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aria-controls="toc-Biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Life cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hosts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hosts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Hosts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hosts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbionts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbionts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Symbionts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbionts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Systematics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Systematics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Systematics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Systematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Savannah_flies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Savannah_flies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Savannah flies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Savannah_flies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_flies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_flies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Forest flies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_flies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Riverine_and_lacustrine_flies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Riverine_and_lacustrine_flies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Riverine and lacustrine flies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Riverine_and_lacustrine_flies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Evolutionary history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Range" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Range"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Range</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Range-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trypanosomiasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trypanosomiasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Trypanosomiasis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trypanosomiasis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trypanosomiasis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trypanosomiasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disease_hosts_and_vectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease_hosts_and_vectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Disease hosts and vectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease_hosts_and_vectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_domestic_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_domestic_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>In domestic animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_domestic_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Control</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Control subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Control_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Control techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slaughter_of_wild_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaughter_of_wild_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Slaughter of wild animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaughter_of_wild_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_clearing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_clearing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Land clearing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_clearing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pesticide_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pesticide_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Pesticide campaigns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pesticide_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Trapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sterile_insect_technique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sterile_insect_technique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.5</span> <span>Sterile insect technique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sterile_insect_technique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Societal impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Societal impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Current situation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History of study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_to_trypanosomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_to_trypanosomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Resistance to trypanosomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_to_trypanosomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Textbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Textbooks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsetse fly</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsevlieg" title="Tsetsevlieg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tsetsevlieg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="ذبابة تسي تسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذبابة تسي تسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qlossina_mil%C3%A7%C9%99kl%C9%99ri" title="Qlossina milçəkləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qlossina milçəkləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="قلوسینا میلچکلری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قلوسینا میلچکلری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5" title="Мухи цеце – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мухи цеце" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosca_tse-tse" title="Mosca tse-tse – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mosca tse-tse" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetse" title="Tsetse – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Tsetse" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moucha_tse-tse" title="Moucha tse-tse – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Moucha tse-tse" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsefluer" title="Tsetsefluer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tsetsefluer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsefliegen" title="Tsetsefliegen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tsetsefliegen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsek%C3%A4rbes" title="Tsetsekärbes – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tsetsekärbes" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%8D%CE%B3%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5-%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5" title="Μύγα τσε-τσε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μύγα τσε-τσε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecemu%C5%9Do" title="Cecemuŝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cecemuŝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tse-tse_euli" title="Tse-tse euli – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tse-tse euli" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%AF%D8%B3_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%87" title="مگس تسه‌تسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مگس تسه‌تسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouche_ts%C3%A9-ts%C3%A9" title="Mouche tsé-tsé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mouche tsé-tsé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seitse" title="Seitse – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seitse" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosca_tse-tse" title="Mosca tse-tse – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mosca tse-tse" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EC%B2%B4%ED%8C%8C%EB%A6%AC" title="체체파리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="체체파리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%A5%D6%81%D5%A5" title="Ցեցե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցեցե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80" title="सीसी मक्खी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सीसी मक्खी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ce-ce_muhe" title="Ce-ce muhe – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ce-ce muhe" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalat_Tsetse" title="Lalat Tsetse – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lalat Tsetse" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetse-fluga" title="Tsetse-fluga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tsetse-fluga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%91%D7%95%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%A6%D7%94" title="זבוב הצה צה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זבוב הצה צה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laler_Tsetse" title="Laler Tsetse – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Laler Tsetse" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94" title="ცეცე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცეცე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5" title="Цеце – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цеце" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbung%27o" title="Mbung'o – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mbung'o" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C4%97_c%C4%97c%C4%97" title="Musė cėcė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Musė cėcė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecel%C3%A9gy" title="Cecelégy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cecelégy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalitra_tsetse" title="Lalitra tsetse – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lalitra tsetse" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%89_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%89" title="ذبابه تسى تسى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ذبابه تسى تسى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalat_tsetse" title="Lalat tsetse – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lalat tsetse" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AE_%E1%80%9A%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="စက်စီ ယင်ကောင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စက်စီ ယင်ကောင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseetseevlieg" title="Tseetseevlieg – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tseetseevlieg" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%84%E3%82%A7%E3%83%84%E3%82%A7%E3%83%90%E3%82%A8" title="ツェツェバエ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ツェツェバエ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsefluer" title="Tsetsefluer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tsetsefluer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsefluge" title="Tsetsefluge – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tsetsefluge" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%B3%DB%90_%D9%85%DA%86" title="تسې تسې مچ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تسې تسې مچ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosca_ts%C3%A9-ts%C3%A9" title="Mosca tsé-tsé – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mosca tsé-tsé" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musca_%C8%9Be%C8%9Be" title="Musca țețe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Musca țețe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5" title="Цеце – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цеце" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miza_Ce-ce" title="Miza Ce-ce – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Miza Ce-ce" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetse_fly" title="Tsetse fly – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tsetse fly" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muha_cece" title="Muha cece – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Muha cece" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Цеце муве – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цеце муве" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cece_muva" title="Cece muva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Cece muva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetsek%C3%A4rp%C3%A4set" title="Tsetsekärpäset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tsetsekärpäset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetseflugor" title="Tsetseflugor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tsetseflugor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsetse" title="Tsetse – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tsetse" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87e%C3%A7e_sine%C4%9Fi" title="Çeçe sineği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çeçe sineği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5" title="Цеце – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Цеце" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%DA%A9%DA%BE%DB%8C" title="سی سی مکھی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سی سی مکھی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ru%E1%BB%93i_x%C3%AA_x%C3%AA" title="Ruồi xê xê – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ruồi xê xê" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossina" title="Glossina – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Glossina" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%8C%E8%9D%87%E5%B1%9E" title="舌蝇属 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="舌蝇属" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%8C%E8%A0%85%E5%B1%AC" title="舌蠅屬 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="舌蠅屬" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%8C%E8%A0%85%E5%B1%AC" title="舌蠅屬 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="舌蠅屬" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q205256#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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searchaux" style="display:none">Genus of disease-spreading insects</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tsetse" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tsetse (disambiguation)">Tsetse (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Tsetse fly<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> - <a href="/wiki/Recent" class="mw-redirect" title="Recent">Recent</a> <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">34–0 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:208.49230769231px; width:11.507692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:208.49230769231px; width:11.507692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:209.49230769231px; width:9.5076923076923px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Glossina-morsitans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Glossina-morsitans.jpg/220px-Glossina-morsitans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Glossina-morsitans.jpg/330px-Glossina-morsitans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Glossina-morsitans.jpg/440px-Glossina-morsitans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2124" data-file-height="1608" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans" title="Glossina morsitans">Glossina morsitans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Glossina" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insecta</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">Diptera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eremoneura" title="Eremoneura">Eremoneura</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyclorrhapha" title="Cyclorrhapha">Cyclorrhapha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Section: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schizophora" title="Schizophora">Schizophora</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subsection: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calyptratae" title="Calyptratae">Calyptratae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Superfamily: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hippoboscoidea" title="Hippoboscoidea">Hippoboscoidea</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glossinidae</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Vincent_Theobald" title="Frederick Vincent Theobald">Theobald</a>, 1903</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>Glossina</i></a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Christian_Rudolph_Wilhelm_Wiedemann" title="Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann">Wiedemann</a>, 1830</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Species groups </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><i><b>Morsitans</b></i> ("savannah" subgenus)</li> <li><i><b>Fusca</b></i> ("forest" subgenus)</li> <li><i><b>Palpalis</b></i> ("riverine" subgenus)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse_distribution.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Tsetse_distribution.png/220px-Tsetse_distribution.