CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en-GB"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta http-equiv="Referrer-Policy" content="origin, strict-origin-when-cross-origin"> <link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11"> <link rel="pingback" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://use.typekit.net" crossorigin /> <link rel="preload" href="https://cdn-cookieyes.com/client_data/32a66075cd31d8fea8d5fadf/script.js" as="script" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.ampproject.org" crossorigin /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://in.hotjar.com" crossorigin /> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" >  <script src="//use.typekit.net/mfv1unu.js"></script> <script>try{Typekit.load({ async: true, active: function() { jQuery('body').addClass('typekit'); } });}catch(e){}</script>  <link href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/css/font-awesome.min.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />  <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-TQRT9K38');</script>  <meta name='robots' content='index, follow, max-image-preview:large, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1' /> <style>img:is([sizes="auto" i], [sizes^="auto," i]) { contain-intrinsic-size: 3000px 1500px }</style>  <title>Quantum gate teleportation connects atomic qubits in two labs – Physics World</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_GB" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Quantum gate teleportation connects atomic qubits in two labs – Physics World" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Distributed system sends flying qubits 60 m along optical fibre" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Physics World" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2021-02-16T17:00:46+00:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2021-02-18T10:40:38+00:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="801" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <meta name="author" content="No Author" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@PhysicsWorld" /> <script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/","name":"Quantum gate teleportation connects atomic qubits in two labs – Physics World","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg","datePublished":"2021-02-16T17:00:46+00:00","dateModified":"2021-02-18T10:40:38+00:00","author":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/9c3a671a40bae47f4281c2e58b89a730"},"breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-GB","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/#primaryimage","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg","width":1200,"height":801,"caption":"Quantum distributor: Severin Daiss adjusts one part of the team’s distributed quantum computer. (Courtesy: Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics)"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https://physicsworld.com/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Quantum gate teleportation connects atomic qubits in two labs"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website","url":"https://physicsworld.com/","name":"Physics World","description":"","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://physicsworld.com/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-GB"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/9c3a671a40bae47f4281c2e58b89a730","name":"No Author","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#/schema/person/image/","url":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/59c7726d03bb570d63a0310935ced1de?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/59c7726d03bb570d63a0310935ced1de?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"No Author"},"url":"https://physicsworld.com/author/no-author/"}]}</script>  <meta name="oas:article-type" content="research-updates" /> <meta name="oas:sub-category" content="quantum-computing" /> <meta name="oas:article-topic" content="quantum" /> <meta name="oas:article-id" content="93223" /><link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdn.jsdelivr.net' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//players.brightcove.net' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.7.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <style id='safe-svg-svg-icon-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .safe-svg-cover{text-align:center}.safe-svg-cover .safe-svg-inside{display:inline-block;max-width:100%}.safe-svg-cover svg{height:100%;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;width:100%} </style> <style id='powerpress-player-block-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> </style> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> :root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} :root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='nine3-style-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/css/main.1fa9a2d311a264afd5a12e9e5bbcf4cf.css?ver=6.7.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-pip-css-css' href='https://players.brightcove.net/videojs-pip/1/videojs-pip.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-playlist-css' href='https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/brightcove-video-connect/assets/css/brightcove_playlist.min.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' /> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js-extra"> var rootFolder = ["https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/real3d-flipbook\/"]; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/real3d-flipbook/js/frontend.js?ver=3.61" id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js"></script> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/wp/v2/posts/93223" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <link rel='shortlink' href='https://physicsworld.com/?p=93223' /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fquantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs%2F" /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (XML)" type="text/xml+oembed" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fquantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs%2F&format=xml" /> <script id="dzsap-main-settings" type="application/json">{"dzsap_site_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/","pluginurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/dzs-zoomsounds\/audioplayer\/","dzsap_curr_user":0,"version":"6.50","ajax_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","action_received_time_total":"send_total_time"}</script> <script type="text/javascript"> // tabnab protection window.addEventListener('load', function () { // make all links have rel="noopener noreferrer" document.querySelectorAll('a[target="_blank"]').forEach(link => { link.setAttribute('rel', 'noopener noreferrer'); }); }); </script>  <meta name="onesignal" content="wordpress-plugin"/> <script> window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; OneSignal.push( function() { OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_UPDATER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKUpdaterWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKWorker.js.php"; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PARAM = { scope: "/" }; OneSignal.setDefaultNotificationUrl("https://physicsworld.com"); var oneSignal_options = {}; window._oneSignalInitOptions = oneSignal_options; oneSignal_options['wordpress'] = true; oneSignal_options['appId'] = '7322d010-59eb-4b97-8b58-47d4ecec27f1'; oneSignal_options['allowLocalhostAsSecureOrigin'] = true; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification'] = { }; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['title'] = "Physics World"; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['message'] = ""; oneSignal_options['path'] = "https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/"; oneSignal_options['promptOptions'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['enable'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['position'] = 