulty that preoccupied the Nazis, especially after many cases of homosexuality surfaced in the supposedly racially pure SS. Succumbing to a homosexual act once, especially when drunk, was not necessarily considered evidence of homosexual inclination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010391-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016227-86">[86]</a> The <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ring_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Göring Institute">Göring Institute</a> offered treatment to homosexuals referred by the Hitler Youth and other Nazi organizations; by 1938 it claimed to have <a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">changed the sexual orientation</a> in 341 of 510 patients and by 1944, it claimed to have eliminated homosexuality in more than 500 men. The institute intervened to reduce sentences in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016236-95">[95]</a> The converse of the Nazis' persecution of homosexuality was their encouragement of heterosexual relations, including extramarital sex, for racially desirable people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzog201172-96">[96]</a> After 1934, homophobia became a regular theme in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi propaganda">Nazi propaganda</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016214-39">[39]</a> most Germans came into contact with this <a href="/wiki/Homophobic_propaganda" title="Homophobic propaganda">homophobic propaganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheler2002116-97">[97]</a> Although one of the Nazi regime's goals was to eliminate all manifestations of homosexuality in Germany,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020178-98">[98]</a> there was never a Nazi policy of exterminating all homosexuals in the way the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a> targeted Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020178-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010394-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identification_and_arrest">Identification and arrest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Identification and arrest">edit</a>]</div> Homosexuals were more difficult to round up than other groups the Nazis targeted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010395-100">[100]</a> Police were given detailed instructions on spotting homosexuals; they were instructed to look for flamboyant men, those who avoided women or were seen walking arm-in-arm with other men, and anyone who rented a double room at a hotel. Hairdressers, bathhouse attendants, hotel receptionists, railway station porters, and others were asked to report suspicious behavior. Complicating the Nazis' efforts, many homosexual men did not fit these stereotypes and many effeminate men were not homosexual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010392-55">[55]</a> According to one estimate, <a href="/wiki/Denunciation" title="Denunciation">denunciations</a> resulted in 35 percent of arrests of homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824-101">[101]</a> Men were denounced by neighbors, relatives, coworkers, students, employees, or even ex-boyfriends seeking to settle grievances, passers-by who overheard suspicious conversation, and Hitler Youth and other Nazi supporters who voluntarily acted as the morality police. State employees working in youth welfare and rail stations, Nazi functionaries in the <a href="/wiki/German_Labor_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="German Labor Front">German Labor Front</a> (DAF), the SA, the SS, and the Hitler Youth brought cases to the attention of the authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016217-102">[102]</a> A disproportionate number of denunciations concerned child abuse or "youth seduction" because there was an injured party to complain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b10-103">[103]</a> Some men were falsely denounced as homosexual by other Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWünschmann2015141–142-104">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Snowball_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowball method">snowball method</a> involved arresting one man, interrogating him, and searching his belongings to find additional suspects;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b7-42">[42]</a> this method accounted for thirty percent of arrests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824-101">[101]</a> Some men were observed before their arrests or temporarily released in hopes they would lead the police to additional suspects. Some were shown photograph albums of other suspected homosexuals; male prostitutes were often willing to identify other homosexuals this way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016218-105">[105]</a> Another ten percent of victims were arrested in police raids, which were often conducted in parks, public toilets, and areas frequented by male prostitutes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016217-102">[102]</a> In Hamburg the police watched restaurants that served a mixed heterosexual and homosexual clientele as well as the most-trafficked public toilets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a> was also used to ensnare homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a> Charges of homosexuality were sometimes deployed against people who were not guilty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWünschmann2015141-106">[106]</a> Nazi propaganda minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> commented: "When Himmler wants to get rid of someone, he just throws §175 at him."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a> About 250 Catholic clergy <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nazi_clergy_morals_cases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nazi clergy morals cases (page does not exist)">were charged with same-sex activity</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittlichkeitsprozesse_gegen_Ordensangeh%C3%B6rige_und_Priester_im_Nationalsozialismus" class="extiw" title="de:Sittlichkeitsprozesse gegen Ordensangehörige und Priester im Nationalsozialismus">de</a>] in the mid-1930s. Many of the charges, which included sexual abuse of minors and consensual homosexual sex, were true, but others were probably invented. The trials were of limited efficacy in their intended purpose of discrediting the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz201413–14-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021392–393-108">[108]</a> Catholic authorities alternated between reprimanding the guilty and covering up the scandal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz201414-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_and_class-based_targeting">Regional and class-based targeting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regional and class-based targeting">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany,_1930s.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png/310px-Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png/465px-Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png/620px-Regional_differences_in_convictions_under_Paragraph_175_in_Germany%2C_1930s.png 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>Regional differences in convictions under Paragraph 175 in Germany, 1930s. <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> is the highest.</figcaption></figure> Active policing tactics were mainly limited to the larger cities; in rural areas, the police relied on denunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010389-89">[89]</a> The difference in policing strategy, and likely over-representation and greater visibility of homosexuals in urban areas, led to vastly different conviction rates in different parts of Germany. Convictions in <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a> were below the national average while in <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Province" title="Rhine Province">Rhine Province</a>, Hamburg, and Berlin, they exceeded the average. Within states, urban areas had more cases than rural areas. Because of the reliance on denunciation in rural areas, a disproportionate number of cases involved child abuse or "youth seduction".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b10-103">[103]</a> Young and working-class men, who may have been less able to evade the authorities, were over-represented among those who were arrested and prosecuted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824–25-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021388–389-111">[111]</a> Half of the suspects were working-class men and another third came from the lower middle class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021388–389-111">[111]</a> In Austria, where working-class homosexuals were traditional targets of criminalization, arrests were extended to the middle class but more egregious behavior was required for a higher-class man to be punished for homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021388-65">[65]</a> The first homosexuals to be targeted by the Nazis, prior to the Röhm purge, were also Jewish and left-wing political activists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021386-41">[41]</a> A considerable number of those persecuted for homosexuality were also targeted for other reasons, for example being <a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani</a>, disabled, a sex worker, accused of other criminal offenses, a political opponent of the Nazis, or a deserter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBollmann2014129-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogation_and_trial">Interrogation and trial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interrogation and trial">edit</a>]</div> After arresting a man, he was presumed to be guilty, especially if there was a history of homosexual acts or a previous conviction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216–217-114">[114]</a> Police would tell his family the reason for his arrest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824-101">[101]</a> With a conviction, the victim could expect a complete life breakdown, often including loss of home and job, expulsion from professional organizations, and revocation of awards and doctorates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b8-49">[49]</a> Harsh interrogations were aimed at forcing the victim to confess to the acts the police believed him guilty of. Austere cells of temporary detention facilities were sufficient to obtain confessions in some cases. Other suspects would crumple in the face of "screams, curses, threats, and endless questions", and some were beaten. Some men were held for weeks with nothing to do but await interrogation, and suffered <a href="/wiki/Mental_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental breakdown">mental breakdowns</a>. Some men were sent to concentration camps under protective custody to encourage them to confess or to incarcerate them when there was not enough evidence to obtain a conviction. The police would tell suspects they would get a lighter punishment if they confessed, and indefinite detention in a concentration camp if they did not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016217-102">[102]</a> Both the Gestapo and the Kripo targeted homosexuals, a rivalry that may have encouraged the latter to adopt the more-brutal tactics of the former.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011227-115">[115]</a> Torture was regularly used to extract confessions and the use of "enhanced interrogation" (<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/versch%C3%A4rfte_Vernehmung" class="extiw" title="de:verschärfte Vernehmung">verschärfte Vernehmung</a>) was explicitly approved of by <a href="/wiki/Josef_Meisinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Meisinger">Josef Meisinger</a>, head of the Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b11-52">[52]</a> After 1936, cases were processed more quickly and the accused rarely had a legal defense. Most had already confessed, guaranteeing a guilty verdict. An unknown number of men who were found unfit to stand trial were confined to <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">psychiatric hospitals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016216-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prisons">Prisons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prisons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg/220px-Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg/330px-Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg/440px-Stolperstein_Flensburg_Bastian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Arnold Bastian (1908–1945) was arrested in 1944 for his homosexuality and died in prison in 1945.