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Tsetse_distribution.png/330px-Tsetse_distribution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Tsetse_distribution.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Range of the tsetse fly </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Tsetse</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SEET</span>-see</i></a>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">TSEET</span>-see</i></a> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">TSET</span>-sə</i></a>) (sometimes spelled <b>tzetze</b>; also known as <b>tik-tik</b> flies) are large, <a href="/wiki/Biting_flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biting flies">biting flies</a> that inhabit much of tropical <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsetse flies include all the species in the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <i><b>Glossina</b></i>, which are placed in their own family, <b>Glossinidae</b>. The tsetse is an <a href="/wiki/Obligate_parasite" title="Obligate parasite">obligate parasite</a>, which lives by feeding on the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> animals. Tsetse has been extensively studied because of their role in transmitting disease. They have pronounced economic and public health impacts in sub-Saharan Africa as the <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">biological vectors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanosomes">trypanosomes</a>, causing <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">human</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_trypanosomiasis" title="Animal trypanosomiasis">animal trypanosomiasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tsetse can be distinguished from other large flies by two easily-observed features: Primarily, tsetse fold their wings over their <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomens</a> completely when they are resting (so that one wing rests directly on top of the other); Secondly, tsetse also have a long <a href="/wiki/Proboscis" title="Proboscis">proboscis</a>, extending directly forward, which is attached by a distinct bulb to the bottom of their heads. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fossilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossilized">Fossilized</a> tsetse has been recovered from <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>-aged rocks in the United States and Germany. Twenty-three extant species of tsetse flies are known from the African continent as well as the Arabian Peninsula. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Tsetse</i> without the "fly" has become more common in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, particularly in the scientific and development communities. </p><p>The word is pronounced <i>tseh-tseh</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Sotho_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sotho languages">Sotho languages</a> and is easily rendered in other African languages. During World War II, a British <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland" title="De Havilland">de Havilland</a> antisubmarine aircraft was known as the <i>Tsetse</i> <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito#Strike_("fighter-bomber")_variants" title="De Havilland Mosquito">Mosquito</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The biology of tsetse is relatively well understood by <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomologists</a>. They have been extensively studied because of their medical, veterinary, and economic importance, because the flies can be raised in a laboratory, and because they are relatively large, facilitating their analysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsetse flies can be seen as independent individuals in three forms: as third-<a href="/wiki/Instar" title="Instar">instar</a> larvae, pupae, and adults. </p><p>Tsetse first becomes separate from their mothers during the third larval instar, during which they have the typical appearance of <a href="/wiki/Fly#Maggots" title="Fly">maggots</a>. However, this life stage is short, lasting at most a few hours, and is almost never observed outside of the laboratory. </p><p>Tsetse next develops a hard external case, the puparium, and become pupae - small, hard-shelled oblongs with two distinctively small, dark lobes at the tail (breathing) end. Tsetse pupae are under <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1 centimetre (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> in) long.<sup id="cite_ref-Jordan_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the puparial shell, tsetse complete the last two larval instars and the pupal stage. </p><p>At the end of the pupal stage, tsetse emerges as adult flies. The adults are relatively large flies, with lengths of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">0.5–1.5 centimetres (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>–<span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in),<sup id="cite_ref-Jordan_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have a recognizable shape, or <a href="/wiki/Bauplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bauplan">bauplan</a>, which makes them easy to distinguish from other flies. Tsetse have large heads, distinctly separated eyes, and unusual antennae. The <a href="/wiki/Thorax_(insect_anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorax (insect anatomy)">thorax</a> is quite large, while the abdomen is wider, rather than elongated, and shorter than the wings. </p><p>Four characteristics collectively separate adult tsetse from other kinds of flies: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Proboscis</b></td> <td>Tsetse have a distinct proboscis, a long and thin structure attached to the bottom of the head, pointing forward.</td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A photograph of the head of a tsetse illustrating the forward pointing proboscis"><img alt="A photograph of the head of a tsetse illustrating the forward pointing proboscis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg/70px-Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg" decoding="async" width="70" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg/105px-Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg/140px-Tsetse_head-proboscis.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the head of a tsetse illustrating the forward pointing proboscis</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Folded wings</b></td> <td>When at rest, tsetse fold their wings completely, one-on-top of the other.</td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A photograph of the whole body of a tsetse illustrating the folded wings when at rest"><img alt="A photograph of the whole body of a tsetse illustrating the folded wings when at rest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg/200px-Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg/300px-Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg/400px-Tsetse_foldedWings.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the whole body of a tsetse illustrating the folded wings when at rest</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Hatchet cell</b></td> <td>The discal medial ("middle") cell of the wing has a characteristic hatchet shape, resembling a meat cleaver or a hatchet.</td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A photograph of the wing of a tsetse illustrating the hatchet shaped central cell"><img alt="A photograph of the wing of a tsetse illustrating the hatchet shaped central cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg/140px-Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg" decoding="async" width="140" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg/210px-Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg/280px-Tsetse_hatchetCell.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the wing of a tsetse illustrating the hatchet shaped central cell</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Branched arista hairs</b></td> <td>The antennae have arista with hairs which are, themselves, branched.</td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A photograph and diagram of the head of a tsetse illustrating the branched hairs of the antenna's arista"><img alt="A photograph and diagram of the head of a tsetse illustrating the branched hairs of the antenna's arista" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg/140px-Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg" decoding="async" width="140" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg/210px-Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg/280px-Tsetse_aristaHairs_labeled.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A photograph and diagram of the head of a tsetse illustrating the branched hairs of the antenna's arista</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like all other <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, tsetse flies have an adult body comprising three visibly distinct parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. </p><p>The head has large eyes, distinctly separated on each side, and a distinct, forward-pointing proboscis attached underneath by a large bulb. The thorax is large, made of three fused segments. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax, as are two wings and two <a href="/wiki/Halteres" title="Halteres">halteres</a>. The abdomen is short but wide and changes dramatically in volume during feeding. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif/220px-G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif/330px-G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif/440px-G%C3%A1ndulas_de_la_leche_de_Glossina_.gif 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Reproductive anatomy sketch</figcaption></figure> <p>The internal anatomy of the tsetse is fairly typical of the <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)" title="Crop (anatomy)">crop</a> is large enough to accommodate a huge increase in size during feeding, as tsetse can take a blood meal equal in weight to themselves. The <a href="/wiki/Dipteran_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipteran crop">dipteran crop</a> is heavily understudied, with <i>Glossina</i> being one of the few genera having relatively reliable information available: Moloo and Kutuza 1970 for <i>G. brevipalpis</i> (including its innervation) and Langley 1965 for <i>G. morsitans</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoffolano-Haselton-2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoffolano-Haselton-2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reproductive tract of adult females includes a <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a>, which can become large enough to hold the third-instar <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a> at the end of each <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>. The article "<i><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_flies_of_domestic_animals" title="Parasitic flies of domestic animals">Parasitic flies of domestic animals</a></i>" has a diagram of the anatomy of dipteran flies. </p><p>Most tsetse flies are, physically, very tough. Houseflies, and even horseflies, are easily killed with a flyswatter, for example; a great deal of effort is needed to crush a tsetse fly.<sup id="cite_ref-Mavhunga-2018_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mavhunga-2018-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Life cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg/300px-Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg/450px-Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg/600px-Glossina_palpalis_morsitans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption><i>Glossina palpalis</i> and <i>G. morsitans</i> from a 1920 lexicon</figcaption></figure> <p>Tsetse has an unusual <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>, which may be due to the richness of their blood food source. A female fertilizes only one egg at a time; she will retain each egg within her uterus, the offspring developing internally (during the first three <a href="/wiki/Instar" title="Instar">larval stages</a>), in an adaptation called <a href="/wiki/Adenotrophic_viviparity" title="Adenotrophic viviparity">adenotrophic viviparity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the female feeds the developing offspring with a milky substance (secreted by a modified gland) in the uterus.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the third larval stage, the tsetse larvae leave the uterus and begin an independent life. The newly-birthed larvae crawl into the ground and develop a hard outer shell (called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puparial_case&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puparial case (page does not exist)">puparial case</a>), within which they complete their morphological transformations into adult flies. </p><p>The larval life stage has a variable duration, generally 20 to 30 days, and the larvae must rely on stored resources during this time. The importance of the richness and quality of blood to this stage can be seen; all tsetse development (prior to emerging from the puparial case as a full adult) occurs without feeding, with only the nutrition provided by the mother fly. She must get enough energy for her own survival (in addition to the needs of her developing offspring), as well as for the stored resources that her offspring will require until they emerge as adults. </p><p>Technically, these insects undergo the standard <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">development</a> process of insects, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a> formation, ovulation, fertilization, and development of the egg; following egg development and birth is the three <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larval</a> stages, a <a href="/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa">pupal</a> stage, and the emergence and maturation of the adult.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hosts">Hosts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hosts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overall <a href="/wiki/Suidae" title="Suidae">Suidae</a> are the most important hosts. <a href="/wiki/Waterbuck" title="Waterbuck">Waterbuck</a> (<i>Kobus ellipsiprymnus</i>) are unmolested by <i>Glossina</i><sup id="cite_ref-FAO-distro_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-distro-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glasgow-1967_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glasgow-1967-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because they produce <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound#Biologically_generated_VOCs" title="Volatile organic compound">volatiles</a> which act as <a href="/wiki/Insect_repellent" title="Insect repellent">repellents</a>. Waterbuck odor volatiles are under testing and development as repellents to protect <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abro-et-al-2021_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abro-et-al-2021-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cook-et-al-2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-et-al-2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Suppl T1">: Suppl T1 </span></sup> By species, bloodmeals are derived from:<sup id="cite_ref-FAO-distro_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-distro-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Species </th> <th>Hosts </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_swynnertoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina swynnertoni (page does not exist)">G. swynnertoni</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>60–70% from <a href="/wiki/Warthog" title="Warthog">warthog</a></li> <li>~8% from <a href="/wiki/Giraffe" title="Giraffe">giraffe</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_austeni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina austeni (page does not exist)">G. austeni</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>50–60% from <a href="/wiki/Bushpig" title="Bushpig">bushpig</a></li> <li>~33% from <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a></li> <li>possibly 10% from various <a href="/wiki/Duiker" title="Duiker">duiker</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipleuris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipleuris (page does not exist)">G. fuscipleuris</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>65% from bushpig and <a href="/wiki/Giant_forest_hog" title="Giant forest hog">giant forest hog</a></li> <li>up to 20% from <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_tabaniformis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina tabaniformis (page does not exist)">G. tabaniformis</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>70% from <a href="/wiki/Red_river_hog" title="Red river hog">red river hog</a></li> <li>>7% from <a href="/wiki/Old_World_porcupine" title="Old World porcupine">porcupines</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans" title="Glossina