'bottom-right'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['theme'] = 'default'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['size'] = 'medium'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['showCredit'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['text'] = {}; OneSignal.init(window._oneSignalInitOptions); OneSignal.showSlidedownPrompt(); }); function documentInitOneSignal() { var oneSignal_elements = document.getElementsByClassName("OneSignal-prompt"); var oneSignalLinkClickHandler = function(event) { OneSignal.push(['registerForPushNotifications']); event.preventDefault(); }; for(var i = 0; i < oneSignal_elements.length; i++) oneSignal_elements[i].addEventListener('click', oneSignalLinkClickHandler, false); } if (document.readyState === 'complete') { documentInitOneSignal(); } else { window.addEventListener("load", function(event){ documentInitOneSignal(); }); } </script>  <script> (function(h,o,t,j,a,r){ h.hj=h.hj||function(){(h.hj.q=h.hj.q||[]).push(arguments)}; h._hjSettings={hjid:788234,hjsv:6}; a=o.getElementsByTagName('head')[0]; r=o.createElement('script');r.async=1; r.src=t+h._hjSettings.hjid+j+h._hjSettings.hjsv; a.appendChild(r); })(window,document,'https://static.hotjar.com/c/hotjar-','.js?sv='); /* Hotjar user attributes */ window.hj( 'identify', null, { Language: window.navigator.language, }); </script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> "use strict"; /** * Returns the OpenGraph type of this page (as set by Yoast) * * Cannot use `getMetaContent` for this as it uses the "property" attribute * instead of the expected "name". * * @return {string} OpenGraph type */ function getOgType() { let og_type = document.querySelector('meta[property="og:type"]'); return ( og_type && og_type.content ? og_type.content : '' ); } /** * Returns the content attribute of the named <meta> tag * * @param {string} name - Meta name * @return {string} Meta content */ function getMetaContent( name ) { let element = document.querySelector('meta[name="' + name + '"]'); return element ? element.content : ''; } /** * Defines a GA slot only if the slot actually exists * * @param {string} ref - Slot reference * @param {Array} dimensions - Target dimensions * @param {string} slot_id - Element ID * @param {PubAdsService} service - Service to bind to */ function defineIfSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id, service) { const element = document.getElementById(slot_id); // No ad slot if (!element) return; return googletag.defineSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id).addService(service); } window.googletag = ( window.googletag || { cmd: [] } ); googletag.cmd.push( function() { const pubads = googletag.pubads(); // Conditionally define slots only if the element actually exists defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r2_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_m_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-1', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x01_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-2', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x02_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-3', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x03_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-4', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x04_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-5', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x05_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-6', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x06_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-7', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r_ap', [300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r1_ap', [[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-11', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x10_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-12', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x11_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-13', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x12_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-14', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x13_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-15', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x14_ss', [160, 60], 'div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0', pubads); defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x15_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-17', pubads); const leaderboard = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]]) // Larger screen ads .addSize([768, 0], [[728, 90]]) // Smaller (laptop) screen ads .addSize([0, 0], [[300, 250], [320, 50]]) // Mobile screen ads .build(); // Homepage & listing ads const t_1 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-18', pubads); const t_2 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t1_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-19', pubads); const t_3 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t2_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-20', pubads); // Only map if they actually exist t_1 && t_1.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_2 && t_2.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); t_3 && t_3.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard); // Search results const headerSize = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90]]) .addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50]]) .build() // Header ad (always appears) googletag.defineSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_h_sw', [[970,90], [320, 50]], 'div-gpt-ad-5400963-20').defineSizeMapping(headerSize).addService(pubads); // Only apply targeting if values exist const article_og = getOgType(); if ( article_og ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleTag", article_og ); } const article_type = getMetaContent( "oas:article-type" ); if ( article_type ) { pubads.setTargeting( "articleType", article_type ); } const article_category = getMetaContent( "oas:category" ); if ( article_category ) { pubads.setTargeting( "category", article_category ); } const article_sub = getMetaContent( "oas:sub-category" ); if ( article_sub ) { pubads.setTargeting( "subCategory", article_sub ); } pubads.setTargeting( "articleId", "93223" ); // Add class to body if ads are visible pubads.addEventListener( "impressionViewable", function () { document.body.classList.add("has-ads"); }); pubads.enableSingleRequest(); pubads.collapseEmptyDivs(); // Start! googletag.enableServices(); }); </script>  </head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-93223 single-format-standard category-quantum not-logged-in"> <a class="sr-only" href="#main-content">Skip to main content</a>  <noscript aria-hidden="true"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-TQRT9K38" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden" > </iframe> </noscript>  <header class="physics-world-nav"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-5400963-20' class="advert">  <script> window.addEventListener("load", () => { googletag.cmd.push(() => { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-5400963-20'); }); }) </script> </div> </span> <div class="top-bar"> <div class="top-bar__left"> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org/" class="top-bar__logo" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/iop-publishing-logo-white.png" width="198" height="31" alt="" /> <span class="sr-only">IOP Publishing site</span> </a> </div> <button class="top-bar__menu--mobile"> Menu </button> <div class="top-bar__right"> <div class="top-bar__user"> <ul class="top-bar__links"> <li><button class="sign-in-btn"><span class="top-bar__icon"></span>Sign in</button></li> <li><button class="register-btn">Register</button></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__wrapper"> <div class="physics-world-nav__left"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com" class="physics-world-nav__logo"> <span class="sr-only">Back to homepage</span> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/svg/logo-quantum.svg" alt="" width="217" height="40" /> </a> </div> <div class="physics-world-nav__right"> <nav class="nav-items__wrapper"> <button class="physics-world-nav__dropdown">Topics</button> <div class="topic-dropdown" aria-expanded="false"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="topic-content-container"> <div><img width="798" height="449" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by topic</h2></div> <ul class="topic-dropdown__list"> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/astronomy-space/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Astronomy_and_space_164193.