</figcaption></figure> Most men who were persecuted for homosexuality were convicted in the <a href="/wiki/Law_in_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Law in Nazi Germany">civil legal system</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prisons_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prisons in Nazi Germany (page does not exist)">imprisoned</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144-12">[12]</a> In Germany, it had long been the practice to isolate homosexual prisoners in individual cells but because of the vast increase in arrests, this proved to be impractical. In addition, the economic exploitation of prisoner labor meant many prisoners were held in labor camps and housed in barracks. While some officials built tiny, one-man cells to keep homosexual prisoners isolated, other officials distributed homosexuals among the general prison population and encouraged "brutal homophobia" to isolate homosexuals. Homosexual prisoners did not have to wear a badge but could be identified by red underlining on their name tags.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015147–148-116">[116]</a> Before 1933 <a href="/wiki/Prison_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison sex">prison sex</a> had been common but its prevention and punishment became much more important under Nazi rule. Any prisoner who tried to initiate a same-sex relationship, even if it did not result in any physical contact, could expect harsh punishment. The wardens relied on informers among the inmates to deter same-sex activity. Despite facing discrimination, however, homosexual prisoners were much better off in the prisons than in concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015148–149-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Castration">Castration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Castration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg/220px-Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg/330px-Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg/440px-Stolperstein_von_Friedrich_Paul_von_Groszheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4563" data-file-height="3042" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich-Paul_von_Groszheim" title="Friedrich-Paul von Groszheim">Friedrich-Paul von Groszheim</a> (1908–2006) was spared from a concentration camp after agreeing to castration under pressure in 1938.</figcaption></figure> In June 1935 the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sterilization_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sterilization Law (page does not exist)">Sterilization Law</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilisationsgesetze" class="extiw" title="de:Sterilisationsgesetze">de</a>] was amended to allow individual convicted criminals to be "voluntarily" sterilized to eliminate their "degenerate sex drive".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016218-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146–147-118">[118]</a> During the Nazi era, the regime considered extending the policy of involuntary castration that was previously applied to <a href="/wiki/Child_molesters" class="mw-redirect" title="Child molesters">child molesters</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sex_offenders" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex offenders">sex offenders</a> to homosexuals but such a law was never passed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015143–144,_146-119">[119]</a> In 1943 Gestapo chief <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a> advocated for a law for involuntary castration of homosexuals and sex offenders but withdrew this request because he believed the Gestapo could ensure castrations were carried out where it desired.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017120-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2001248–249-121">[121]</a> Although the fiction of voluntary castration was maintained, some homosexuals were subject to severe pressure and coercion—including the threat of imprisonment in a concentration camp—to agree to castration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015147-122">[122]</a> An estimated 400 to 800 men and boys—some as young as 16 years—were castrated in this manner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015147-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021383-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentration_camps">Concentration camps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Concentration camps">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg/220px-Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg/330px-Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg/440px-Gestapo_anti-gay_telex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>5 September 1940 Gestapo order for the detention of Hans Retzlaff (1901–1940) an "incorrigible homosexual" in <a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg/220px-KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg/330px-KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg/440px-KZ_Mauthausen_Gedenktafeln_Sep_2020_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Memorial plaque dedicated to homosexual vicitims in <a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a></figcaption></figure> Unlike the legal punishment system, prisoners in concentration camps were held in <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_detention" title="Indefinite detention">indefinite detention</a> at the mercy of the SS and Gestapo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393-123">[123]</a> The use of concentration camp detention for homosexuals began in 1934 and 1935; it was initially seen as a temporary re-education measure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> In May 1935, the Prussian police detained 513 accused homosexuals in protective custody.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010392-55">[55]</a> Himmler did not consider a time-limited prison sentence was sufficient to eliminate homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b11–12-124">[124]</a> After 1939, it was a policy to send men who were convicted of multiple homosexual acts to a concentration camp after they served their prison sentences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393-123">[123]</a> On 12 July 1940 the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> formalized this policy, decreeing "in future, all homosexuals who seduced more than one partner shall be taken into preventive custody by the police after their release from prison".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> According to research in some parts of Germany, non-aggravated homosexuality, as a rule, was not punished with concentration camp imprisonment, which was mostly reserved for those who were considered "youth seducers", or had been convicted of male prostitution or child molestation. In other cases, men who were convicted with homosexuality combined with other criminal offenses or political opposition could be transferred to a concentration camp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12–13-125">[125]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Clayton_J._Whisnant" title="Clayton J. Whisnant">Clayton J. Whisnant</a> states homosexual concentration camp prisoners "experienced some of the worst conditions that humans have ever been forced to endure".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016219-126">[126]</a> In the prewar camps, Jewish and homosexual prisoners ranked at the bottom of the prisoner hierarchy, and homosexual Jews fared the worst.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWünschmann2015141–143-127">[127]</a> Along with Jews, homosexuals were often assigned to segregated labor details and had to perform especially dirty and backbreaking work, and endured worse conditions than the rest of the camp.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWünschmann2015143-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201825-129">[129]</a> Homosexual prisoners rarely benefited from solidarity from other prisoners, even Jews, because of widespread homophobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWünschmann2015143-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016220–221-130">[130]</a> Surviving the camps often required either building social networks with other prisoners or being promoted to a position of authority. Homosexuals were disadvantaged in both of these aspects; some younger, more attractive men could obtain advantages from a sexual relationship with a <a href="/wiki/Kapo" title="Kapo">kapo</a> (prison functionary) or SS guard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016220-131">[131]</a> After 1942, conditions improved because of the need for <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Forced labor in Nazi concentration camps">forced labor</a>, and some homosexual prisoners were promoted because of the influx of non-German prisoners who were ineligible for kapo positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016223-132">[132]</a> About 5,000 to 6,000 homosexual men were imprisoned in the concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021382-133">[133]</a> Sociologist <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Lautmann" title="Rüdiger Lautmann">Rüdiger Lautmann</a> examined 2,542 known cases of homosexual concentration camp prisoners and determined their death rate was 60 percent, compared with 42 percent of political prisoners and 35 percent of <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> Assuming a death rate of between 53 and 60 percent, at least 3,100 to 3,600 men died in the camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201811-134">[134]</a> SS guards murdered homosexual prisoners out of cruelty or during sadistic games, disguising the deaths as natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016222–223-135">[135]</a> At camps like <a href="/wiki/Mauthausen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthausen">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg" class="mw-redirect" title="Flossenbürg">Flossenbürg</a>, it was standard practice to work homosexual prisoners to death. In mid-1942 almost all the homosexual prisoners at <a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sachsenhausen">Sachsenhausen</a> (at least two hundred) were executed. Many homosexual prisoners at <a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck" class="mw-redirect" title="Ravensbrück">Ravensbrück</a> died at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393-123">[123]</a> The chances of survival depended on which camp the men were incarcerated in; <a href="/wiki/Neuengamme" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuengamme">Neuengamme</a> was considered less harsh for homosexual prisoners than <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a>, Dachau, or Sachsenhausen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016221-136">[136]</a> Initially, homosexuals were differentiated from other prisoners with a badge bearing capital letter "A" that was used at Lichtenberg. The standardized <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp_badge" title="Nazi concentration camp badge">Nazi concentration camp badges</a> that included a pink triangle for homosexual prisoners were adopted in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b12-56">[56]</a> Homosexual prisoners were a preferred target of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi human experimentation</a> during the last years of Nazi rule. The best-known experiments involving homosexual men were attempts by endocrinologist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Vaernet" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Vaernet">Carl Vaernet</a> to change prisoners' sexual orientations by implanting a pellet that released <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016223-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeindling2015183–184-137">[137]</a> Homosexual and Jewish prisoners were also given experimental treatments for <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> at Buchenwald, for phosphorus burns at Sachsenhausen, and were used for testing <a href="/wiki/Opiate" title="Opiate">opiates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pervitin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pervitin">Pervitin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016223-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_penalty">Death penalty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Death penalty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg/170px-Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg/255px-Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg/340px-Stolpersteine_Zimek-Wilhelm_K%C3%B6ln_Ecke-Alte-Wallgasse-Magnusstrasse_170625.