morsitans">G. morsitans</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>30–45% from warthog</li> <li>25–40% from various Bovidae, especially <a href="/wiki/Kudu" title="Kudu">kudu</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_buffalo" title="African buffalo">buffalo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bushbuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushbuck">bushbuck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taurotragus" title="Taurotragus">eland</a>, most especially <a href="/wiki/Domestic_cattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic cattle">domestic cattle</a></li> <li>~2% from <a href="/wiki/Hartebeest" title="Hartebeest">hartebeest</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fusca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fusca (page does not exist)">G. fusca</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>55–90% from <a href="/wiki/Bushbuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushbuck">bushbuck</a></li> <li>15% from red river hog</li> <li>~12% from <a href="/wiki/Aardvark" title="Aardvark">aardvark</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_brevipalpis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina brevipalpis (page does not exist)">G. brevipalpis</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>up to 40% (high variability with geography) from bushpig</li> <li>up to 36% from hippopotamus</li> <li>~25% from Bovidae, especially buffalo and bushbuck</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis (page does not exist)">G. palpalis</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>~3% from wild Suidae, more substantial amounts from <a href="/wiki/Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">domestic Suidae</a> when available</li> <li>~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography</li> <li>~10% from waterside birds including <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a></li> <li>25–30% from <i><a href="/wiki/Varanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus">Varanus</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodile</a> (possibly higher in natural settings</li> <li>50% from crocodile in particular locations)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_fuscipes" title="Glossina fuscipes">G. fuscipes</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>~3% from wild Suidae</li> <li>~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography</li> <li>~10% from waterside birds including <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a></li> <li>25–30% from <i><a href="/wiki/Varanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus">Varanus</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodile</a> (possibly higher in natural settings)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_tachinoides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina tachinoides (page does not exist)">G. tachinoides</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>~3% from wild Suidae, more substantial amounts from <a href="/wiki/Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">domestic Suidae</a> when available</li> <li>~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography</li> <li>>7% from porcupines</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_pallidipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina pallidipes (page does not exist)">G. pallidipes</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>55–90% from <a href="/wiki/Bushbuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushbuck">bushbuck</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_longipalpis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina longipalpis (page does not exist)">G. longipalpis</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>55–90% from <a href="/wiki/Bushbuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushbuck">bushbuck</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_longipennis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina longipennis (page does not exist)">G. longipennis</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>unusually dependant (~60%) on <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a></li> <li>~20% from Bovidae</li> <li>variably up to 12% from <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a></li> <li>up to 7% from <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_submorsitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans submorsitans">G. m. submorsitans</a></i> </td> <td> <ul><li>~6% from various birds excluding ostrich</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The genome of <i>Glossina morsitans</i> was sequenced in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-Watanabe-et-al-2014_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watanabe-et-al-2014-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbionts">Symbionts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Symbionts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsetse flies have at least three bacterial <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">symbionts</a>. The primary symbiont is <i>Wigglesworthia</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Wigglesworthia_glossinidia" title="Wigglesworthia glossinidia">Wigglesworthia glossinidia</a></i>), which live within the fly's <a href="/wiki/Bacteriocyte" title="Bacteriocyte">bacteriocytes</a>. The second symbiont is <i><a href="/wiki/Sodalis_(genus)" title="Sodalis (genus)">Sodalis</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Sodalis_glossinidius" title="Sodalis glossinidius">Sodalis glossinidius</a></i>) intercellularly or intracellularly, and the third is some kind of <i><a href="/wiki/Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kanté_TagueuFarikou2018_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanté_TagueuFarikou2018-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SimoKanté2019_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimoKanté2019-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diseases">Diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The salivary gland hypertrophy virus causes abnormal bleeding in the lobes of the <a href="/wiki/Crop_(dipteran)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop (dipteran)">crop</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_centralis" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans centralis">G. m. centralis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_morsitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans morsitans">G. m. morsitans</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoffolano-Haselton-2013_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoffolano-Haselton-2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematics">Systematics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Systematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsetse are in the order <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">Diptera</a>, the true flies. They belong to the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, in which the tsetse's family, the Glossinidae, is one of four families of blood-feeding obligate parasites. </p><p>Up to 34 species and subspecies of tsetse flies are recognized, depending on the particular classification used. </p><p>All current classifications place all the tsetse species in a single genus named <i>Glossina</i>. Most classifications place this genus as the sole member of the family Glossinidae. The Glossinidae are generally placed within the superfamily <a href="/wiki/Hippoboscoidea" title="Hippoboscoidea">Hippoboscoidea</a>, which contains other <a href="/wiki/Hematophagous" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematophagous">hematophagous</a> families. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Species">Species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tsetse_fly" title="Special:EditPage/Tsetse fly">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The tsetse genus is generally split into three groups of species based on a combination of distributional, ecological, behavioral, molecular and morphological characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-Krafsur-2009_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krafsur-2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genus includes; savannah flies, forest flies and riverine and lacustrine flies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Savannah_flies">Savannah flies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Savannah flies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 'savannah' flies: (<i>Morsitans group</i>, subgenus <i>Glossina</i> s.s.): </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_austeni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina austeni (page does not exist)">Glossina austeni</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1912) <a href="/wiki/Patronymic_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronymic taxon">patr.</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a></small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_longipalpis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina longipalpis (page does not exist)">Glossina longipalpis</a></i> (Wiedemann, 1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans" title="Glossina morsitans">Glossina morsitans</a></i> <small>(Westwood, 1851)</small> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_morsitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans morsitans">Glossina morsitans morsitans</a> (Westwood, 1850)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_submorsitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans submorsitans">Glossina morsitans submorsitans</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Gooding-Krafsur-2005_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gooding-Krafsur-2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_centralis" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans centralis">Glossina morsitans centralis</a></i> (Machado, 1970)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_pallidipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina pallidipes (page does not exist)">Glossina pallidipes</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1903)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_swynnertoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina swynnertoni (page does not exist)">Glossina swynnertoni</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1923)<sup id="cite_ref-swyn-GBIF_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swyn-GBIF-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Austen-1922_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-1922-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Patronymic_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronymic taxon">patr.</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Massy_Swynnerton" title="Charles Francis Massy Swynnerton">Swynnerton</a></small><sup id="cite_ref-Austen-1922_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-1922-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forest_flies">Forest flies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Forest flies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 'forest' flies: (<i>Fusca</i> group, subgenus <i>Austenina</i>): </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_brevipalpis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina brevipalpis (page does not exist)">Glossina brevipalpis</a></i> <small>(Newstead, 1910)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fusca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fusca (page does not exist)">Glossina fusca</a> <small>(Walker, 1849)</small></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fusca_fusca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fusca fusca (page does not exist)">Glossina fusca fusca</a></i> <small>(Walker, 1849)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fusca_congolensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fusca congolensis (page does not exist)">Glossina fusca congolensis</a></i> <small>(Newstead and Evans, 1921)</small></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipleuris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipleuris (page does not exist)">Glossina fuscipleuris</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1911)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_frezili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina frezili (page does not exist)">Glossina frezili</a></i> <small>(Gouteux, 1987)</small><sup id="cite_ref-Gouteux-1987_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gouteux-1987-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_haningtoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina haningtoni (page does not exist)">Glossina haningtoni</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a> and Evans, 1922)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_longipennis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina longipennis (page does not exist)">Glossina longipennis</a></i> <small>(Corti, 1895)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_medicorum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina medicorum (page does not exist)">Glossina medicorum</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1911)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_nashi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina nashi (page does not exist)">Glossina nashi</a></i> <small>(Potts, 1955)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_nigrofusca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina nigrofusca (page does not exist)">Glossina nigrofusca</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1911)</small></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_nigrofusca_nigrofusca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina nigrofusca nigrofusca (page does not exist)">Glossina nigrofusca nigrofusca</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1911)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_nigrofusca_hopkinsi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina nigrofusca hopkinsi (page does not exist)">Glossina nigrofusca hopkinsi</a></i> <small>(van Emden, 1944)</small></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_severini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina severini (page does not exist)">Glossina severini</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1913)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_schwetzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina schwetzi (page does not exist)">Glossina schwetzi</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a> and Evans, 1921)</small></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_severini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina severini (page does not exist)"><i>Glossina severini</i></a> <small>(Newstead, 1913)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_tabaniformis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina tabaniformis (page does not exist)">Glossina tabaniformis</a></i> <small>(Westwood, 1850)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_vanhoofi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina vanhoofi (page does not exist)">Glossina vanhoofi</a></i> <small>(Henrard, 1952)</small></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Riverine_and_lacustrine_flies">Riverine and lacustrine flies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Riverine and lacustrine flies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 'riverine' and 'lacustrine' flies: (<i>Palpalis</i> group, subgenus <i>Nemorhina</i>): </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_caliginea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina caliginea (page does not exist)">Glossina caliginea</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1911)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_fuscipes" title="Glossina fuscipes">Glossina fuscipes</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1911)</small> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipes_fuscipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (page does not exist)">Glossina fuscipes fuscipes</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a>, 1911)</small><sup id="cite_ref-Gooding-Krafsur-2005_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gooding-Krafsur-2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipes_martinii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipes martinii (page does not exist)">Glossina fuscipes martinii</a></i> <small>(Zumpt, 1935)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipes_quanzensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipes quanzensis (page does not exist)">Glossina fuscipes quanzensis</a></i> <small>(Pires, 1948)</small></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_pallicera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina pallicera (page does not exist)">Glossina pallicera</a> <small>(Bigot, 1891)</small></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_pallicera_pallicera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina pallicera pallicera (page does not exist)">Glossina pallicera pallicera</a></i> <small>(Bigot, 1891)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_pallicera_newsteadi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina pallicera newsteadi (page does not exist)">Glossina pallicera newsteadi</a></i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">Austen</a>, 1929) <a href="/wiki/Patronymic_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronymic taxon">patr.