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Astronomy and space</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/atomic-molecular/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Atomic_and_molecular__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Atomic and molecular</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/biophysics-bioengineering/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Biophysics_and_bioengineering__05958E-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Biophysics and bioengineering</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/condensed-matter/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Condensed_matter__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Condensed matter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Culture.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Culture, history and society</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/environment-energy/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Environment_and_energy__85AD21-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Environment and energy</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/instrumentation-measurement/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Instrumentation_and_measurement__9D9D9C.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Instrumentation and measurement</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Materials__0085C8.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Materials</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/mathematics-computation/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Mathematics_and_computation__EC660F.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Mathematics and computation</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/medical-physics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Medical_physics__05958.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Medical physics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/optics-photonics/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Optics_and_photonics__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Optics and photonics</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/particle-nuclear/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Particle_and_nuclear__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Particle and nuclear</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/People-icon-purple.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">People</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Quantum__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Quantum</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/"> <span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Enterprise-cogs.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" /> </span> <span class="topic-dropdown__title">Scientific enterprise</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div>  </div> <div class='primary-nav'><ul class='menu'><li class='menu-item-has-children'><button class='menu-item-button' aria-expanded='false'>Latest content</button><ul class='sub-menu'><li class='menu-item__featured-content'><div><img width="798" height="394" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-211x104.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-317x157.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-768x380.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-809x400.jpg 809w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-732x362.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-720x356.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-635x314.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-350x173.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-257x127.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-300x148.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-160x79.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-128x63.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by content type</h2></div></li><li><h2>Short reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/'>Research updates</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/news/'>News</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/'>Blog</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/innovation-showcases/'>Innovation showcases</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/events/'>Events</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Long reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/features/'>Features</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/opinion-reviews/'>Opinion and reviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/interviews/'>Interviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/analysis/'>Analysis</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Multimedia</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/'>Podcasts</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/videos/'>Video</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/webinars/'>Webinars</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/magazine/archive/'>Magazine</a></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/physics-world-live/'>Physics World Live</a></li></ul></div> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com" target="_blank" class="nav__link-img link-img--pw-jobs"> <span class='screen-reader-text'>IOP Physics World Jobs logo</span> <svg width="121" height="18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M84.433 9.612V7.308c0-.324-.105-.792-.281-1.08-.352-.864-1.02-1.44-1.97-1.44-1.971 0-2.183 2.52-2.183 4.032 0 1.584.176 4.176 2.288 4.176.492 0 .915-.144 1.302-.468.844-.72.844-1.836.844-2.916Zm1.478 4.428h-1.337V12.6c-.598 1.116-1.443 1.656-2.71 1.656-2.815 0-3.554-2.88-3.554-5.256 0-2.34.775-5.508 3.59-5.508 1.196 0 2.006.504 2.533 1.62V.9h1.478v13.14Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M8.879 8.783c0-2.124-.563-5.22-3.237-5.22-1.197 0-1.725.72-2.288 1.692V3.707H.75V17.53h2.78v-4.248c.528.613 1.091.937 1.936.937 2.815-.037 3.413-3.133 3.413-5.436Zm-2.92-.072c0 .755.034 2.34-.388 2.987-.211.36-.457.468-.88.468-1.302 0-1.196-1.296-1.196-2.268v-2.52c0-.864.211-1.907 1.267-1.907 1.302 0 1.196 2.196 1.196 3.095v.144ZM17.29 14.04V7.164c0-1.908-.211-3.672-2.534-3.672-1.126 0-1.83.324-2.463 1.296V.9H9.478v13.14h2.815V7.488c0-.936.105-1.728 1.196-1.728 1.056 0 .986.792.986 1.692v6.588h2.815ZM25.207 3.709H22.78l-1.302 6.3-1.372-6.3H17.29l2.885 10.152c-.317 1.116-.492 1.476-1.654 1.476a5.65 5.65 0 0 1-.81-.072v2.268c.423.108.81.18 1.197.18 2.288 0 2.71-1.62 3.273-3.492l3.026-10.512ZM32.387 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.232.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.409 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.317.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.408-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.801 3.06 2.006.072 3.8-1.08 3.8-3.312ZM35.8 3.709h-2.816v10.332H35.8V3.709ZM35.8.9h-2.816v1.908H35.8V.9ZM44.527 10.188l-2.64-.18c-.035.792-.175 1.908-1.16 1.908-1.373 0-1.338-2.232-1.338-3.168 0-.972.035-3.096 1.408-3.096.95 0 1.055 1.224 1.09 1.944l2.64-.108c-.106-1.224-.211-2.052-1.091-2.952-.774-.792-1.654-1.044-2.71-1.044-3.132 0-4.187 2.52-4.187 5.364 0 2.772.914 5.4 4.047 5.4 2.568 0 3.66-1.584 3.94-4.068ZM52.34 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.231.