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>Wilhelm Zimek (1919–1942), persecuted for desertion and homosexuality, executed at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfenb%C3%BCttel_Prison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfenbüttel Prison (page does not exist)">Wolfenbüttel Prison</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justizvollzugsanstalt_Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="extiw" title="de:Justizvollzugsanstalt Wolfenbüttel">de</a>]</figcaption></figure> In a 1937 speech Himmler argued SS men who had served sentences for homosexuality should be transferred to a concentration camp and "shot while trying to escape".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011234-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[a]</a> This policy was never implemented,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393-123">[123]</a> although a few death sentences against SS men for homosexual acts were pronounced between 1937 and 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201815-141">[140]</a> In a speech on 18 August 1941 Hitler argued homosexuality in the Hitler Youth should be <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">punished by death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393–394-142">[141]</a> After learning of Hitler's remark, Himmler drafted a decree mandating the death penalty to any member of the SS or police who was found guilty of engaging in a homosexual act. Hitler, who was worried the decree might encourage left-wing propaganda that homosexuality was especially prevalent in Germany, signed the decree on 15 November 1941 on the condition there was no publicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010393–394-142">[141]</a> After the decree, only a few death sentences were pronounced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010394-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2011239-143">[142]</a> Himmler often commuted the sentence, especially if he thought the accused was not a committed homosexual. Many of those whose sentences were commuted were sent to serve in the <a href="/wiki/Dirlewanger_Brigade" title="Dirlewanger Brigade">Dirlewanger Brigade</a>, where most were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010394-99">[99]</a> After late 1943, because of military losses, it was policy to send SS men who were convicted of homosexuality into the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201833-144">[143]</a> The 1933 law on habitual criminals allowed for execution after the third conviction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201812–13-145">[144]</a> On 4 September 1941 a new law allowed the execution of dangerous sex offenders and habitual criminals when "the protection of the Volksgemeinschaft or the need for just atonement require it".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheck2020422-146">[145]</a> This law enabled authorities to pronounce death sentences against homosexuals and is known to have been employed in four cases in Austria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheck2020422-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201813-147">[146]</a> In 1943 <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a> authorized the death penalty for German soldiers who were convicted of homosexuality in "particularly serious cases".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStorkmann202128-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201814,_16-149">[148]</a> Only a few such executions are known to have occurred, mostly in conjunction with other charges – especially <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">desertion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStorkmann202128-148">[147]</a> Some homosexuals were executed at Nazi euthanasia centers such as <a href="/wiki/Bernburg_Euthanasia_Centre" title="Bernburg Euthanasia Centre">Bernburg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meseritz-Obrawalde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meseritz-Obrawalde (page does not exist)">Meseritz-Obrawalde</a>. It is difficult to estimate the number of homosexual men who were directly killed during the Nazi era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201811-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Continued_existence">Continued existence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Continued existence">edit</a>]</div> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Zinn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Zinn (page does not exist)">Alexander Zinn</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zinn_(Historiker)" class="extiw" title="de:Alexander Zinn (Historiker)">de</a>] estimates about one quarter of German homosexual men were investigated during the Nazi era, and that up to one tenth of those were imprisoned. According to Zinn, this rate is evidence of indifference among the general German population towards homosexuality; denunciation of consensual homosexual relations was less common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b10-103">[103]</a> Zinn said that while all homosexuals in Nazi Germany suffered from the indirect effects of criminalization, their lives cannot be reduced to fear of arrest, and they retained a limited degree of personal freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b11,_13-150">[149]</a> Even before 1933, many homosexual men married women, and the Nazis' rise to power provided an added incentive, although such marriages were usually unhappy. Homosexual desires did not go away; some men sought homosexual contact outside of marriage, risking denunciation by an unhappy wife. Some men organized <a href="/wiki/Lavender_marriages" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender marriages">lavender marriages</a> with lesbians they had known before 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016231-151">[150]</a> Although nearly all homosexuals tried to avoid the attention of the authorities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201824-101">[101]</a> men continued to find sexual partners at <a href="/wiki/Kreuzberg" title="Kreuzberg">Kreuzberg</a> bathhouses and <a href="/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnzstrasse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Münzstrasse (page does not exist)">Münzstrasse</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnzstra%C3%9Fe_(Berlin)" class="extiw" title="de:Münzstraße (Berlin)">de</a>] movie theaters, and by <a href="/wiki/Cruising_for_sex" title="Cruising for sex">cruising</a> in places such as <a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz" title="Alexanderplatz">Alexanderplatz</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Friedrichstrasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrichstrasse">Friedrichstrasse</a> in Berlin. Many suffered from disrupted relationships, loneliness, or loss of self-esteem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016232-152">[151]</a> A significant number of homosexual and bisexual men, including 25 percent of those persecuted in Hamburg, committed suicide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBollmann2014129-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenz201811-134">[134]</a> According to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manfred_Herzer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manfred Herzer (page does not exist)">Manfred Herzer</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Herzer" class="extiw" title="de:Manfred Herzer">de</a>], homosexual men and women who avoided persecution "belonged to the willing subjects and beneficiaries of the Nazi state just like other German men and women".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016232-152">[151]</a> The likelihood of being persecuted was lower for those who suppressed their sex lives or served the higher goals of Nazism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021389-153">[152]</a> Some German homosexuals joined the Nazi Party or fought for Germany during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016232-152">[151]</a> War and armed service provided an opportunity for sexual encounters with other men, both civilians and members of the armed services. There were also opportunities for sexual assault of other soldiers, subordinates, people from occupied countries, and prisoners. Both might be practiced by men who did not identify as homosexual. During the last years of the war, there were increased opportunities for sexual encounters in bombed-out cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016239-154">[153]</a> In October 1937, Himmler ordered that actors and artists should only be detained for homosexual acts with his authorization, unless they were caught in the act.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinweis2017150-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021388-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017116-156">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> Nazi Germany's persecution of homosexuals is considered to be the most-severe episode in a longer history of discrimination and violence against homosexuals; never before or since have so many homosexuals been sentenced to prison in such a short period, even disregarding concentration camp imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b13-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017123-158">[157]</a> An estimated 100,000 men were arrested and of these, half spent time in prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016240-159">[158]</a> Post-war attitudes towards homosexuality were influenced by Nazi propaganda associating homosexuality with criminality and medical illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016240-159">[158]</a> Because the various Allied countries considered homosexuality a crime, those prisoners who had not finished serving their sentence under Paragraph 175 had to do so, but those who had never been convicted or who had already served the full time were released.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewsome202259–60-160">[159]</a> Arrest and incarceration of men for consensual homosexual acts continued to be commonplace in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and Austria through the 1960s;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002321–322-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016242-162">[161]</a> between 1945 and 1969, West Germany convicted about 50,000 men; the same number of men as the Nazis had convicted during their twelve-year rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021379-163">[162]</a> The 1935 version of Paragraph 175 – one of the few Nazi-era laws that remained in force and unaltered in West Germany<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016250-164">[163]</a> – was upheld by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court" title="Federal Constitutional Court">Federal Constitutional Court</a> in 1957<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201835-165">[164]</a> and remained in force until 1969, when homosexuality was partially decriminalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016251-166">[165]</a> In 1962 historian <a href="/wiki/Hans-Joachim_Schoeps" title="Hans-Joachim Schoeps">Hans-Joachim Schoeps</a> commented; "For the homosexuals the Third Reich has not yet ended."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201448-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021377-168">[167]</a> Although not entirely accurate, this statement captured the view of many West German homosexuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201448-167">[166]</a> In <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, homosexuality was rarely prosecuted after 1957 and was decriminalized in 1968;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016242-162">[161]</a> the number of convictions there was much lower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021379-163">[162]</a> The decriminalization did not result in widespread social acceptance, and Paragraph 175 was not repealed until 1994.