</a> of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Newstead" title="Robert Newstead">Newstead</a></small></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis (page does not exist)">Glossina palpalis</a></i> <small>(Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830)</small> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis_palpalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis palpalis (page does not exist)">Glossina palpalis palpalis</a></i> <small>(Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis_gambiensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis gambiensis (page does not exist)">Glossina palpalis gambiensis</a></i> <small>(Vanderplank, 1911)</small></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_tachinoides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina tachinoides (page does not exist)">Glossina tachinoides</a></i> <small>(Westwood, 1850)</small></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Evolutionary history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fossil glossinids are known from the <a href="/wiki/Florissant_Formation" title="Florissant Formation">Florissant Formation</a> in North America and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enspel_Lagerst%C3%A4tte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enspel Lagerstätte (page does not exist)">Enspel Lagerstätte</a> of Germany, dating to the late <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> and late <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Range">Range</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Range"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Glossina</i> is almost entirely restricted to wooded grasslands and forested areas of the <a href="/wiki/Afrotropics" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrotropics">Afrotropics</a>. As of 1990, tsetse flies were reported from a maximum latitude of approximately 15° north in Senegal (Niayes Region), to a minimum of 28.5° south in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal Province).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only two subspecies - <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_fuscipes_fuscipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (page does not exist)">G. f. fuscipes</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Glossina_morsitans_submorsitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossina morsitans submorsitans">G. m. submorsitans</a></i> - are present in the very southwest of Saudi Arabia. Although Carter found <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_tachinoides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina tachinoides (page does not exist)">G. tachiniodes</a></i> in 1903 nearby, near <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> in southern Yemen, there have been no confirmations since.<sup id="cite_ref-Gooding-Krafsur-2005_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gooding-Krafsur-2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trypanosomiasis">Trypanosomiasis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Trypanosomiasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/220px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/330px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/440px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trypanosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanosomes">Trypanosomes</a> in a blood smear</figcaption></figure> <p>Tsetse are <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">biological vectors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanosomes">trypanosomes</a>, meaning that in the process of feeding, they acquire and then transmit small, single-celled trypanosomes from <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infected</a> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a> to uninfected animals. Some tsetse-transmitted trypanosome species cause <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">trypanosomiasis</a>, an infectious disease. In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include <i>nagana</i>, <i>souma</i> (a French term which may not be a distinct condition<sup id="cite_ref-Battista-Researchgate_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Battista-Researchgate-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Surra" title="Surra">surra</a></i> according to the animal infected and the trypanosome species involved. The usage is not strict and while <i>nagana</i> generally refers to the disease in cattle and horses it is commonly used for any of the animal trypanosomiases. </p><p>Trypanosomes are animal <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a> of the genus <i>Trypanosoma</i>. These organisms are about the size of red blood cells. Different species of trypanosomes infect different hosts. They range widely in their effects on the vertebrate hosts. Some species, such as <i>T. theileri</i>, do not seem to cause any health problems except perhaps in animals that are already sick.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoare_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoare-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strains</a> are much more <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulent</a>. Infected flies have an altered salivary composition which lowers feeding efficiency and consequently increases the feeding time, promoting trypanosome transmission to the vertebrate host.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These trypanosomes are highly evolved and have developed a life cycle that requires periods in both the vertebrate and tsetse hosts. </p><p>Tsetse transmit trypanosomes in two ways, mechanical and biological transmission. </p> <ul><li>Mechanical transmission involves the direct transmission of the same individual trypanosomes taken from an infected host into an uninfected host. The name 'mechanical' reflects the similarity of this mode of transmission to mechanical injection with a <a href="/wiki/Syringe" title="Syringe">syringe</a>. Mechanical transmission requires the tsetse to feed on an infected host and acquire trypanosomes in the blood meal, and then, within a relatively short period, to feed on an uninfected host and regurgitate some of the infected blood from the first blood meal into the tissue of the uninfected animal. This type of transmission occurs most frequently when tsetse are interrupted during a blood meal and attempt to satiate themselves with another meal. Other flies, such as <a href="/wiki/Horse-fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse-fly">horse-flies</a>, can also cause mechanical transmission of trypanosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Biological transmission requires a period of incubation of the trypanosomes within the tsetse host. The term 'biological' is used because trypanosomes must reproduce through several generations inside the tsetse host during the period of incubation (development within the fly is known as the extrinsic incubation period), which requires extreme <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptation (biology)">adaptation</a> of the trypanosomes to their tsetse host. In this mode of transmission, trypanosomes reproduce through several generations, changing in morphology at certain periods. This mode of transmission also includes the sexual phase of the trypanosomes. Tsetse are believed to be more likely to become infected by trypanosomes during their first few blood meals. Tsetse infected by trypanosomes are thought to remain infected for the remainder of their lives. Because of the adaptations required for biological transmission, trypanosomes that can be transmitted biologically by tsetse cannot be transmitted in this manner by other insects.</li></ul> <p>The relative importance of these two modes of transmission for the propagation of tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases is not yet well understood. However, since the sexual phase of the trypanosome life cycle occurs within the tsetse host, biological transmission is a required step in the life cycle of the tsetse-vectored trypanosomes. </p><p>The cycle of biological transmission of trypanosomiasis involves two phases, one inside the tsetse host and the other inside the vertebrate host. Trypanosomes are not passed between a pregnant tsetse and her offspring, so all newly emerged tsetse adults are free of infection. An uninfected fly that feeds on an infected vertebrate animal may acquire trypanosomes in its proboscis or gut. These trypanosomes, depending on the species, may remain in place, move to a different part of the digestive tract, or migrate through the tsetse body into the salivary glands. When an infected tsetse bites a susceptible<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="Unlikely to selectively transmit only to susceptible hosts (October 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Tsetse_fly#Dubious" title="Talk:Tsetse fly">discuss</a></i>]</sup> host, the fly may regurgitate part of a previous blood meal that contains trypanosomes, or may inject trypanosomes in its saliva. Inoculation must contain a minimum of 300 to 450 individual trypanosomes to be successful, and may contain up to 40,000 cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoare_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoare-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of <i>T. b. brucei</i> infecting <i>G. p. gambiensis</i>, during this time the parasite changes the <a href="/wiki/Proteome" title="Proteome">proteome</a> contents of the fly's head. This may be the reason/a reason for the behavioral changes seen, especially the unnecessarily increased feeding frequency, which increases transmission opportunities. This may be due in part to the altered <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> metabolism observed, causing a perceived need for more calories. (The metabolic change, in turn, being due to complete absence of <a href="/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate_dehydrogenase" title="Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase">glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase</a> in infected flies.) <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">Monoamine neurotransmitter</a> synthesis is also altered: Production of <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_L-amino_acid_decarboxylase" title="Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase">aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase</a> - involved in <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> synthesis - and <a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%91-methyldopa_hypersensitive_protein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein (page does not exist)">α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein</a> was induced. This is very similar to the alterations in <i>other</i> <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">dipteran</a> vectors' head proteomes under infection by <i>other</i> eukaryotic parasites of mammals, found in another study by the same team in the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre-et-al-2007_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre-et-al-2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trypanosomes are injected into vertebrate muscle tissue,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but make their way, first into the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, then into the bloodstream, and eventually into the brain. The disease causes the swelling of the lymph glands, emaciation of the body, and eventually leads to death. Uninfected tsetse may bite the infected animal prior to its death and acquire the disease, thereby closing the transmission cycle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease_hosts_and_vectors">Disease hosts and vectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disease hosts and vectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases affect various vertebrate species including humans, antelopes, bovine cattle, camels, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. These diseases are caused by several different trypanosome species that may also survive in wild animals such as crocodiles and monitor lizards. The diseases have different distributions across the African continent, so are transmitted by different species. This table summarizes this information:<sup id="cite_ref-Hoare_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoare-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease</th> <th>Species affected</th> <th><i>Trypanosoma</i> agents</th> <th>Distribution</th> <th><i>Glossina</i> vectors </th></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">Sleeping sickness</a></b> — chronic form</td> <td>humans</td> <td><i>T. brucei gambiense</i></td> <td>Western Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. fuscipes</i></li> <li><i>G. morsitans</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">Sleeping sickness</a></b> — acute form</td> <td>humans</td> <td><i>T. brucei rhodesiense</i></td> <td>Eastern Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. swynnertoni</i></li> <li><i>G. pallidipes</i></li> <li><i>G. fuscipes</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">Nagana</a></b> — acute form</td> <td>antelope<br />cattle<br />camels<br />horses</td> <td><i>T. brucei brucei</i></td> <td>Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. swynnertoni</i></li> <li><i>G. pallidipes</i></li> <li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. fuscipes</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">Nagana</a></b> — chronic form</td> <td>cattle<br />camels<br />horses</td> <td><i>T. congolense</i></td> <td>Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. austeni</i></li> <li><i>G. swynnertoni</i></li> <li><i>G. pallidipes</i></li> <li><i>G. longipalpis</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. brevipalpis</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">Nagana</a></b> — acute form</td> <td>domestic pigs<br />cattle<br />camels<br />horses</td> <td><i>T. simiae</i><sup id="cite_ref-CABI-ISC_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CABI-ISC-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. fuscipes</i></li> <li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. longipalpis</i></li> <li><i>G. fusca</i></li> <li><i>G. tabaniformis</i></li> <li><i>G. brevipalpis</i></li> <li><i>G. vanhoofi</i></li> <li><i>G. austeni</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">Nagana</a></b> — acute form</td> <td>cattle<br />camels<br />horses</td> <td><i>T. vivax</i></td> <td>Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. swynnertoni</i></li> <li><i>G. pallidipes</i></li> <li><i>G. austeni</i></li> <li><i>G. vanhoofi</i></li> <li><i>G. longipalpis</i></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Surra" title="Surra">Surra</a></b> — chronic form</td> <td>domestic pigs<br /><a href="/wiki/Warthog" title="Warthog">warthog</a><br />—(<i>Phacochoerus aethiopicus</i>)<br />forest hogs<br />—(<i><a href="/wiki/Hylochoerus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylochoerus">Hylochoerus</a> spp.</i>)</td> <td><i>T. suis</i></td> <td>Africa</td> <td> <ul><li><i>G. palpalis</i></li> <li><i>G. fuscipes</i></li> <li><i>G. morsitans</i></li> <li><i>G. tachinoides</i></li> <li><i>G. longipalpis</i></li> <li><i>G. fusca</i></li> <li><i>G. tabaniformis</i></li> <li><i>G. brevipalpis</i></li> <li><i>G. vanhoofi</i></li> <li><i>G. austeni</i><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_humans">In humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African trypanosomiasis</a></div> <p>Human African trypanosomiasis, also called <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a>, is caused by trypanosomes of the species <i>Trypanosoma brucei</i>. This disease is invariably fatal if left untreated, but can almost always be cured with current medicines if the disease is diagnosed early enough. </p><p>Sleeping sickness begins with a tsetse bite leading to an inoculation in the subcutaneous tissue. The infection moves into the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, leading to a characteristic swelling of the lymph glands called <i>Winterbottom's sign</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The infection progresses into the blood stream and eventually crosses into the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> and invades the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> leading to extreme <a href="/wiki/Lethargy" title="Lethargy">lethargy</a> and eventually to <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>. </p><p>The species <i>Trypanosoma brucei</i>, which causes the disease, has often been subdivided into three subspecies that were identified based either on the vertebrate hosts which the strain could infect or on the virulence of the disease in humans. The trypanosomes infectious to animals and not to humans were named <i>Trypanosoma brucei brucei</i>. Strains that infected humans were divided into two subspecies based on their different virulences: <i>Trypanosoma brucei gambiense</i> was thought to have a slower onset and <i>Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense</i> refers to strains with a more rapid, virulent onset. This characterization has always been problematic but was the best that could be done given the knowledge of the time and the tools available for identification. A recent molecular study using <a href="/wiki/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism" title="Restriction fragment length polymorphism">restriction fragment length polymorphism</a> analysis suggests that the three subspecies are <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so the elucidation of the strains of <i>T. brucei</i> infective to humans requires a more complex explanation. <a href="/wiki/Procyclin" title="Procyclin">Procyclins</a> are <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> developed in the surface coating of trypanosomes whilst in their tsetse fly vector.