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.408 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.316.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.409-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.8 3.06 2.007.072 3.802-1.08 3.802-3.312Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M63.002 3.709h-1.231l-1.83 7.848-1.865-7.848h-1.091l-1.69 7.74-1.759-7.74h-1.478l2.499 10.332h1.372l1.619-7.272 1.724 7.272h1.267l2.463-10.332ZM70.568 9c0-2.664-.739-5.58-3.87-5.58-3.062 0-3.872 2.844-3.872 5.472 0 2.628.81 5.436 3.836 5.436 3.027 0 3.906-2.7 3.906-5.328Zm-1.654-.108c0 1.476-.21 4.14-2.217 4.14-2.005 0-2.217-2.664-2.217-4.176s.247-4.14 2.217-4.14c2.006 0 2.217 2.664 2.217 4.176ZM75.495 5.184V3.456c-.106-.036-.211-.036-.352-.036-.563 0-1.055.288-1.443.612-.598.54-.809 1.08-1.09 1.836v-2.16h-1.338V14.04h1.513V8.712c0-1.584.458-3.564 2.358-3.564.07 0 .246 0 .352.036Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M77.712.9h-1.513v13.14h1.513V.9Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M89.395.9h-.352v15.948h.352V.9ZM92.844 16.848c-.422 0-.774-.072-1.161-.18v-1.26c.351.108.668.18 1.02.18 1.161 0 1.161-.828 1.161-1.764V3.924h1.478v9c.036 1.944 0 3.924-2.498 3.924ZM93.829 2.7V.9h1.619v1.8h-1.619ZM100.339 14.545c-3.026 0-3.836-2.808-3.836-5.436s.81-5.472 3.871-5.472c3.132 0 3.871 2.88 3.871 5.58-.035 2.592-.915 5.328-3.906 5.328Zm0-9.612c-1.97 0-2.217 2.628-2.217 4.14 0 1.512.211 4.176 2.217 4.176 1.971 0 2.217-2.664 2.217-4.14 0-1.512-.211-4.176-2.217-4.176ZM108.926 14.473c-1.372 0-1.935-.432-2.569-1.656-.14.468-.246.972-.387 1.44h-.774V.29h1.478v5.004c.633-1.008 1.337-1.584 2.569-1.584 2.815 0 3.519 2.988 3.519 5.328 0 2.628-.809 5.436-3.836 5.436Zm.035-9.468c-1.654 0-2.252 1.836-2.252 3.276v1.584c0 1.584.317 3.348 2.217 3.348 2.112 0 2.182-2.628 2.182-4.212 0-1.62-.07-3.996-2.147-3.996ZM116.739 14.544c-2.006 0-3.203-.936-3.625-2.952l1.408-.324c.281 1.332.985 1.98 2.322 1.98.986 0 2.041-.54 2.041-1.692 0-1.872-3.237-1.728-4.504-2.88a2.592 2.592 0 0 1-.845-1.908c0-1.872 1.549-3.096 3.308-3.096.915 0 1.795.324 2.428 1.008.423.468.563.972.739 1.62l-1.302.324c-.316-.972-.879-1.656-1.97-1.656-.915 0-1.725.576-1.725 1.584 0 .828.599 1.224 1.302 1.476 1.725.54 4.118 1.008 4.118 3.384-.036 2.052-1.83 3.132-3.695 3.132Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path fill="#fff" transform="translate(.75)" d="M0 0h120v18H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg> </a> </nav> <button class="physics-world-nav__search-btn"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> Search<span class="sr-only">Open Search Dialog</span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="homepage-search" aria-expanded="false"> <form action="https://physicsworld.com"> <label for="input-home-search">Search by content type, topic, person, research area and more</label> <div class="homepage-search__form-container"> <input id="input-home-search" type="search" name="s" placeholder="Search..." value="" /> <button type="submit"> <i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i>Search<span class="sr-only">Submit search</span> </button> </div> </form> </div> <div class="other-sites"> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://ioppublishing.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> IOP Publishing </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="top-bar__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Twitter</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="items"> <li> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Jobs </a> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="popup sign-in"> <div class="popup__tabs"> <button class="popup__tab popup__tab--active popup__tab-sign-in" data-tab="0">Sign in</button> <button class="popup__tab popup__tab-register" data-tab="1">Register</button> <button class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></button> </div> <div class="popup__content"> <div class="sign-in__content popup__row popup__row--active ajax_container"> <form action="#" method="POST" data-ajax="login" class="login-form ajax__content" data-dest=".sign-in__content" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <div class="popup__col"> <input type="hidden" name="redirect" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs"> <input type="hidden" name="page" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs"> <ul class="sign-in__inputs"> <li> <label for="input-signin-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-signin-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </li> <li class="password-input"> <label for="input-signin-password">Enter password</label> <input type="password" name="user-password" id="input-signin-password" class="password-field" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a password')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <input type="checkbox" name="password" id="show-pw" /> <label for="show-pw" class="password-label">Show</label> </li> <li> <div> <input type="checkbox" name="remember-me" id="form-checkbox" class="form-checkbox" /> <label for="form-checkbox"><span></span>Remember me</label> </div> <div> <a href="#" class="forgot-btn">Forgot your password?</a> </div> </li> </ul> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Sign into your <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have</p> </aside> </div> <div class="popup__col"> <div class="field__attempts"> <strong>Sign in to</strong> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Manage which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Sign in" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> <div class="register__form popup__row"> <form action="/" class="form-register ajax__content " method="POST" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".register__form" data-keep="1"> <div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content"> <ul class="register__email gutter "> <li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <label for="input-register-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-register-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> <div class="tooltip"> <span class="fa fa-question-circle"></span> <span class="tooltip__content">This e-mail address will be used to create your account</span> </div> <aside class="register__benefits"> <strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong> <p>Create a <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have.</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </aside> </li> <li class="register__info col-xs-12 col-sm-6"> <strong>Registration is free, quick and easy</strong> <br /> <ul> <li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li> <li>Choose which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li> <li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li> <li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Register" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup forgot-password "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Reset your password</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content forgot-parent ajax__container"> <form class="popup__row popup__row--active ajax__content forgot-form " action="/" method="POST" data-ajax="forgot" data-dest=".forgot-parent" data-keep="1"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p>Please enter the e-mail address you used to register to reset your password</p> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to change your password should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a></p> <label for="input-ajax-forgotten-email">Enter e-mail address</label> <input id="input-ajax-forgotten-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <input type="submit" value="Reset my password" class="btn btn--green" /> </div> </form> <div class="ajax__content forgot__message popup__row--active"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="popup popup-message autoclose "> <div class="popup__tabs"> <h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Registration complete</h4> <i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i> </div> <div class="popup__content ajax__container"> <div class="popup__row__content"> <p><strong>Thank you for registering with <em>Physics World</em></strong><br /> If you'd like to change your details at any time, please visit My account</p> </div> <div class="popup__actions"> <a class="btn btn--green" href="/">Close</a> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="overlay "></div> <main class="site-window" id="main-content"> <div class="type-bar category-background-color"> <div class="type-bar__icon"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Quantum__774E92.svg" alt="Quantum computing" loading="lazy" /> </div> <h1 class="type-bar__heading"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/quantum-computing/">Quantum computing</a> </h1> </div> <style> .category-background-color { background-color: #774e92; } .category-border-color { border-color: #774e92; } .category-text-color { color: #774e92; } .the-content a, .share-panel a { color: #774e92!important; } .share-panel a:hover { border-color: #774e92!important; } .author-byline__info a { color: #774e92!important; } .entry-content blockquote::before { color: #774e92!important; } .entry-content figure { color: #774e92!important; } </style> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row single-content"> <div class="col-md-1 share-sticky"> <ul class="share-panel"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/" aria-label="Share on Facebook"><i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Distributed system sends flying qubits 60 m along optical fibre https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/" aria-label="Share on Twitter"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share-offsite/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fquantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs%2F" aria-label="Share on LinkedIn" rel="noopener"><i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="mailto:?subject=Physics%20World:%20Quantum%20gate%20teleportation%20connects%20atomic%20qubits%20in%20two%20labs&body=I%20thought%20you%20might%20be%20interested%20in%20this%20Physics%20World%20article:%20%20https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs/" aria-label="Share by Email"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li> <li> <a href="#" onclick="window.print();return false;"><i class="fa fa-print" aria-hidden="true"></i></a> </li>  </ul> </div> <div class="col-md-7 col-sm-7 the-content equalize-sidebar"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/quantum-computing/" style="color: #774e92;">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/" style="color: #774e92;">Research update</a></li> </ul> <div class="single-header single-sponsored-header"> <h1 class="single-header__heading">Quantum gate teleportation connects atomic qubits in two labs</h1> <div class="single-header__meta"> 16 Feb 2021 </div> </div> <article id="post-93223" class="post-93223 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-quantum-computing article-type-research-updates"> <div class="entry-content">    <figure class="thumbnail" style="color: #774e92"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg" data-fancybox data-src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg" data-caption="Quantum distributor: Severin Daiss adjusts one part of the team’s distributed quantum computer. (Courtesy: Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics)"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021-635x424.jpg" srcset=" https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021.jpg 1200w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Tim-Wogan-16-Feb-2021-635x424.jpg 635w" sizes="(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 635w" alt="Severin Daiss" title="Severin Daiss" width="635" height="424" /> </a> <script type="application/json"> "Quantum distributor: Severin Daiss adjusts one part of the team\u2019s distributed quantum computer. (Courtesy: Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics)" </script> <figcaption>Quantum distributor: Severin Daiss adjusts one part of the team’s distributed quantum computer. (Courtesy: Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics)</figcaption> </figure> <p>Researchers in Germany have performed a quantum gate operation between two quantum bits (qubits) in different laboratories. This marks a step towards distributed quantum logic, whereby system designers could build modular quantum computers, spreading qubits between different devices while allowing them to behave as one computer. Distributed systems would avoid crosstalk between qubits, which degrades quantum computations.</p> <span class="mpu align-right" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-1'); }); </script> </div></span> <p>Adding qubits to a quantum computer is far trickier than adding bits to a classical one, as each qubit (which may be a trapped ion, a superconducting circuit, a diamond nitrogen–vacancy centre or many other physical manifestations of a quantum state) must be able to undergo the necessary logical interactions while also being protected from noise – which can destroy quantum information.</p> <p>A significant noise source is interference between multiple qubits: “Let’s say there are three or four qubits in one device and you want to do a gate between just two of them,” explains <a href="https://www.mpq.mpg.de/person/48353/4987954">Severin Daiss</a> of the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics in Garching; “As they are all in one device you can still have crosstalk of those two qubits with the other qubits that should not participate in the calculation.” The more qubits are added to a single device, the more severe the crosstalk problem becomes. Other factors that cause problems in specific platforms are the difficulty of addressing specific qubits in large registers, restricted space, and problems with heat removal from large cryogenic samples.</p> <h3>Multiple devices</h3> <p>One possible way to scale up a quantum computer without scaling up the attendant problems would be to spread the qubits between multiple devices. However, this would require integrating the quantum logical operations performed on each device: “If you just calculate one result with one module and send the state to another module, you’re still not increasing the computational space that you have,” explains Daiss. “Quantum gate teleportation” – the construction of quantum gates whose output is conditional on the state of an input gate elsewhere – has therefore become an active field of research. Such gates have been demonstrated between ions in the same trap and superconducting circuits in a single cryostat, and one with photonic qubits, albeit with a tiny success rate.</p> <p>In the new research, Daiss and colleagues led by <a href="https://www.mpq.mpg.de/quantumdynamics">Gerhard Rempe</a> unveil a radically different, conceptually-simpler gate that is based on the interaction of a single photon with modules in two different laboratories. In each laboratory, they set up an optical cavity containing a single rubidium atom and they link the two systems using a 60::m optical fibre. To implement the gate, they send a photon as a “flying qubit” along the fibre and reflect it successively from the two cavities, thereby entangling its polarization with the rubidium energy levels. A measurement of the photon is then combined with a conditional feedback on the qubit to realize a CNOT gate – one of the key components of quantum logic.