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021383-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_as_victims_of_National_Socialism">Recognition as victims of National Socialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Recognition as victims of National Socialism">edit</a>]</div> Homosexual concentration camp prisoners were not recognized as victims of National Socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b6-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021382-133">[133]</a> Just as there was a hierarchy among prisoners in the concentration camps, there was a hierarchy among survivors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021382-133">[133]</a> Reparations and state pensions available to other groups were refused to <a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">gay men</a>, who were still classified as criminals. Political prisoners and persecuted Jews could be disqualified from victim status if they were discovered to be homosexual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201834–35-170">[169]</a> In the 1950s <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Klimmer" title="Rudolf Klimmer">Rudolf Klimmer</a> unsuccessfully petitioned the East German government to recognize homosexuals as victims of Nazism and offer them compensation in line with that for other victims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002323–324-171">[170]</a> In West Germany in the 1970s activists made similar demands, but these were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201445-172">[171]</a> In 1985 the Nazi persecution of homosexuals was officially recognized for the first time in <a href="/w/index.php?title=1985_Richard_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker_speech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1985 Richard von Weizsäcker speech (page does not exist)">a speech</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zum_40._Jahrestag_der_Beendigung_des_Krieges_in_Europa_und_der_nationalsozialistischen_Gewaltherrschaft" class="extiw" title="de:Zum 40. Jahrestag der Beendigung des Krieges in Europa und der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft">de</a>] by West German president <a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Richard von Weizsäcker">Richard von Weizsäcker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021383-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336-173">[172]</a> In 2002, Germany annulled the Nazi-era judgements under Paragraph 175,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202191-174">[173]</a> and in 2017, victims were offered compensation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202177-175">[174]</a> The 2017 annulment of judgements and compensation extended to men who were convicted after 1945, making this the only case in which the German state offered reparations for acts not considered "typical Nazi injustice" that would not be possible in a democratic state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202178-176">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg/220px-Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg/330px-Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg/440px-Denkmal_fuer_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_Berlin2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Berlin's <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_Homosexuals_Persecuted_Under_Nazism" title="Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted Under Nazism">Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted Under Nazism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tiergarten_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiergarten Park">Tiergarten Park</a></figcaption></figure> Before 1970, there were hardly any references to the persecution of homosexuals. This changed in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a> and the partial decriminalization of homosexuality in Germany that triggered the era of <a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">gay liberation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175-177">[176]</a> The memory of the Nazi persecution of homosexuals came to the attention of the LGBT community in the 1970s as large-scale <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights movements">LGBT rights movements</a> developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002321-178">[177]</a> The awareness of homosexuals as a separate category of Nazi victims began in the United States and was later adopted by German homosexual activists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020177-179">[178]</a> The term "Homocaust" came into use shortly after "<a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust" title="Names of the Holocaust">Holocaust</a>"; activists claimed there had been 250,000 deaths but historical research soon refuted this number.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175,_177-180">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Sherman_(dramatist)" title="Martin Sherman (dramatist)">Martin Sherman</a>'s 1979 play <a href="/wiki/Bent_(play)" title="Bent (play)">Bent</a> brought additional attention of the Nazi persecution of homosexuals in English-speaking countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifert200394,_108-181">[180]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">pink triangle</a> became one of the most-prominent symbols of gay liberation in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifert200394-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175-177">[176]</a> Activists use the symbol to connect Nazi persecution to present-day discrimination and violence against LGBT people, and to mobilize opposition against it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002320,_326–327-183">[182]</a> The practice of laying memorial wreaths in concentration camps in memory of homosexual victims began in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021383-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336-173">[172]</a> Permanent memorials were added to several concentration camps, including Mauthausen (1984), Sachsenhausen (1992), Dachau (1995), and Buchenwald (2002).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021382-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336-173">[172]</a> This memorialization encountered strong resistance from established survivor associations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021382-133">[133]</a> Memorials have also been constructed in several German cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Engel" title="Frankfurter Engel">Frankfurt</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_gay_and_lesbian_victims_of_National_Socialism" title="Memorial to gay and lesbian victims of National Socialism">Cologne</a> (1995), <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_Homosexuals_Persecuted_Under_Nazism" title="Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted Under Nazism">Berlin</a> (2008), and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Memorial_to_Homosexuals_Persecuted_under_Nazism_in_L%C3%BCbeck&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted under Nazism in Lübeck (page does not exist)">Lübeck</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denkmal_f%C3%BCr_im_Nationalsozialismus_verfolgte_Homosexuelle_in_L%C3%BCbeck" class="extiw" title="de:Denkmal für im Nationalsozialismus verfolgte Homosexuelle in Lübeck">de</a>] (2016). <a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBT_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of LGBT monuments and memorials">Memorials to Nazi persecution of homosexuals</a> have also been constructed in <a href="/wiki/Homomonument" title="Homomonument">Amsterdam</a>, Bologna, Turin, Barcelona, <a href="/wiki/Pink_Triangle_Park" title="Pink Triangle Park">San Francisco</a>, New York, Montevideo, <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Gay_and_Lesbian_Holocaust_Memorial" title="Sydney Gay and Lesbian Holocaust Memorial">Sydney</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Memorial_to_Gays_and_Lesbians_Persecuted_in_the_Shoah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memorial to Gays and Lesbians Persecuted in the Shoah (page does not exist)">Tel Aviv</a> [<a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%95_%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_(%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%91)" class="extiw" title="he:אנדרטה לזכר ההומואים והלסביות שנרדפו בשואה (תל אביב)">he</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016252-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrangias_''et_al.''2018707–709-185">[184]</a> Hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Stolpersteine" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolpersteine">Stolpersteine</a> have been installed to commemorate individual victims of the Nazis' anti-homosexual persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBollmann2014129-112">[112]</a> In the United States there was less emphasis on memorialization<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002338-186">[185]</a> and more explicit comparisons between the Jewish Holocaust and persecution of homosexuals. German gay activists tended to see a close parallel to the Nazi persecution of communists and socialists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002342-187">[186]</a> Sources attesting to the Nazi persecution of homosexuals are scarce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821-188">[187]</a> Most homosexuals, especially those who avoided arrest, never spoke about their experiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016240–241-189">[188]</a> The Nazis destroyed a great number of records, including the archive of the Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion. Remaining sources are mainly in the form of police and court records.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821-188">[187]</a> In 1972 concentration camp survivor <a href="/wiki/Josef_Kohout" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Kohout">Josef Kohout</a> published his memoir, The Men With the Pink Triangle, which is one of few accounts from a pink-triangle prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002325-190">[189]</a> The first historical research appeared at the end of the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201443-191">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbians_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Lesbians in Nazi Germany">Lesbians in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Transgender people in Nazi Germany">Transgender people in Nazi Germany</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> A euphemism for the premeditated murder of concentration camp prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestermann201898–99,_104–105-139">[139]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 19em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant201692-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant201692_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015214-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015214_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164,_17-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant20164,_17_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, pp. 4, 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010385-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010385_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles2010">Giles 2010</a>, p. 385. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015202–203-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015202–203_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, pp. 202–203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016200-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016200_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015176-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015176_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2001240-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2001240_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles2001">Giles 2001</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010387_10-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles2010">Giles 2010</a>, p. 387. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016106-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016106_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015144_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWachsmann2015">Wachsmann 2015</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann2015146_13-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWachsmann2015">Wachsmann 2015</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015151–152-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015151–152_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, pp. 151–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015152-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015152_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016206–207-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016206–207_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, pp. 206–207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016208-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016208_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016208_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015154-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015154_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHancock1998635-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHancock1998635_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHancock1998">Hancock 1998</a>, p. 635. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnoll2017227-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnoll2017227_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKnoll2017">Knoll 2017</a>, p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015155-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015155_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016201-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016201_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386–387-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386–387_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles2010">Giles 2010</a>, pp. 386–387. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015193-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015193_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles2010386_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles2010">Giles 2010</a>, p. 386. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerzog201171-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerzog201171_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerzog2011">Herzog 2011</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015175–176-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015175–176_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, pp. 175–176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209–210-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016209–210_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, pp. 209–210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015174–175-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarhoefer2015174–175_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarhoefer2015">Marhoefer 2015</a>, pp. 174–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016210-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016210_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021379_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021379_163-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz2021">Schwartz 2021</a>, p. 379. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016250-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016250_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201835-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201835_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlagdenhauffen2018">Schlagdenhauffen 2018</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016251-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016251_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201448-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrau201448_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrau201448_167-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrau2014">Grau 2014</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021377-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz2021377_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz2021">Schwartz 2021</a>, p. 377. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b6-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZinn2020b6_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZinn2020b">Zinn 2020b</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201834–35-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201834–35_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlagdenhauffen2018">Schlagdenhauffen 2018</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002323–324-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002323–324_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, pp. 323–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201445-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrau201445_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrau2014">Grau 2014</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002336_173-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202191-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraun202191_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBraun2021">Braun 2021</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202177-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraun202177_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBraun2021">Braun 2021</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraun202178-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraun202178_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBraun2021">Braun 2021</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175_177-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLautmann2020">Lautmann 2020</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002321-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002321_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020177-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELautmann2020177_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLautmann2020">Lautmann 2020</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175,_177-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELautmann2020175,_177_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLautmann2020">Lautmann 2020</a>, pp. 175, 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifert200394,_108-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeifert200394,_108_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeifert2003">Seifert 2003</a>, pp. 94, 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifert200394-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeifert200394_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeifert2003">Seifert 2003</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002320,_326–327-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002320,_326–327_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, pp. 320, 326–327. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016252-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016252_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrangias_''et_al.''2018707–709-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrangias_''et_al.''2018707–709_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrangias_et_al.2018">Orangias et al. 2018</a>, pp. 707–709. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002338-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002338_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, p. 338. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002342-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002342_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, p. 342. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821_188-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlagdenhauffen201821_188-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlagdenhauffen2018">Schlagdenhauffen 2018</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016240–241-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhisnant2016240–241_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhisnant2016">Whisnant 2016</a>, pp. 240–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2002325-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen2002325_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJensen2002">Jensen 2002</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrau201443-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrau201443_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrau2014">Grau 2014</a>, p. 43. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dagmar_Herzog" title="Dagmar Herzog">Herzog, Dagmar</a> (2011). Sexuality in Europe: A Twentieth-Century History. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87096-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87096-2"><bdi>978-0-521-87096-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexuality+in+Europe%3A+A+Twentieth-Century+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87096-2&rft.aulast=Herzog&rft.aufirst=Dagmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongerich2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Longerich" title="Peter Longerich">Longerich, Peter</a> (2011). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161705-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161705-8"><bdi>978-0-19-161705-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heinrich+Himmler%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-161705-8&rft.aulast=Longerich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorenz2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lorenz, Gottfried (2018). Todesurteile und Hinrichtungen wegen homosexueller Handlungen während der NS-Zeit: Mann-männliche Internetprostitution. Und andere Texte zur Geschichte und zur Situation der Homosexuellen in Deutschland [Death sentences and executions for homosexual acts during the Nazi era, male-male internet prostitution, and other texts on the history and situation of homosexuals in Germany] (in German). <a href="/wiki/LIT_Verlag" title="LIT Verlag">LIT Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-13992-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-643-13992-4"><bdi>978-3-643-13992-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Todesurteile+und+Hinrichtungen+wegen+homosexueller+Handlungen+w%C3%A4hrend+der+NS-Zeit%3A+Mann-m%C3%A4nnliche+Internetprostitution.+Und+andere+Texte+zur+Geschichte+und+zur+Situation+der+Homosexuellen+in+Deutschland&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-643-13992-4&rft.aulast=Lorenz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarhoefer2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurie_Marhoefer" title="Laurie Marhoefer">Marhoefer, Laurie</a> (2015). Sex and the Weimar Republic: German Homosexual Emancipation and the Rise of the Nazis. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1957-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1957-9"><bdi>978-1-4426-1957-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+and+the+Weimar+Republic%3A+German+Homosexual+Emancipation+and+the+Rise+of+the+Nazis&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-1957-9&rft.aulast=Marhoefer&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewsome2022" class="citation book cs1">Newsome, W. Jake (2022). Pink Triangle Legacies: Coming Out in the Shadow of the Holocaust. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-6549-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-6549-0"><bdi>978-1-5017-6549-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pink+Triangle+Legacies%3A+Coming+Out+in+the+Shadow+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-6549-0&rft.aulast=Newsome&rft.aufirst=W.+Jake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2007" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, David Raub (2007). Sex Crimes Under the Wehrmacht. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-0742-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-0742-4"><bdi>978-0-8032-0742-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+Crimes+Under+the+Wehrmacht&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-0742-4&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=David+Raub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStorkmann2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Storkmann, Klaus (2021). Tabu und Toleranz: Der Umgang mit Homosexualität in der Bundeswehr 1955 bis 2000 [Taboo and Tolerance: Homosexuality and the Bundeswehr 1955 to 2000] (in German). <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-073290-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-073290-0"><bdi>978-3-11-073290-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tabu+und+Toleranz%3A+Der+Umgang+mit+Homosexualit%C3%A4t+in+der+Bundeswehr+1955+bis+2000&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-11-073290-0&rft.aulast=Storkmann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVendrell2020" class="citation book cs1">Vendrell, Javier Samper (2020). Seduction of Youth: Print Culture and Homosexual Rights in the Weimar Republic. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-2503-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-2503-3"><bdi>978-1-4875-2503-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seduction+of+Youth%3A+Print+Culture+and+Homosexual+Rights+in+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4875-2503-3&rft.aulast=Vendrell&rft.aufirst=Javier+Samper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachsmann2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Wachsmann" title="Nikolaus Wachsmann">Wachsmann, Nikolaus</a> (2015) [2004]. <a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_Prisons" title="Hitler's Prisons">Hitler's Prisons: Legal Terror in Nazi Germany</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22829-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22829-8"><bdi>978-0-300-22829-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Prisons%3A+Legal+Terror+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22829-8&rft.aulast=Wachsmann&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeindling2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Weindling" title="Paul Weindling">Weindling, Paul</a> (2015). Victims and Survivors of Nazi Human Experiments: Science and Suffering in the Holocaust. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomsbury Academic">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7990-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7990-6"><bdi>978-1-4411-7990-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victims+and+Survivors+of+Nazi+Human+Experiments%3A+Science+and+Suffering+in+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-7990-6&rft.aulast=Weindling&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhisnant2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clayton_J._Whisnant" title="Clayton J. Whisnant">Whisnant, Clayton J.</a> (2016). Queer Identities and Politics in Germany: A History, 1880–1945. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939594-10-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939594-10-5"><bdi>978-1-939594-10-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queer+Identities+and+Politics+in+Germany%3A+A+History%2C+1880%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-939594-10-5&rft.aulast=Whisnant&rft.aufirst=Clayton+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWünschmann2015" class="citation book cs1">Wünschmann, Kim (2015). <a href="/wiki/Before_Auschwitz" title="Before Auschwitz">Before Auschwitz: Jewish Prisoners in the Prewar Concentration Camps</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-96759-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-96759-5"><bdi>978-0-674-96759-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Auschwitz%3A+Jewish+Prisoners+in+the+Prewar+Concentration+Camps&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-96759-5&rft.aulast=W%C3%BCnschmann&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zinn, Alexander (2018). Aus dem Volkskörper entfernt?: Homosexuelle Männer im Nationalsozialismus [Removed from the national body? Homosexual men under National Socialism] (in German). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Campus-Verlag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Campus-Verlag (page does not exist)">Campus-Verlag</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus-Verlag" class="extiw" title="de:Campus-Verlag">de</a>]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-593-50863-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-593-50863-4"><bdi>978-3-593-50863-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aus+dem+Volksk%C3%B6rper+entfernt%3F%3A+Homosexuelle+M%C3%A4nner+im+Nationalsozialismus&rft.pub=Campus-Verlag%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+%22%3E+%26%2391%3Bde%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-593-50863-4&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinweis2017" class="citation book cs1">Steinweis, Alan E. (2017). Art, Ideology, and Economics in Nazi Germany. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807864791" title="Special:BookSources/9780807864791"><bdi>9780807864791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Economics+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780807864791&rft.aulast=Steinweis&rft.aufirst=Alan+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chapters">Chapters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Chapters">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraun2021" class="citation book cs1">Braun, Kathrin (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783839445501-004/html">"Justice at Last: The Persecution of Homosexual Men and the Politics of Amends"</a>. Biopolitics and Historic Justice: Coming to Terms with the Injuries of Normality. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transcript_Verlag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transcript Verlag (page does not exist)">transcript Verlag</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/transcript_Verlag" class="extiw" title="de:transcript Verlag">de</a>]. pp. 77–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783839445501-004">10.1515/9783839445501-004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8394-4550-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8394-4550-1"><bdi>978-3-8394-4550-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Justice+at+Last%3A+The+Persecution+of+Homosexual+Men+and+the+Politics+of+Amends&rft.btitle=Biopolitics+and+Historic+Justice%3A+Coming+to+Terms+with+the+Injuries+of+Normality&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.pub=transcript+Verlag%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+%22%3E+%26%2391%3Bde%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783839445501-004&rft.isbn=978-3-8394-4550-1&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Kathrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783839445501-004%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBollmann2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bollmann, Ulf (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/9783486857504.129/html">"Gemeinsam gegen das Vergessen – Stolpersteine für homosexuelle NS-Opfer"</a> [Together against oblivion – Stolpersteine for homosexual Nazi victims]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/317433">Homosexuelle im Nationalsozialismus: Neue Forschungsperspektiven zu Lebenssituationen von lesbischen, schwulen, bi-, trans- und intersexuellen Menschen 1933 bis 1945</a> [Homosexuals Under National Socialism: New Research Perspectives on the Life Circumstances of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, and Intersexual Persons from 1933 to 1945] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 129–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2F9783486857504.129">10.1524/9783486857504.129</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4"><bdi>978-3-486-85750-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gemeinsam+gegen+das+Vergessen+%E2%80%93+Stolpersteine+f%C3%BCr+homosexuelle+NS-Opfer&rft.btitle=Homosexuelle+im+Nationalsozialismus%3A+Neue+Forschungsperspektiven+zu+Lebenssituationen+von+lesbischen%2C+schwulen%2C+bi-%2C+trans-+und+intersexuellen+Menschen+1933+bis+1945&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.129&rft.isbn=978-3-486-85750-4&rft.aulast=Bollmann&rft.aufirst=Ulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.129%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_J._Giles" title="Geoffrey J. Giles">Giles, Geoffrey J.</a> (2001). "The Institutionalization of Homosexual Panic in the Third Reich". <a href="/wiki/Social_Outsiders_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany">Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 233–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18835-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18835-5"><bdi>978-0-691-18835-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Institutionalization+of+Homosexual+Panic+in+the+Third+Reich&rft.btitle=Social+Outsiders+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18835-5&rft.aulast=Giles&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles2010" class="citation book cs1">Giles, Geoffrey J. (2010). "The Persecution of Gay Men and Lesbians During the Third Reich". The Routledge History of the Holocaust. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 385–396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-83744-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-83744-3"><bdi>978-0-203-83744-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Persecution+of+Gay+Men+and+Lesbians+During+the+Third+Reich&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+History+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E396&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-203-83744-3&rft.aulast=Giles&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrau2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grau, Günter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/9783486857504.43/html">"Die Verfolgung der Homosexualität im Nationalsozialismus: Anmerkungen zum Forschungsstand"</a> [The persecution of homosexuality under National Socialism: Commentary on the state of research]. In Schwartz, Michael (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/317433">Homosexuelle im Nationalsozialismus: Neue Forschungsperspektiven zu Lebenssituationen von lesbischen, schwulen, bi-, trans- und intersexuellen Menschen 1933 bis 1945</a> [Homosexuals Under National Socialism: New Research Perspectives on the Life Circumstances of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, and Intersexual Persons from 1933 to 1945] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 43–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2F9783486857504.43">10.1524/9783486857504.43</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4"><bdi>978-3-486-85750-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Verfolgung+der+Homosexualit%C3%A4t+im+Nationalsozialismus%3A+Anmerkungen+zum+Forschungsstand&rft.btitle=Homosexuelle+im+Nationalsozialismus%3A+Neue+Forschungsperspektiven+zu+Lebenssituationen+von+lesbischen%2C+schwulen%2C+bi-%2C+trans-+und+intersexuellen+Menschen+1933+bis+1945&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.43&rft.isbn=978-3-486-85750-4&rft.aulast=Grau&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.43%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirchknopf2018" class="citation book cs1">Kirchknopf, Johann K. (2018). "The Anschluss – Also a sexual annexation?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217041539/https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">Queer in Europe during the Second World War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>. pp. 39–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1"><bdi>978-92-871-8464-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">the original</a> on 17 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Anschluss+%E2%80%93+Also+a+sexual+annexation%3F&rft.btitle=Queer+in+Europe+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-871-8464-1&rft.aulast=Kirchknopf&rft.aufirst=Johann+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frm.coe.int%2F079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web%2F16808e4a53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnoll2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Knoll, Albert (2017). ""Es muß alles versucht werden, um dieses widernatürliche Laster auszurotten": Homosexuelle Häftlinge in den frühen Konzentrationslagern" ["Everything must be tried to eradicate this unnatural vice": Homosexual prisoners in the early concentration camps]. ... der schrankenlosesten Willkür ausgeliefert: Häftlinge der frühen Konzentrationslager 1933–1936/37 [... at the mercy of the most unrestrained arbitrariness: prisoners of the early concentration camps 1933–1936/37] (in German). Campus Verlag. pp. 221–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-593-50702-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-593-50702-6"><bdi>978-3-593-50702-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Es+mu%C3%9F+alles+versucht+werden%2C+um+dieses+widernat%C3%BCrliche+Laster+auszurotten%22%3A+Homosexuelle+H%C3%A4ftlinge+in+den+fr%C3%BChen+Konzentrationslagern&rft.btitle=...+der+schrankenlosesten+Willk%C3%BCr+ausgeliefert%3A+H%C3%A4ftlinge+der+fr%C3%BChen+Konzentrationslager+1933%E2%80%931936%2F37&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Campus+Verlag&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-593-50702-6&rft.aulast=Knoll&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLautmann2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lautmann, Rüdiger (2020). "Engführungen des Erinnerns an die NS-Homosexuellenrepression und an die Shoah". Ko-Erinnerung: Grenzen, Herausforderungen und Perspektiven des neueren Shoah-Gedenkens [Commemoration: Limits, Challenges, and Possibilities in Contemporary Shoah Remembrance] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 175–192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-062270-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-062270-6"><bdi>978-3-11-062270-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Engf%C3%BChrungen+des+Erinnerns+an+die+NS-Homosexuellenrepression+und+an+die+Shoah&rft.btitle=Ko-Erinnerung%3A+Grenzen%2C+Herausforderungen+und+Perspektiven+des+neueren+Shoah-Gedenkens&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E192&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-11-062270-6&rft.aulast=Lautmann&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2017" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Melanie (2017). "Homosexuality and the Law in the Third Reich". Nazi Law – From Nuremberg to Nuremberg. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 110–124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-00726-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-00726-0"><bdi>978-1-350-00726-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Homosexuality+and+the+Law+in+the+Third+Reich&rft.btitle=Nazi+Law+%E2%80%93+From+Nuremberg+to+Nuremberg&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-350-00726-0&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Melanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlagdenhauffen2018" class="citation book cs1">Schlagdenhauffen, Régis (2018). "Queer life in Europe during the Second World War" and "Punishing homosexual men and women under the Third Reich". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217041539/https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">Queer in Europe during the Second World War</a>. Council of Europe. pp. 7–20, 21–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1"><bdi>978-92-871-8464-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">the original</a> on 17 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Queer+life+in+Europe+during+the+Second+World+War%22+and+%22Punishing+homosexual+men+and+women+under+the+Third+Reich&rft.btitle=Queer+in+Europe+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E20%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-871-8464-1&rft.aulast=Schlagdenhauffen&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9gis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frm.coe.int%2F079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web%2F16808e4a53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schwartz, Michael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/9783486857504.11/html">"Verfolgte Homosexuelle – oder Lebenssituationen von LSBT*QI*?"</a> [Persecution of homosexuals – or life circumstances of LGBT*QI*?]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/317433">Homosexuelle im Nationalsozialismus: Neue Forschungsperspektiven zu Lebenssituationen von lesbischen, schwulen, bi-, trans- und intersexuellen Menschen 1933 bis 1945</a> [Homosexuals Under National Socialism: New Research Perspectives on the Life Circumstances of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, and Intersexual Persons from 1933 to 1945] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 11–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2F9783486857504.11">10.1524/9783486857504.11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-85750-4"><bdi>978-3-486-85750-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Verfolgte+Homosexuelle+%E2%80%93+oder+Lebenssituationen+von+LSBT%2AQI%2A%3F&rft.btitle=Homosexuelle+im+Nationalsozialismus%3A+Neue+Forschungsperspektiven+zu+Lebenssituationen+von+lesbischen%2C+schwulen%2C+bi-%2C+trans-+und+intersexuellen+Menschen+1933+bis+1945&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.11&rft.isbn=978-3-486-85750-4&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1524%2F9783486857504.11%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidl2018" class="citation book cs1">Seidl, Jan (2018). "Legal Imbroglio in the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217041539/https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">Queer in Europe during the Second World War</a>. Council of Europe. pp. 53–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-871-8464-1"><bdi>978-92-871-8464-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rm.coe.int/079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web/16808e4a53">the original</a> on 17 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legal+Imbroglio+in+the+Protectorate+of+Bohemia-Moravia&rft.btitle=Queer+in+Europe+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-871-8464-1&rft.aulast=Seidl&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frm.coe.int%2F079317-queer-in-europe-during-the-second-world-war-web-web%2F16808e4a53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn2020a" class="citation book cs1">Zinn, Alexander (2020a). "'Gegen das Sittengesetz': Staatliche Homosexuellenverfolgung in Deutschland 1933–1969" ["Against the Moral Law": State persecution of homosexuals in Germany 1933–1969]. Homosexuelle in Deutschland 1933–1969 [Homosexuals in Germany 1933–1969]. <a href="/wiki/V%26R_unipress" class="mw-redirect" title="V&R unipress">V&R unipress</a>. pp. 15–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8471-1169-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8471-1169-6"><bdi>978-3-8471-1169-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Gegen+das+Sittengesetz%27%3A+Staatliche+Homosexuellenverfolgung+in+Deutschland+1933%E2%80%931969&rft.btitle=Homosexuelle+in+Deutschland+1933%E2%80%931969&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.pub=V%26R+unipress&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-8471-1169-6&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Journal articles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouthamel2018" class="citation journal cs1">Crouthamel, Jason (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008938918000602">"Homosexuality and Comradeship: Destabilizing the Hegemonic Masculine Ideal in Nazi Germany"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_European_History" title="Central European History">Central European History</a>. 51 (3): 419–439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008938918000602">10.1017/S0008938918000602</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-9389">0008-9389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+European+History&rft.atitle=Homosexuality+and+Comradeship%3A+Destabilizing+the+Hegemonic+Masculine+Ideal+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E419-%3C%2Fspan%3E439&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0008938918000602&rft.issn=0008-9389&rft.aulast=Crouthamel&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0008938918000602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHancock1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hancock, Eleanor (1998). "'Only the Real, the True, the Masculine Held Its Value': Ernst Röhm, Masculinity, and Male Homosexuality". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_History_of_Sexuality" title="Journal of the History of Sexuality">Journal of the History of Sexuality</a>. 8 (4): 616–641. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4070">1043-4070</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3840412">3840412</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11620476">11620476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Sexuality&rft.atitle=%27Only+the+Real%2C+the+True%2C+the+Masculine+Held+Its+Value%27%3A+Ernst+R%C3%B6hm%2C+Masculinity%2C+and+Male+Homosexuality&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E616-%3C%2Fspan%3E641&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=1043-4070&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3840412%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11620476&rft.aulast=Hancock&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2002" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Erik N. (2002). "The Pink Triangle and Political Consciousness: Gays, Lesbians, and the Memory of Nazi Persecution". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_History_of_Sexuality" title="Journal of the History of Sexuality">Journal of the History of Sexuality</a>. 11 (1/2): 319–349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsex.2002.0008">10.1353/sex.2002.0008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4070">1043-4070</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704560">3704560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Sexuality&rft.atitle=The+Pink+Triangle+and+Political+Consciousness%3A+Gays%2C+Lesbians%2C+and+the+Memory+of+Nazi+Persecution&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E319-%3C%2Fspan%3E349&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1043-4070&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3704560%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fsex.2002.0008&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Erik+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrangias_et_al.2018" class="citation journal cs1">Orangias, Joseph; Simms, Jeannie; French, Sloane (2018). "The Cultural Functions and Social Potential of Queer Monuments: A Preliminary Inventory and Analysis". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Homosexuality" title="Journal of Homosexuality">Journal of Homosexuality</a>. 65 (6): 705–726. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00918369.2017.1364106">10.1080/00918369.2017.1364106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28777713">28777713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Homosexuality&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Functions+and+Social+Potential+of+Queer+Monuments%3A+A+Preliminary+Inventory+and+Analysis&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E705-%3C%2Fspan%3E726&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00918369.2017.1364106&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28777713&rft.aulast=Orangias&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Simms%2C+Jeannie&rft.au=French%2C+Sloane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMicheler2002" class="citation journal cs1">Micheler, Stefan (2002). "Homophobic Propaganda and the Denunciation of Same-Sex-Desiring Men under National Socialism". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 11 (1): 105–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsex.2002.0011">10.1353/sex.2002.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-3605">1535-3605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Sexuality&rft.atitle=Homophobic+Propaganda+and+the+Denunciation+of+Same-Sex-Desiring+Men+under+National+Socialism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fsex.2002.0011&rft.issn=1535-3605&rft.aulast=Micheler&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheck2020" class="citation journal cs1">Scheck, Raffael (2020). "The Danger of "Moral Sabotage": Western Prisoners of War on Trial for Homosexual Relations in Nazi Germany". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 29 (3): 418–446. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7560%2FJHS29305">10.7560/JHS29305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Sexuality&rft.atitle=The+Danger+of+%22Moral+Sabotage%22%3A+Western+Prisoners+of+War+on+Trial+for+Homosexual+Relations+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E418-%3C%2Fspan%3E446&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7560%2FJHS29305&rft.aulast=Scheck&rft.aufirst=Raffael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2021" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schwartz, Michael (2021). "Homosexuelle im modernen Deutschland: Eine Langzeitperspektive auf historische Transformationen" [Homosexuals in Modern Germany: A Long-Term Perspective on Historical Transformations]. <a href="/wiki/Vierteljahrshefte_f%C3%BCr_Zeitgeschichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte">Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte</a> (in German). 69 (3): 377–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fvfzg-2021-0028">10.1515/vfzg-2021-0028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vierteljahrshefte+f%C3%BCr+Zeitgeschichte&rft.atitle=Homosexuelle+im+modernen+Deutschland%3A+Eine+Langzeitperspektive+auf+historische+Transformationen&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E377-%3C%2Fspan%3E414&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fvfzg-2021-0028&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeifert2003" class="citation journal cs1">Seifert, Dorthe (2003). "Between Silence and License: The Representation of the National Socialist Persecution of Homosexuality in Anglo-American Fiction and Film". <a href="/wiki/History_%26_Memory" title="History & Memory">History & Memory</a>. 15 (2): 94–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fham.2003.0012">10.1353/ham.2003.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1527-1994">1527-1994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+%26+Memory&rft.atitle=Between+Silence+and+License%3A+The+Representation+of+the+National+Socialist+Persecution+of+Homosexuality+in+Anglo-American+Fiction+and+Film&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E129&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fham.2003.0012&rft.issn=1527-1994&rft.aulast=Seifert&rft.aufirst=Dorthe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestermann2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Westermann" title="Edward B. Westermann">Westermann, Edward B.