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This seems unrelated. Are these molecules the sequencing targets that suggested ''brucei'' is not one species? Otherwise why is this mentioned here. (October 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other forms of human trypanosomiasis also exist but are not transmitted by tsetse. The most notable is American trypanosomiasis, known as <a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a>, which occurs in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, caused by <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>, and transmitted by certain insects of the <a href="/wiki/Reduviidae" title="Reduviidae">Reduviidae</a>, members of the <a href="/wiki/Hemiptera" title="Hemiptera">Hemiptera</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_domestic_animals">In domestic animals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In domestic animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_trypanosomiasis" title="Animal trypanosomiasis">Animal trypanosomiasis</a></div> <p>Animal <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">trypanosomiasis</a>, also called <i>nagana</i> when it occurs in <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">bovine cattle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a> or <i>sura</i> when it occurs in domestic <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a>, is caused by several trypanosome species. These <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> reduce the growth rate, <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> productivity, and strength of <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farm</a> animals, generally leading to the eventual <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> of the infected animals. Certain species of cattle are called <i><a href="/wiki/Trypanotolerance" title="Trypanotolerance">trypanotolerant</a></i> because they can survive and grow even when infected with trypanosomes although they also have lower productivity rates when infected. </p><p>The course of the disease in animals is similar to the course of <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a> in humans. </p><p><i>Trypanosoma congolense</i> and <i>Trypanosoma vivax</i> are the two most important species infecting bovine cattle in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>. <i>Trypanosoma simiae</i> causes a virulent disease in <a href="/wiki/Swine" class="mw-redirect" title="Swine">swine</a>. </p><p>Other forms of animal trypanosomiasis are also known from other areas of the globe, caused by different species of trypanosomes and transmitted without the intervention of the tsetse fly. </p><p>The tsetse fly vector ranges mostly in the central part of Africa. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">Trypanosomiasis</a> poses a considerable constraint on livestock agricultural development in tsetse fly-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa, especially in West and Central Africa. International research conducted by <a href="/wiki/ILRI" class="mw-redirect" title="ILRI">ILRI</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> has shown that the <a href="/wiki/N%27Dama" title="N'Dama">N'Dama</a> is the most resistant breed.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Control">Control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The conquest of <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">nagana</a> would be of immense benefit to rural development and contribute to poverty alleviation and improved food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Human African trypanosomosis (<b>HAT</b>) and animal African trypanosomosis (<b>AAT</b>) are sufficiently important to make virtually any intervention against these diseases beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg/220px-Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg/330px-Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg/440px-Tsetse-BKF-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="1456" /></a><figcaption>Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso</figcaption></figure> <p>The disease can be managed by controlling the vector and thus reducing the incidence of the disease by disrupting the transmission cycle. Another tactic to manage the disease is to target the disease directly using surveillance and <a href="/wiki/Curative_care" title="Curative care">curative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylactic">prophylactic</a> treatments to reduce the number of hosts that carry the disease. </p><p>Economic analysis indicates that the cost of managing <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanosomosis">trypanosomosis</a> through the elimination of important populations of major tsetse vectors will be covered several times by the benefits of tsetse-free status.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd,_L_1999_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd,_L_1999-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Area-wide interventions against the tsetse and trypanosomosis problem appear more efficient and profitable if sufficiently large areas, with high numbers of cattle, can be covered. </p><p>Vector control strategies can aim at either continuous <a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">suppression or eradication</a> of target populations. Tsetse fly eradication programmes are complex and logistically demanding activities and usually involve the integration of different control tactics, such as <a href="/wiki/Trypanocidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanocidal">trypanocidal</a> drugs, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Impregnated_treated_targets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Impregnated treated targets (page does not exist)">impregnated treated targets</a> (ITT), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Insecticide-treated_cattle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Insecticide-treated cattle (page does not exist)">insecticide-treated cattle</a> (ITC), <a href="/wiki/Aerial_spraying" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerial spraying">aerial spraying</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sequential_Aerosol_Technique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sequential Aerosol Technique (page does not exist)">Sequential Aerosol Technique</a> - SAT) and in some situations the release of sterile males (<a href="/wiki/Sterile_insect_technique" title="Sterile insect technique">sterile insect technique</a> – SIT). To ensure sustainability of the results, it is critical to apply the control tactics on an <b>area-wide basis</b>, i.e. targeting an entire tsetse population that is preferably <a href="/wiki/Genetic_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic isolation">genetically isolated</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_techniques">Control techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Control techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many techniques have reduced tsetse populations, with earlier, crude methods recently replaced by methods that are cheaper, more directed, and ecologically better. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slaughter_of_wild_animals">Slaughter of wild animals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Slaughter of wild animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One early technique involved slaughtering all the wild animals tsetse fed on. For example, the island of <a href="/wiki/Principe" class="mw-redirect" title="Principe">Principe</a> off the west coast of Africa was entirely cleared of <a href="/wiki/Feral" title="Feral">feral</a> pigs in the 1930s, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">extirpation</a> of the fly. While the fly eventually re-invaded in the 1950s, the new population of tsetse was free from the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick-2014_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick-2014-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Costa-et-al-1915_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costa-et-al-1915-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WHO-tsetse-traps_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-tsetse-traps-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCowen-1913_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCowen-1913-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Land_clearing">Land clearing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Land clearing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another early technique involved <a href="/wiki/Land_clearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Land clearing">complete removal of brush and woody vegetation from an area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Willett-1963_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willett-1963-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the technique was not widely used and has been abandoned.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Tsetse tend to rest on the trunks of trees so removing woody vegetation made the area inhospitable to the flies. Until about 1959 this was done by hand and so was quite time consuming. Glover et al 1959 describes the technique which they call "<a href="/wiki/Chain_clearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chain clearing">chain clearing</a>". Chain clearing drags a chain forward between two heavy vehicles and thereby does the same job much more quickly - but still at some expense.<sup id="cite_ref-Willett-1963_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willett-1963-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preventing regrowth of woody vegetation requires continuous clearing efforts which is even more expensive,<sup id="cite_ref-Willett-1963_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willett-1963-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and only practical where large human populations are present. Also, the clearing of woody vegetation has come to be seen as an environmental problem more than a benefit.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pesticide_campaigns">Pesticide campaigns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pesticide campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">Pesticides</a> have been used to control tsetse starting initially during the early part of the twentieth century in localized efforts using the inorganic metal-based pesticides, expanding after the Second World War into massive aerial- and ground-based campaigns with organochlorine pesticides such as <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a> applied as <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosol</a> sprays at <a href="/wiki/Ultra-Low_Volume" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-Low Volume">Ultra-Low Volume</a> rates. Later, more targeted techniques used <i>pour-on</i> <a href="/wiki/Pesticide_formulation" title="Pesticide formulation">formulations</a> in which advanced organic pesticides were applied directly to the backs of cattle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trapping">Trapping</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Trapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TsetseTrap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/TsetseTrap.jpg/220px-TsetseTrap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/TsetseTrap.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="188" /></a><figcaption>Tsetse trap</figcaption></figure> <p>Tsetse populations can be monitored and effectively controlled using simple, inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">traps</a>. These often use blue cloth, either in sheet or biconical form, since this color attracts the flies. The traps work by channeling the flies into a collection chamber, or by exposing the flies to <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticide</a> sprayed on the cloth. Early traps mimicked the form of cattle, as tsetse are also attracted to large dark colors like the hides of <a href="/wiki/Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">cows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bubalina" title="Bubalina">buffaloes</a>. Some scientists put forward the idea that <a href="/wiki/Zebra" title="Zebra">zebra</a> have stripes, not as a camouflage in long grass, but because the black and white bands tend to confuse tsetse and prevent attack.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of chemicals as attractants to lure tsetse to the traps has been studied extensively in the late 20th century, but this has mostly been of interest to scientists rather than as an economically reasonable solution. Attractants studied have been those tsetse might use to find food, like <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Octenol" class="mw-redirect" title="Octenol">octenol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>—which are given off in animals' breath and distributed downwind in an <i>odor plume.</i> Synthetic versions of these chemicals can create artificial odor plumes. A cheaper approach is to place cattle <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> in a half gourd near the trap. For large trapping efforts, additional traps are generally cheaper than expensive artificial attractants. </p><p>A special trapping method is applied in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, where the BioFarm Consortium (<a href="/wiki/ICIPE" class="mw-redirect" title="ICIPE">ICIPE</a>, BioVision Foundation, BEA, Helvetas, <a href="/wiki/DLCO-EA" class="mw-redirect" title="DLCO-EA">DLCO-EA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praxis_Ethiopia" title="Praxis Ethiopia">Praxis Ethiopia</a>) applies the traps in a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rural_development" title="Rural development">rural development</a> context (SARD). The traps are just the entry point, followed by improved farming, human health and marketing inputs. This method is in the final stage of testing (as of 2006). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sterile_insect_technique">Sterile insect technique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sterile insect technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sterile_insect_technique" title="Sterile insect technique">sterile insect technique</a> (<b>SIT</b>) is a form of pest control that uses <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> or <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a>) to sterilize male flies that are mass-produced in special rearing facilities. The sterile males are released systematically from the ground or by air in tsetse-infested areas, where they mate with wild females, which do not produce offspring. As a result, this technique can eventually eradicate populations of wild flies. SIT is among the most <a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">environmentally friendly</a> control tactics available, and is usually applied as the final component of an integrated campaign. It has been used to subdue the populations of many other fly species including the medfly, <i><a href="/wiki/Ceratitis_capitata" title="Ceratitis capitata">Ceratitis capitata</a></i>. </p><p>The sustainable removal of the tsetse fly is in many cases the most cost-effective way of dealing with the T&T problem resulting in major economic benefits for subsistence farmers in rural areas. Insecticide-based methods are normally very ineffective in removing the last remnants of tsetse populations, while, on the contrary, sterile males are very effective in finding and mating the last remaining females. Therefore, the integration of the SIT as the last component of an area-wide integrated approach is essential in many situations to achieve complete eradication of the different tsetse populations, particularly in areas of more dense vegetation. </p><p>A project that was implemented from 1994 to 1997 on the Island of <a href="/wiki/Unguja" title="Unguja">Unguja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (United Republic of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>), demonstrated that, after suppression of the tsetse population with insecticides, SIT completely removed the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_austeni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina austeni (page does not exist)">Glossina austeni</a></i> Newstead population from the Island.