</p> <h3>Heralded quantum gate</h3> <p>The protocol produces a “heralded” quantum gate in which the detection of the photon signals a successful gate operation. In future, this could prove crucial to producing a reliable quantum computer as such a confirmation that each successive gate has worked is important if multiple gates are connected in sequence. Other platforms could theoretically produce quantum gates using the researchers’ protocol, says Daiss, if the qubit could be coupled sufficiently strongly to a cavity or resonator. For instance, this has already been achieved with trapped ions or superconducting qubits.</p> <article class='editors-pick'> <a href='https://physicsworld.com/a/lattice-surgery-entangles-fault-tolerant-topological-qubits/'> <div class='editors-pick__image'> <div class='editors-pick__more'>Read more</div> <img decoding="async" width="100" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-100x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Topological qubits" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-100x90.jpg 100w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-211x190.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-1024x923.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-317x286.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-768x692.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-444x400.jpg 444w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-455x410.jpg 455w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-635x573.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-218x197.jpg 218w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-277x250.jpg 277w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-214x193.jpg 214w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-128x115.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-217x196.jpg 217w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin-457x412.jpg 457w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/quantum-tech-web-598270685-Shutterstock_Dmitriy-Rybin.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 100px) 100vw, 100px" /> </div> <h4 class='editors-pick__title'><p>‘Lattice surgery’ entangles fault-tolerant topological qubits</p> </h4> </a> </article> <p>In future, says Daiss, a next step would be to connect together modules comprising more than one qubit and producing computers with more than one module: “We could go in either direction, and both directions will benefit from the work we’re doing at the moment,” he concludes.</p> <p><a href="https://qutech.nl/person/ronald-hanson/">Ronald Hanson</a> of Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands believes the paper marks an important step forward: “They just have this one photon scattering off one side, going to the other side and then you measure it. Conceptually it’s super simple, and they show that it works.” he says. “So it’s the fact that it’s heralded, and its efficiency – I think that’s the real novelty of the work.”</p> <p>The research is described in<em> <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/371/6529/614">Science</a>.</em></p> <div class="wrapper clearfix"> <div class="ajax__container fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up events-register-sign-up" style="border-color: #774e92"> <form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up"> <input type="hidden" name="signup" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="shortform" value="1"> <input type="hidden" name="url" value="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-gate-teleportation-connects-atomic-qubits-in-two-labs"> <div class="fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up__email"> <div class="gf_browser_chrome gform_wrapper" id="gform_wrapper_1"> <div class="gform_heading"> <h3 class="gform_title">Want to read more?</h3> <span class="gform_description">Registration is free, quick and easy</span> <p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p> <p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p> </div> <div class="gform_body"> <ul id="gform_fields_1" class="gform_fields right_label form_sublabel_below description_below"> <li id="field_1_1" class="gfield field_sublabel_below field_description_below gfield_visibility_visible"> <label class="gfield_label" for="user-email">E-mail Address</label> <div class="ginput_container ginput_container_email"> <input name="user-email" id="user-email" type="email" value="" class="medium" placeholder="E-mail address" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"> </div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="gform_footer right_label"> <button type="submit" id="register-signup" class="gform_button button button-registration-short" style="background: #774e92">Register</button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </div> </article> <div class="author-byline"> <div class="author-byline__info"> <span> <span class="author-byline__author"></span> <p><strong>Tim Wogan </strong>is a science writer based in the US</p> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div id="secondary" class="iopp-sidebar col-md-4 col-sm-5 col-xs-12 equalize-sidebar" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0'); }); </script> </div></span></div> <div class="key-suppliers wrapper"> <ul> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> <li> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'); }); </script> </div></span> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0' class="advert" > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0'); }); </script> </div></span> </div> <div class="sticky-me" role="complementary"> <div class="mpu-300x250 mpu-300x250--internal"> <article class="journal-ad"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/?utm_source=pw&utm_medium=box&utm_campaign=launch2021"> <div class="journal-ad__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="133" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-350x133.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-350x133.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-317x121.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-211x80.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-768x292.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-720x274.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-635x242.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-300x114.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-160x61.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-257x98.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-128x49.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312-732x279.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PW-Jobs-820x312.jpg 820w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <div class="journal-ad__content"> </div> </div> <div class="journal-ad__info" style="background-color: #774e92"> <h3 class="journal-ad__title" >Physics World Jobs</h3> <p>Take the next step in your career and find your perfect job</p> </div> </a> </article> </div> <div class="mpu-300x250"> <span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-11' class="advert"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-11'); }); </script> </div></span></div> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="read"> <div class="read--prev"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/open-source-algorithm-predicts-heart-attack-risk-from-chest-ct-scan/" class="read__title">Read previous</a> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/medical-physics/diagnostic-imaging/" style="color: #009589;">Diagnostic imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/" style="color: #009589;">Research update</a></li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/open-source-algorithm-predicts-heart-attack-risk-from-chest-ct-scan/"><h4 class="read__post-title">Open-source algorithm predicts heart attack risk from chest CT scan</h4></a> </div> <div class="read--next"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/living-bioink-could-enhance-bone-repair-and-regeneration/" class="read__title">Read next</a> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/biophysics-bioengineering/biofabrication/" style="color: #05958e;">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/" style="color: #05958e;">Research update</a></li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/living-bioink-could-enhance-bone-repair-and-regeneration/"><h4 class="read__post-title">Living bioink could enhance bone repair and regeneration</h4></a> </div> </div>  <div class="row hide-for-printer"> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Discover more from Physics World</h2> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-simulators-deliver-surprising-insights-into-magnetic-phase-transitions/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-350x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="7-2-25 magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-712x400.jpg 712w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-257x144.