</a> (2018). "'Shot While Trying to Escape': Procedural Legality and State-Sanctioned Killing in Nazi Germany". <a href="/wiki/Dapim:_Studies_on_the_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust">Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust</a>. 32 (2): 93–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23256249.2018.1459277">10.1080/23256249.2018.1459277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dapim%3A+Studies+on+the+Holocaust&rft.atitle=%27Shot+While+Trying+to+Escape%27%3A+Procedural+Legality+and+State-Sanctioned+Killing+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E111&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23256249.2018.1459277&rft.aulast=Westermann&rft.aufirst=Edward+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+homosexuals+in+Nazi+Germany" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn2020b" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zinn, Alexander (2020b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fritz-bauer-institut.de/fileadmin/editorial/publikationen/einsicht/Einsicht-2020_Einzelseiten.pdf">"'Das sind Staatsfeinde' Die NS-Homosexuellenverfolgung 1933–1945"</a> ["They are enemies of the state": The Nazi persecution of homosexuals 1933–1945] (PDF). Bulletin des Fritz Bauer Instituts (in German): 6–13. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1868-4211">1868-4211</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fritz-bauer-institut.de/fileadmin/editorial/publikationen/einsicht/Einsicht-2020_Einzelseiten.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft" title="Institut für Sexualwissenschaft">Institut für Sexualwissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6hm_scandal" title="Röhm scandal">Röhm scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Night of the Long Knives">Night of the Long Knives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_Nazis_myth" title="Gay Nazis myth">Gay Nazis myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragraph_175" title="Paragraph 175">Paragraph 175</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malicious_Practices_Act_1933" title="Malicious Practices Act 1933">Malicious Practices Act 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">Pink triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Germany">LGBT history in Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbians_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Lesbians in Nazi Germany">Lesbians in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Transgender people in Nazi Germany">Transgender people in Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perpetrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Central_Office_for_the_Combating_of_Homosexuality_and_Abortion" title="Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion">Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl-Heinz_Rodenberg" title="Carl-Heinz Rodenberg">Carl-Heinz Rodenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Heinrich_Schultz" title="Johannes Heinrich Schultz">Johannes Heinrich Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_V%C3%A6rnet" title="Carl Værnet">Carl Værnet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Victims and survivors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_homosexual_movement" title="First homosexual movement">First homosexual movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Friedrich_Abert" title="Joseph Friedrich Abert">Joseph Friedrich Abert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Becker" title="Albrecht Becker">Albrecht Becker </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Brazda" title="Rudolf Brazda">Rudolf Brazda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_von_Cramm" title="Gottfried von Cramm">Gottfried von Cramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_D%C3%B6rmer" title="Heinz Dörmer">Heinz Dörmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gorath" title="Karl Gorath">Karl Gorath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich-Paul_von_Groszheim" title="Friedrich-Paul von Groszheim">Friedrich-Paul von Groszheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Grune" title="Richard Grune">Richard Grune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heckmann" title="Wilhelm Heckmann">Wilhelm Heckmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Peltzer" title="Otto Peltzer">Otto Peltzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Ruffin" title="Kurt von Ruffin">Kurt von Ruffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Seel" title="Pierre Seel">Pierre Seel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Clasen" title="Leo Clasen">Leo Clasen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDS%E2%80%93Holocaust_metaphor" title="AIDS–Holocaust metaphor">AIDS–Holocaust metaphor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silence%3DDeath_Project" title="Silence=Death Project">Silence=Death Project</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_Homosexuals_Persecuted_Under_Nazism" title="Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted Under Nazism">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_gay_and_lesbian_victims_of_National_Socialism" title="Memorial to gay and lesbian victims of National Socialism">Cologne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Engel" title="Frankfurter Engel">Frankfurter Engel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homomonument" title="Homomonument">Homomonument</a> (Amsterdam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_Triangle_Park" title="Pink Triangle Park">Pink Triangle Park</a> (San Francisco)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Gay_and_Lesbian_Holocaust_Memorial" title="Sydney Gay and Lesbian Holocaust Memorial">Sydney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Memorial_to_Gays_and_Lesbians_Persecuted_in_the_Shoah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memorial to Gays and Lesbians Persecuted in the Shoah (page does not exist)">Tel Aviv</a> [<a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%95_%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_(%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%91)" class="extiw" title="he:אנדרטה לזכר ההומואים והלסביות שנרדפו בשואה (תל אביב)">he</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bent_(play)" title="Bent (play)">Bent (play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_(1997_film)" title="Bent (1997 film)">Bent (1997 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Love_to_Hide" title="A Love to Hide">A Love to Hide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Rosa_Nudo" title="Il Rosa Nudo">Il Rosa Nudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Men_With_the_Pink_Triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Men With the Pink Triangle">The Men With the Pink Triangle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust17" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust" title="Template talk:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust17" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgarian-occupied_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Bulgarian-occupied Greece">Bulgarian-occupied Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a> and colonies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Libya" title="The Holocaust in Libya">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yugoslavia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_North_Macedonia" title="The Holocaust in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_German-occupied_Serbia" title="The Holocaust in German-occupied Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust" title="Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust">Evidence and documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Contemporary knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_children_during_the_Holocaust" title="Hidden children during the Holocaust">Hidden children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_Holocaust" title="Japan and the Holocaust">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_the_Holocaust" title="Philippines and the Holocaust">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_and_the_Holocaust" title="Portugal and the Holocaust">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_Holocaust" title="Spain and the Holocaust">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_the_Holocaust" title="Sweden and the Holocaust">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Catholics_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust">by Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">by Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Camps_and_ghettos17" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Camps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">ghettos</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>be</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France">fr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_concentration_camps" title="List of Italian concentration camps">it</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risiera_di_San_Sabba" title="Risiera di San Sabba">Risiera di San Sabba</a></li> <li>nl</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamp_Schoorl" title="Kamp Schoorl">Schoorl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li> <li>sk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust" title="Death marches during the Holocaust">Death marches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovno_Ghetto" title="Kovno Ghetto">Kovno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto" title="Theresienstadt Ghetto">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews_in_Germany" title="Reich Association of Jews in Germany">Reich Association of Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Astred%C5%88a_%C5%BDidov" title="Ústredňa Židov">Ústredňa Židov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Victims17" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roundup_(police_action)" title="Roundup (police action)">Roundups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pogroms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">1941 pogroms in eastern Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_Lithuania" title="1941 pogroms in Lithuania">in Lithuania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Holocaust trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mass executions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maly_Trostenets" title="Maly Trostenets">Maly Trostenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielski_partisans" title="Bielski partisans">Bielski partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_and_Rescue_Committee" title="Aid and Rescue Committee">Aid and Rescue Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_twentieth_convoy" title="Attack on the twentieth convoy">Attack on the twentieth convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastner_train" title="Kastner train">Kastner train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chambon-sur-Lignon" title="Le Chambon-sur-Lignon">Le Chambon-sur-Lignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Danish underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Group_(resistance_organization)" title="Working Group (resistance organization)">Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Soviet urban residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_security_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi security warfare">Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">People with disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Polish leaders and intellectuals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Responsibility17" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Head_Office_Referat_IV_B4" title="Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4">Referat IV B4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Regiment_Centre" title="Police Regiment Centre">Police Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_Police_battalions" title="Order Police battalions">Order Police battalions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandsche_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandsche SS">Nederlandsche SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topf_and_Sons" title="Topf and Sons">Topf and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawnikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian Auxiliary Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Early_elementsAftermathRemembrance17" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Early elements</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Remembrance</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Hitler's prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" 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