<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2000_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2000-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Caragata-et-al-2020_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caragata-et-al-2020-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was carried out without any understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> of <i>G. a.</i>, but future SIT efforts can benefit from such preparation. Population genetics would help to select the <i>Glossina</i> population to be deployed for similarity to the target population.<sup id="cite_ref-Krafsur-Ouma-2021_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krafsur-Ouma-2021-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eradication of the tsetse fly from Unguja Island in 1997 was followed by the disappearance of the AAT which enabled farmers to integrate livestock keeping with cropping in areas where this had been impossible before. The increased livestock and crop productivity and the possibility of using animals for transport and traction significantly contributed to an increase in the quality of people's lives.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveys in 1999, 2002, 2014, and 2015 have confirmed this success - continued absence of tsetse and <a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">nagana</a> on the island.<sup id="cite_ref-Zanzibar-20-years_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zanzibar-20-years-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Niayes" title="Niayes">Niayes</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, a coastal area close to <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, livestock keeping was difficult due to the presence of a population of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis_gambiensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis gambiensis (page does not exist)">Glossina palpalis gambiensis</a></i>. Feasibility studies indicated that the fly population was confined to very fragmented habitats and a population genetics study indicated that the population was genetically isolated from the main tsetse belt in the south eastern part of Senegal. After completion of the feasibility studies (2006–2010), an area-wide integrated eradication campaign that included an SIT component was started in 2011, and by 2015, the Niayes region had become almost tsetse fly free. This has allowed a change of <a href="/wiki/Cattle_breed" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattle breed">cattle breeds</a> from lower producing <a href="/wiki/Trypanotolerant" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanotolerant">trypanotolerant</a> breeds to higher-producing foreign breeds.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The entire target area (Block 1, 2 and 3) has a total surface of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi), and the first block (northern part) can be considered free of tsetse, as intensive monitoring has failed to detect since 2012 a single wild tsetse fly. The prevalence of AAT has decreased from 40 to 50% before the project started to less than 10% to date in blocks 1 and 2. Although insecticides are being used for fly suppression, they are applied for short periods on traps, nets and livestock, and are not spread into the environment. After the suppression activities are completed, no more insecticide is applied in the area. The removal of trypanosomosis will eliminate the need for constant prophylactic treatments of the cattle with trypanocidal drugs, therefore reducing <a href="/wiki/Residue_(chemistry)" title="Residue (chemistry)">residues</a> of these drugs in the <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">dung</a>, meat and milk. </p><p>The main beneficiaries of the project are the many small holder farmers, the larger commercial farms and the consumers of meat and milk. According to a socio-economic survey and benefit cost analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after eradication of the tsetse farmers will be able to replace their local breeds with improved breeds and increase their annual income by €2.8 million. In addition, it is expected that the number of cattle will be reduced by 45%, which will result in reduced environmental impacts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_impact">Societal impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Societal impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis#History" title="African trypanosomiasis">African trypanosomiasis § History</a></div> <p>In the literature of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a>, the tsetse has been linked to difficulties during early <a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">state formation</a> for areas where the fly is prevalent. A 2012 study used population growth models, physiological data, and ethnographic data to examine pre-colonial agricultural practices and isolate the effects of the fly. A "tsetse suitability index" was developed from insect population growth, climate and geospatial data to simulate the fly's population steady state. An increase in the tsetse suitability index was associated with a statistically significant weakening of the agriculture, levels of urbanization, institutions and subsistence strategies. Results suggest that the tsetse decimated livestock populations, forcing early states to rely on slave labor to clear land for farming, and preventing farmers from taking advantage of natural animal fertilizers to increase crop production. These long-term effects may have kept population density low and discouraged cooperation between small-scale communities, thus preventing stronger nations from forming. </p><p>The authors <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2022)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> also suggest that under a lower burden of tsetse, Africa would have developed differently. Agriculture (measured by the usage of large domesticated animals, intensive agriculture, plow use and female participation rate in agriculture) as well as institutions (measured by the appearance of indigenous slavery and levels of centralization) would have been more like those found in Eurasia. Qualitative support for this claim comes from archaeological findings; e.g., <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> is located in the African highlands where the fly does not occur, and represented the largest and technically most advanced precolonial structure in Southern sub-Sahara Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other authors are more skeptical that the tsetse fly had such an immense influence on African development. One conventional argument is that the tsetse fly made it difficult to use draught animals. Hence, wheeled forms of transportations were not used as well. While this is certainly true for areas with high densities of the fly, similar cases outside tsetse-suitable areas exist. While the fly definitely had a relevant influence on the adoption of new technologies in Africa, it has been contended that it does not represent the single root cause.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to an article in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>, the depopulated and apparently primevally wild Africa seen in wildlife documentary films was formed in the 19th century by disease, a combination of <a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">rinderpest</a> and the tsetse fly. Rinderpest is believed to have originated in Asia, later spreading through the transport of cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1887, the rinderpest virus was accidentally imported in livestock brought by an Italian expeditionary force to Eritrea. It spread rapidly, reaching Ethiopia by 1888, the Atlantic coast by 1892 and South Africa by 1897. Rinderpest, a cattle plague from central Asia, killed over 90% of the cattle of the pastoral peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Maasai_people" title="Maasai people">Masai</a> of east Africa. In South Africa, with no native <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a>, most of the population – some 5.5 million domestic cattle – died. Pastoralists and farmers were left with no animals – their source of income – and farmers were deprived of their working animals for ploughing and irrigation. The pandemic coincided with a period of drought, causing widespread famine. The starving human populations died of smallpox, cholera, and typhoid, as well as African Sleeping Sickness and other endemic diseases. It is estimated that two-thirds of the Masai died in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce2000_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce2000-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The land was left emptied of its cattle and its people, enabling the colonial powers Germany and Britain to take over Tanzania and Kenya with little effort. With greatly reduced grazing, grassland turned rapidly to bush. The closely cropped grass sward was replaced in a few years by woody grassland and thornbush, ideal habitat for tsetse flies. Wild mammal populations increased rapidly, accompanied by the tsetse fly. <a href="/wiki/Highland" title="Highland">Highland</a> regions of east Africa which had been free of tsetse fly were colonised by the pest, accompanied by sleeping sickness, until then unknown in the area. Millions of people died of the disease in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce2000_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce2000-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masai_Giraffe,_Serengeti_National_Park,_Tanzania_(2010).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg/220px-Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg/330px-Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg/440px-Masai_Giraffe%2C_Serengeti_National_Park%2C_Tanzania_%282010%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4357" data-file-height="2721" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Serengeti_National_Park" title="Serengeti National Park">Serengeti National Park</a>, Tanzania</figcaption></figure> <p>The areas occupied by the tsetse fly were largely barred to <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>. Sleeping sickness was dubbed "the best game warden in Africa" by conservationists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Widely quoted but never attributed (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, who assumed that the land, empty of people and full of game animals, had always been like that. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a> called the plains of east Africa "a surviving sector of the rich natural world as it was before the rise of modern man".<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce2000_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce2000-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They created numerous large reserves for hunting <a href="/wiki/Safari" title="Safari">safaris</a>. In 1909 the newly retired president <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> went on a safari that brought over 10,000 animal carcasses to America. Later, much of the land was turned over to nature reserves and <a href="/wiki/National_parks" class="mw-redirect" title="National parks">national parks</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Serengeti" title="Serengeti">Serengeti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masai_Mara" class="mw-redirect" title="Masai Mara">Masai Mara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kruger_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Kruger Park">Kruger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Okavango_Delta" title="Okavango Delta">Okavango Delta</a>. The result, across eastern and southern Africa, is a modern landscape of manmade ecosystems: farmland and pastoral land largely free of bush and tsetse fly; and bush controlled by the tsetse fly.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce2000_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce2000-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although the colonial powers saw the disease as a threat to their interests, and acted accordingly to bring transmission almost to a halt in the 1960s,<sup id="cite_ref-naganamanagement_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naganamanagement-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 0174">: 0174 </span></sup> this improved situation led to a laxity of surveillance and management by the newly independent governments covering the same areas - and a resurgence that became a crisis again in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-naganamanagement_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naganamanagement-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 0174">: 0174 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-naganamanagement_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naganamanagement-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 0175">: 0175 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_situation">Current situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Current situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsetse flies are regarded as a major cause of rural poverty in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because they prevent mixed farming. The land infested with tsetse flies is often cultivated by people using hoes rather than more efficient draught animals because <i><a href="/wiki/Nagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagana">nagana</a></i>, the disease transmitted by tsetse, weakens and often kills these animals. Cattle that do survive produce little milk, pregnant cows often abort their calves, and manure is not available to fertilize the worn-out soils. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg/220px-Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg/330px-Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg/440px-Tsetse-BKF-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3006" data-file-height="2004" /></a><figcaption>Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso</figcaption></figure> <p>The disease <i>nagana</i> or African <a href="/wiki/Animal_trypanosomiasis" title="Animal trypanosomiasis">animal trypanosomiasis</a> (AAT) causes gradual health decline in infected livestock, reduces milk and meat production, and increases abortion rates. Animals eventually succumb to the disease - annual cattle deaths caused by trypanosomiasis are estimated at 3 million<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, reducing annual cattle production value by US$600m-US$1.2b.<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has an enormous impact on the livelihood of farmers who live in tsetse-infested areas, as infected animals cannot be used to plough the land, and keeping cattle is only feasible when the animals are kept under constant <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylactic">prophylactic</a> treatment with <a href="/wiki/Trypanocidal_agent" title="Trypanocidal agent">trypanocidal drugs</a>, often with associated problems of <a href="/wiki/Trypanocide_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanocide resistance">drug resistance</a>, counterfeited drugs, and suboptimal dosage. The overall annual direct lost potential in livestock and crop production was estimated at US$4.5 billion<sup id="cite_ref-Budd,_L_1999_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd,_L_1999-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>-US$4.75b.