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/7-2-25-magnetic-moments-775062994-Shutterstock_Inna-Bigun.jpg 1000w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--research-updates"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/quantum-computing/" style="background: #774e92;">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/" style="background: #774e92;">Research update</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-simulators-deliver-surprising-insights-into-magnetic-phase-transitions/"> <span>Quantum simulators deliver surprising insights into magnetic phase transitions</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/schrodingers-cat-states-appear-in-the-nuclear-spin-state-of-antimony/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="194" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-350x194.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="Left to right: UNSW researchers Benjamin Wilhelm, Xi Yu, Prof Andrea Morello, Dr Danielle Holmes" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-350x194.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-211x117.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-317x176.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-635x352.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-257x142.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-300x166.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes-128x71.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Low-Res_Left-to-right-Benjamin-Wilhelm_Xi-Yu_Prof-Andrea-Morello_Dr-Danielle-Holmes.jpg 700w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--research-updates"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/quantum-mechanics/" style="background: #764992;">Quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/" style="background: #764992;">Research update</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/schrodingers-cat-states-appear-in-the-nuclear-spin-state-of-antimony/"> <span>Schrödinger’s cat states appear in the nuclear spin state of antimony</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> <div class="col-md-4"> <article class="article article--c"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-superstars-gather-in-paris-for-the-iyq-2025-opening-ceremony/" class="article__image object-fit-element"> <img width="350" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-350x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="13-2-25 IYQ Matin list" loading="lazy" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-712x400.jpg 712w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-257x144.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/13-2-25-IYQ-Matin-list.jpg 1402w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px" /> <span class="icon icon--audio"></span> </a> <div class="article__info"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category"> <ul class="hero-top-banner__category category--has-background-color"> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/" style="background: #ca991b;">Culture, history and society</a></li> <li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/" style="background: #ca991b;">Podcasts</a></li> </ul> </ul> <h3 class="article__title"> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-superstars-gather-in-paris-for-the-iyq-2025-opening-ceremony/"> <span>Quantum superstars gather in Paris for the IYQ 2025 opening ceremony</span> </a> </h3> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div>    <div class="row hide-for-printer">  <div class="wrapper m08b"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-xs-6"> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related jobs</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/20083/physics-faculty-positions-at-westlake-university/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="20083" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> China | Westlake University </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Physics Faculty Positions at Westlake University</h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/19204/recruitment-of-overseas-high-level-talent/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="19204" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> Beijing | Institute of High Energy Physics – Chinese Academy of Sciences </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Recruitment of Overseas High-level Talent</h4> </a> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/20762/postdoc-research-associate-quantum-materials-synthesis-and-characterization-ai-enabled-automation/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-id="20762" > <span class="bright-recruits__location"> Oak Ridge | Oak Ridge National Laboratory </span> <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Postdoc Research Associate - Quantum Materials Synthesis and Characterization, AI-Enabled Automation</h4> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class='col-xs-6'> <div class="section-breaks"> <h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related events</h2> </div> <div class="bright-recruits"> <ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Quantum | Workshop</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/machine-learning-for-quantum-matter/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Machine Learning for Quantum Matter </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">24—28 February 2025 | Dresden, Germany</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Quantum | Conference</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/quantum-tech-usa-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Quantum Tech USA 2025 </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">14—16 April 2025 | Washington, DC, US</span> </li> <li class="bright-recruits__item"> <span class="bright-recruits__location">Quantum | Conference</php></span> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/time-in-quantum-theory-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title"> Time in Quantum Theory 2025 </a> <span class="bright-recruits__date">17—20 June 2025 | Genoa, Italy</span> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row">  <div class='m21 wrapper'> <div class='row'> <div class="col-md-12"> <div class="corporate-partners col-md-12"> <ul> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"> <div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0'); }); </script> </div></span></li> <li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-17' > <script> googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-17'); }); </script> </div></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  </div> <div class="printer-only push-me">Copyright © 2025 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual contributors</div> </main> <footer class="footer hide-for-printer"> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="row"> <div class="footer__container"> <div class="pw__info