<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tsetse fly lives in nearly 10,000,000 square kilometres (4,000,000 sq mi) in sub-Saharan Africa<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (mostly wet tropical forest) and many parts of this large area is fertile land that is left uncultivated—a so-called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Green_desert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Green desert (page does not exist)">green desert</a> not used by humans and cattle. Most of the 38 countries<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> infested with tsetse are poor, debt-ridden and underdeveloped. Of the 38<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tsetse-infested countries, 32 are <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/lifdc/en/">low-income, food-deficit countries</a>, 29 are <a href="/wiki/Least_developed_countries" title="Least developed countries">least developed countries</a>, and 30<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> or 34<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are among the 40 most <a href="/wiki/Heavily_indebted_poor_countries" title="Heavily indebted poor countries">heavily indebted poor countries</a>. Eradicating the tsetse and trypanosomiasis (T&T) problem would allow rural Africans to use these areas for <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a> or the cultivation of crops and hence increase food production. Only 45 million cattle, of 172 million present in sub-Saharan Africa, are kept in tsetse-infested areas but are often forced into fragile ecosystems like highlands or the <a href="/wiki/Semiarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiarid">semiarid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> zone, which increases overgrazing and overuse of land for food production. </p><p>In addition to this direct impact, the presence of tsetse and trypanosomiasis discourages the use of more productive exotic and cross-bred cattle, depresses the growth and affects the distribution of livestock populations, reduces the potential opportunities for livestock and crop production (mixed farming) through less draught power to cultivate land and less manure to fertilize (in an environment-friendly way) soils for better crop production, and affects human settlements (people tend to avoid areas with tsetse flies). </p><p>Tsetse flies transmit a similar disease to humans, called <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African trypanosomiasis</a>, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. An estimated 60<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>-70<sup id="cite_ref-Simarro-et-al-2012_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simarro-et-al-2012-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> million people in 20 countries are at different levels of risk and only 3-4 million people are covered by active surveillance.<sup id="cite_ref-Vreysen-et-al-2013_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vreysen-et-al-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/DALY" class="mw-redirect" title="DALY">DALY</a> index (disability-adjusted life years), an indicator to quantify the burden of disease, includes the impact of both the duration of life lost due to premature death and the duration of life lived with a disability. The annual burden of sleeping sickness is estimated at 2 million DALYs. Since the disease tends to affect economically active adults, the total cost to a family with a patient is about 25% of a year's income.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_study">History of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: History of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In East Africa, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Massy_Swynnerton" title="Charles Francis Massy Swynnerton">C. F. M. Swynnerton</a> played a large role in the first half of the 20th century. Swynnerton did much of the earliest tsetse ecology research.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Edward_Austen" title="Ernest Edward Austen">E. E. Austen</a> named a <a href="/wiki/Patronymic_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronymic taxon">patronymic taxon</a> for him, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_swynnertoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina swynnertoni (page does not exist)">G. swynnertoni</a></i> in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-Austen-1922_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-1922-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resistance_to_trypanosomes">Resistance to trypanosomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Resistance to trypanosomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsetse flies have an arsenal of immune defenses to resist each stage of the trypanosome infectious cycle, and thus are relatively refractory to trypanosome infection.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26027775_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26027775-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the host flies' defenses is the production of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14563366_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14563366-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> that damages <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. These defenses limit the population of infected flies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Bruce_(microbiologist)" title="David Bruce (microbiologist)">David Bruce (microbiologist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Douglas_Hale_Carpenter" title="Geoffrey Douglas Hale Carpenter">G.D. Hale Carpenter</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine">London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine</a>, and took the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate_in_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctorate in Medicine">DM</a> in 1913 with a dissertation on the tsetse fly (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossina_palpalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glossina palpalis (page does not exist)">Glossina palpalis</a></i>) and <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a>. He published: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturalistonlake00carp"><i>A Naturalist on Lake Victoria, with an Account of Sleeping Sickness and the Tse-tse Fly</i>; 1920. T.F. Unwin Ltd, London; Biodiversity Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Robertson" title="Muriel Robertson">Muriel Robertson</a>, who conducted early 20th century research on the insect</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_of_DNA_in_forensic_entomology" title="Use of DNA in forensic entomology">Use of DNA in forensic entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_Botswana" title="Horses in Botswana">Horses in Botswana</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFord1963" class="citation journal cs1">Ford, J. 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Biol</i>. <b>33</b> (11): 1155–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ibmb.2003.07.001">10.1016/j.ibmb.2003.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14563366">14563366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insect+Biochem.+Mol.+Biol.&rft.atitle=Proventriculus+%28cardia%29+plays+a+crucial+role+in+immunity+in+tsetse+fly+%28Diptera%3A+Glossinidiae%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1155-64&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ibmb.2003.07.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14563366&rft.aulast=Hao&rft.aufirst=Z&rft.au=Kasumba%2C+I&rft.au=Aksoy%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsetse+fly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerster1986" class="citation magazine cs1">Gerster, George (December 1986). "Tsetse". <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a></i>. Vol. 170, no. 6. pp. 814–833. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-9358">0027-9358</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643483454">643483454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Tsetse&rft.volume=170&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=814-833&rft.date=1986-12&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643483454&rft.issn=0027-9358&rft.aulast=Gerster&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsetse+fly" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodingKrafsur2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gooding, R.H.; Krafsur, E.S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462949">"Tsetse genetics: Contributions to Biology, Systematics, and Control of Tsetse Flies"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Entomology" title="Annual Review of Entomology">Annual Review of Entomology</a></i>. <b>50</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Annual_Reviews_(publisher)" title="Annual Reviews (publisher)">Annual Reviews</a>: 101–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.50.071803.130443">10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130443</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-4170">0066-4170</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462949">1462949</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15355235">15355235</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22834246">22834246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Tsetse+genetics%3A+Contributions+to+Biology%2C+Systematics%2C+and+Control+of+Tsetse+Flies&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-123&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1462949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22834246%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.50.071803.130443&rft.issn=0066-4170&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15355235&rft.aulast=Gooding&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft.au=Krafsur%2C+E.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1462949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsetse+fly" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textbooks">Textbooks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Textbooks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Buxton, P. (1955). <i>The Natural History of Tsetse Flies: An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Diptera)</i>. London, UK: <a href="/wiki/H._K._Lewis_%26_Co._Ltd." title="H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd.">H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd.</a></li> <li>Ford, J. (1971). <i>The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology</i>. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Glasgow, J. (1963). <i>The Distribution and Abundance of Tsetse</i>. International Series of Monographs on Pure and Applied Biology, No. 20. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.</li> <li>Leak, S. (1998). <i>Tsetse Biology and Ecology: Their role in the Epidemiology and Control of Trypanosomiasis</i>. New York: CABI Publishing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110613040449/http://www.cabi-publishing.org/bookshop/BookDisplay.asp?SubjectArea=Hum&Subject=Public+Health+and+Communicable+Diseases&PID=1406">book site</a></li> <li>Maudlin, I., Holmes, P. H., and Miles, M. A. (2004). <i>The Trypanosomiases</i>. CAB International.</li> <li>McKelvey, J., Jr. (1973). <i>Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.</li> <li>Mulligan, H. & Potts, W. (1970). <i>The African Trypanosomiases</i>. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsetse_fly&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Glossina" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Glossina">Glossina</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Glossina" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Glossina">Glossina</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsetse.org">Programmes and information to assist in the planning and implementation of tsetse control operations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/ag/paat.html">Programme Against African Trypanosomiasis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415143408/http://www.fao.org/ag/paat.html">Archived</a> 15 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050409122056/http://www.africa-union.org/Structure_of_the_Commission/depPattec.htm">PAN AFRICAN TSETSE AND TRYPANOSOMIASIS ERADICATION CAMPAIGN (PATTEC)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227040712/http://www.mosquitocatalog.org/files/pdfs/045050-0.pdf"><i>Tsetse in the Transvaal and Surrounding Territories - An Historical Review</i></a>—<a href="/wiki/Claude_Fuller_(entomologist)" title="Claude Fuller (entomologist)">Claude Fuller</a> (Division of Entomology, 1923)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070606225734/http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/pmbu/lttrn/">Leverhulme Trust Tsetse Research Network (LTTRN)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130104081354/http://www.nzitrap.com/index.htm">BITING FLIES - The NZI Trap</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090301142911/http://ergodd.zoo.ox.ac.uk/livatl2/tsetse.htm">Distribution maps</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160929202859/http://www.who.int/trypanosomiasis_african/disease/vector/en/">"The vector (tsetse fly)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></i>. 5 August 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/trypanosomiasis_african/disease/vector/en/">the original</a> on 29 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=The+vector+%28tsetse+fly%29&rft.date=2016-08-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Ftrypanosomiasis_african%2Fdisease%2Fvector%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsetse+fly" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/documents/tsetse_traps.pdf">STRATEGIC REVIEW OF TRAPS AND TARGETS FOR TSETSE AND AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS CONTROL - Training in Tropical Diseases</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icipe.org/news/insect-month-october-tsetse-fly-glossina-morsitans">"Insect of the Month (October): Tsetse fly, <i>Glossina morsitans</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Centre_of_Insect_Physiology_and_Ecology" title="International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology">icipe</a> (International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diptera_families" title="Template:Diptera families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diptera_families" title="Template talk:Diptera families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diptera_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diptera families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_Diptera_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">Diptera</a> families</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li>Phylum: <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li>Class: <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insecta</a></li> <li>Subclass: <a href="/wiki/Pterygota" title="Pterygota">Pterygota</a></li> <li>Infraclass: <a href="/wiki/Neoptera" title="Neoptera">Neoptera</a></li> <li>Superorder: <a href="/wiki/Holometabola" title="Holometabola">Holometabola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Suborder_Nematocera" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suborder <a href="/wiki/Nematocera" title="Nematocera">Nematocera</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Axymyiomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;padding-right:10.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Axymyiidae" title="Axymyiidae">Axymyiomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axymyiidae" title="Axymyiidae">Axymyiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Culicomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Culicomorpha" title="Culicomorpha">Culicomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Culicoidea" title="Culicoidea">Culicoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dixidae" title="Dixidae">Dixidae <small>(meniscus midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corethrellidae" title="Corethrellidae">Corethrellidae <small>(frog-biting midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaoboridae" title="Chaoboridae">Chaoboridae <small>(phantom midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">Culicidae <small>(mosquitoes)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chironomoidea" title="Chironomoidea">Chironomoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaumaleidae" title="Thaumaleidae">Thaumaleidae <small>(solitary midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_fly" title="Black fly">Simuliidae <small>(black flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceratopogonidae" title="Ceratopogonidae">Ceratopogonidae <small>(biting midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomidae" title="Chironomidae">Chironomidae <small>(non-biting midges)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Blephariceromorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;padding-right:10.