footer__grid-col--1"> <img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/src/svg/pw-logo-white-red-text.svg" alt="Physics World logo" width="228px" height="42px"> <ul class="footer__social"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on Facebook"> <i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on X"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" aria-hidden="true" shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on X</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on LinkedIn"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Watch us on Youtube"> <i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span> </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="RSS Feed"> <i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i> <span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span> </a> </li> </ul> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/sign-in/" class="btn btn--sign-in">Sign in</a> <a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/register/" class="btn">Register</a> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--2"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Our mission</h4> <p><i>Physics World</i> represents a key part of IOP Publishing’s mission to communicate world-class research and innovation to the widest possible audience. The website forms part of the <a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/"><i>Physics World</i> portfolio</a>, a collection of online, digital and print information services for the global scientific community.</p> <div class="footer__podcasts"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Podcasts</h4> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physicsworldweeklypodcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg 1500w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-412x412.jpg 412w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Weekly</h4> </div> </a> <a href="https://blubrry.com/physics_world_science_podcast/" class="footer__podcast" target="_blank" > <img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="Physics World Stories podcast logo" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized.jpg 2000w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" /> <div class="podcast-details"> <h4>Physics World Stories</h4> </div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--3"> <h4 class="footer__heading">Explore</h4> <div class="menu-footer-1-container"><ul id="menu-footer-1" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65637" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65637"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/about-us/">About us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65638" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65638"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-team/">Our team</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65639" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65639"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/">Our portfolio</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65640" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65640"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/advertising/">Advertising</a></li> <li id="menu-item-119712" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-119712"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-artificial-intelligence-policy/">Our AI policy</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67467" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-67467"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/contact-us/">Contact us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67496" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67496"><a rel="noreferrer" href="mailto:pwld@ioppublishing.org">Feedback</a></li> </ul></div> </div> <div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--4"> <h4 class="footer__heading">More information</h4> <div class="menu-footer-2-container"><ul id="menu-footer-2" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65641" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65641"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a></li> <li id="menu-item-67295" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67295"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://membership.iop.org/">Join the Institute</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66155" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66155"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://www.iop.org/slavery-and-human-trafficking-statement-financial-year-ending-31-december-2020">Modern Slavery Act</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66151" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66151"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://physicsworld.com/p/cookies-privacy-policy/">Privacy and cookies</a></li> <li id="menu-item-65642" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65642"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/">IOP Publishing</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66154" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66154"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/copyright/">Copyright</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66153" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66153"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/terms-conditions/">Terms and conditions</a></li> <li id="menu-item-66152" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66152"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/disclaimer/">Disclaimer</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="back-to-top">Back to top</button> </footer> <script id="js-onesignal-ga"> "use strict"; window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; // In some browsers the console might be undefined const log = function (message) { console && console.log(message); }; const callback = function (payload) { log("OneSignal notification opened!"); OneSignal.getUserId(function (user_id) { ga("send", { hitType: "event", eventCategory: 'OSNotification', eventAction: 'u_id ' + user_id, eventLabel: 'n_id ' + payload.id }); }); // Allow future opens to also trigger the callback OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }; // Defer function until OneSignal has finished loading OneSignal.push(function () { log("OneSignal loaded!"); // Listen for notification opened OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback); }); </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/micromodal.min.js?ver=4.21.6" id="zeen101_micromodal-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_validate-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_validate_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","register_nonce":"e2475808b7","password_text":"Passwords do not match."}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/leaky-paywall-validate.js?ver=4.21.6" id="leaky_paywall_validate-js"></script> <script id="leaky_paywall_script-js-extra"> var leaky_paywall_script_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","stripe_pk":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/script.js?ver=4.21.6" id="leaky_paywall_script-js"></script> <script id="nine3-script-js-extra"> var nine3 = {"ajaxurl":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","nonce":"c910b3d0b5","marker":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/themes\/iopp\/images\/marker.png","debug":""}; </script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/js/main.1dd973aef0d22fbbf91176416427f8f8.js?ver=6.7.1" id="nine3-script-js"></script> <script src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/js/sticky.min.js?ver=1645453936640" id="stickykit-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/mathjax/MathJax@2.7.1/MathJax.js?config=MML_CHTML&ver=1645453936640" id="mathjax-js"></script> <script src="https://cdn.onesignal.com/sdks/OneSignalSDK.js?ver=1.0.0" id="remote_sdk-js" async data-wp-strategy="async"></script> </body> </html>