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Blephariceromorpha" title="Blephariceromorpha">Blephariceromorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blephariceridae" title="Blephariceridae">Blephariceridae <small>(net-winged midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterophlebia" title="Deuterophlebia">Deuterophlebiidae <small>(mountain midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphomyiidae" title="Nymphomyiidae">Nymphomyiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bibionomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Bibionomorpha" title="Bibionomorpha">Bibionomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Bibionidae" title="Bibionidae">Bibionoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibionidae" title="Bibionidae">Bibionidae <small>(march flies, lovebugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Anisopodidae" title="Anisopodidae">Anisopodoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisopodidae" title="Anisopodidae">Anisopodidae <small>(wood gnats)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Sciaroidea" title="Sciaroidea">Sciaroidea</a><br /><small><span style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(fungus gnats)</span></span></small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolitophila" title="Bolitophila">Bolitophilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecidomyiidae" title="Cecidomyiidae">Cecidomyiidae <small>(gall midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadocidiidae" title="Diadocidiidae">Diadocidiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditomyiidae" title="Ditomyiidae">Ditomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keroplatidae" title="Keroplatidae">Keroplatidae <small>(predatory fungus gnats)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lygistorrhinidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lygistorrhinidae">Lygistorrhinidae <small>(long-beaked fungus gnats)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycetophilidae" title="Mycetophilidae">Mycetophilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangomaramidae" title="Rangomaramidae">Rangomaramidae <small>(long-winged fungus gnats)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciaridae" title="Sciaridae">Sciaridae <small>(dark-winged fungus gnats)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Perissommatomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;padding-right:10.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Perissommatidae" title="Perissommatidae">Perissommatomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perissommatidae" title="Perissommatidae">Perissommatidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Psychodomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Psychodomorpha" title="Psychodomorpha">Psychodomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Scatopsoidea" title="Scatopsoidea">Scatopsoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canthyloscelidae" title="Canthyloscelidae">Canthyloscelidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scatopsidae" title="Scatopsidae">Scatopsidae <small>(minute black scavenger flies, or dung midges)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeseguyidae" title="Valeseguyidae">Valeseguyidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Psychodidae" title="Psychodidae">Psychodoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychodidae" title="Psychodidae">Psychodidae <small>(moth flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ptychopteromorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em;padding-right:10.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Ptychopteromorpha" title="Ptychopteromorpha">Ptychopteromorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptychopteridae" title="Ptychopteridae">Ptychopteridae <small>(phantom crane flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanyderidae" title="Tanyderidae">Tanyderidae <small>(primitive crane flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tipulomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Tipulomorpha" title="Tipulomorpha">Tipulomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Trichoceridae" title="Trichoceridae">Trichoceroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichoceridae" title="Trichoceridae">Trichoceridae <small>(winter crane flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Crane_fly" title="Crane fly">Tipuloidea</a><br /><small><span style="color:#696969"><span class="nobold">(crane flies)</span></span></small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cylindrotomidae" title="Cylindrotomidae">Cylindrotomidae <small>(long-bodied crane flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limoniidae" title="Limoniidae">Limoniidae <small>(limoniid crane flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediciidae" title="Pediciidae">Pediciidae <small>(hairy-eyed craneflies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipulidae" title="Tipulidae">Tipulidae <small>(large crane flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Suborder_Brachycera" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suborder <a href="/wiki/Brachycera" title="Brachycera">Brachycera</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asilomorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Asilomorpha" title="Asilomorpha">Asilomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Asiloidea" title="Asiloidea">Asiloidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apiocera" title="Apiocera">Apioceridae <small>(flower-loving flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsilocephalidae" title="Apsilocephalidae">Apsilocephalidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apystomyia" title="Apystomyia">Apystomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asilidae" title="Asilidae">Asilidae <small>(robber flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombyliidae" title="Bombyliidae">Bombyliidae <small>(bee flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocoa" title="Evocoa">Evocoidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilarimorphidae" title="Hilarimorphidae">Hilarimorphidae <small>(hilarimorphid flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydas_fly" title="Mydas fly">Mydidae <small>(mydas flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythicomyiidae" title="Mythicomyiidae">Mythicomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scenopinidae" title="Scenopinidae">Scenopinidae <small>(window flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therevidae" title="Therevidae">Therevidae <small>(stiletto flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Empidoidea" title="Empidoidea">Empidoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atelestidae" title="Atelestidae">Atelestidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolichopodidae" title="Dolichopodidae">Dolichopodidae <small>(long-legged flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empididae" title="Empididae">Empididae <small>(dagger flies, balloon flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homalocnemis" title="Homalocnemis">Homalocnemiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybotidae" title="Hybotidae">Hybotidae <small>(dance flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreogetonidae" title="Oreogetonidae">Oreogetonidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragadidae" title="Ragadidae">Ragadidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Nemestrinoidea" title="Nemestrinoidea">Nemestrinoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acroceridae" title="Acroceridae">Acroceridae <small>(small-headed flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemestrinidae" title="Nemestrinidae">Nemestrinidae <small>(tangle-veined flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;line-height:1em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Muscomorpha" title="Muscomorpha">Muscomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Aschiza" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.9em"><a href="/wiki/Aschiza" title="Aschiza">Aschiza</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Platypezoidea" title="Platypezoidea">Platypezoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ironomyiidae" title="Ironomyiidae">Ironomyiidae <small>(ironic flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonchopteridae" title="Lonchopteridae">Lonchopteridae <small>(spear-winged flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opetiidae" title="Opetiidae">Opetiidae <small>(flat-footed flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoridae" title="Phoridae">Phoridae <small>(scuttle flies, coffin flies, humpbacked flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platypezidae" title="Platypezidae">Platypezidae <small>(flat-footed flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Syrphoidea" title="Syrphoidea">Syrphoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pipunculidae" title="Pipunculidae">Pipunculidae <small>(big-headed flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">Syrphidae <small>(hoverflies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3.8em;line-height:1em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Schizophora" title="Schizophora">Schizophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3.7em;line-height:1em;text-align:center;font-size:80%;"><a href="/wiki/Acalyptratae" title="Acalyptratae">Acalyptratae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Conopidae" title="Conopidae">Conopoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conopidae" title="Conopidae">Conopidae <small>(thick-headed flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Tephritoidea" title="Tephritoidea">Tephritoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallopteridae" title="Pallopteridae">Pallopteridae <small>(flutter flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piophilidae" title="Piophilidae">Piophilidae <small>(cheese flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platystomatidae" title="Platystomatidae">Platystomatidae <small>(signal flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgotidae" title="Pyrgotidae">Pyrgotidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richardiidae" title="Richardiidae">Richardiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephritidae" title="Tephritidae">Tephritidae <small>(peacock flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulidiidae" title="Ulidiidae">Ulidiidae <small>(picture-winged flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Nerioidea" title="Nerioidea">Nerioidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cypselosomatidae" title="Cypselosomatidae">Cypselosomatidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropezidae" title="Micropezidae">Micropezidae <small>(stilt-legged flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neriidae" title="Neriidae">Neriidae <small>(cactus flies, banana stalk flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Diopsoidea" title="Diopsoidea">Diopsoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalk-eyed_fly" title="Stalk-eyed fly">Diopsidae <small>(stalk-eyed flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobryidae" title="Gobryidae">Gobryidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megamerinidae" title="Megamerinidae">Megamerinidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nothybidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Nothybidae">Nothybidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilidae" title="Psilidae">Psilidae <small>(rust flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatiidae">Somatiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strongylophthalmyiidae" title="Strongylophthalmyiidae">Strongylophthalmyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syringogaster" title="Syringogaster">Syringogastridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanypezidae" title="Tanypezidae">Tanypezidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Sciomyzoidea" title="Sciomyzoidea">Sciomyzoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coelopidae" title="Coelopidae">Coelopidae <small>(kelp flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dryomyzidae" title="Dryomyzidae">Dryomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helcomyzidae" title="Helcomyzidae">Helcomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helosciomyzidae" title="Helosciomyzidae">Helosciomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterocheila" title="Heterocheila">Heterocheilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huttoninidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Huttoninidae">Huttoninidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalimyzidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Natalimyzidae">Natalimyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeomyiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaeomyiidae">Phaeomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ropalomeridae" title="Ropalomeridae">Ropalomeridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciomyzidae" title="Sciomyzidae">Sciomyzidae <small>(marsh flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsidae" title="Sepsidae">Sepsidae <small>(black scavenger flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Sphaeroceroidea" title="Sphaeroceroidea">Sphaeroceroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chyromyidae" title="Chyromyidae">Chyromyidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heleomyzidae" title="Heleomyzidae">Heleomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nannodastiidae" title="Nannodastiidae">Nannodastiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphaeroceridae" title="Sphaeroceridae">Sphaeroceridae <small>(small dung flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Lauxanioidea" title="Lauxanioidea">Lauxanioidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celyphidae" title="Celyphidae">Celyphidae <small>(beetle-backed flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamaemyiidae" title="Chamaemyiidae">Chamaemyiidae <small>(aphid flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremifaniidae" title="Cremifaniidae">Cremifaniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauxaniidae" title="Lauxaniidae">Lauxaniidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Opomyzoidea" title="Opomyzoidea">Opomyzoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agromyzidae" title="Agromyzidae">Agromyzidae <small>(leaf miner flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthomyzidae" title="Anthomyzidae">Anthomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteiidae" title="Asteiidae">Asteiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulacigastridae" title="Aulacigastridae">Aulacigastridae <small>(sap flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusiidae" title="Clusiidae">Clusiidae <small>(lekking, or druid flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fergusoninidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Fergusoninidae">Fergusoninidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginidae">Marginidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neminidae" title="Neminidae">Neminidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochaetidae" title="Neurochaetidae">Neurochaetidae <small>(upside-down flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odiniidae" title="Odiniidae">Odiniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opomyzidae" title="Opomyzidae">Opomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periscelididae" title="Periscelididae">Periscelididae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratomyzidae" title="Teratomyzidae">Teratomyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenasteiidae" title="Xenasteiidae">Xenasteiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Ephydroidea" title="Ephydroidea">Ephydroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camillidae" title="Camillidae">Camillidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtonotidae" title="Curtonotidae">Curtonotidae <small>(quasimodo flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diastatidae" title="Diastatidae">Diastatidae <small>(bog flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">Drosophilidae <small>(vinegar and fruit flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephydridae" title="Ephydridae">Ephydridae <small>(shore flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormotomyiidae" title="Mormotomyiidae">Mormotomyiidae <small>(frightful hairy fly)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Carnoidea" title="Carnoidea">Carnoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acartophthalmus" title="Acartophthalmus">Acartophthalmidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australimyzidae" title="Australimyzidae">Australimyzidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braulidae" title="Braulidae">Braulidae <small>(bee lice)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canacidae" title="Canacidae">Canacidae <small>(beach flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnidae" title="Carnidae">Carnidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropidae" title="Chloropidae">Chloropidae <small>(frit flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inbiomyiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Inbiomyiidae">Inbiomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milichiidae" title="Milichiidae">Milichiidae <small>(freeloader flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lonchaeoidea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptochetidae" title="Cryptochetidae">Cryptochetidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonchaeidae" title="Lonchaeidae">Lonchaeidae <small>(lance flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3.7em;line-height:1em;text-align:center;font-size:80%;"><a href="/wiki/Calyptratae" title="Calyptratae">Calyptratae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;line-height:3em;"><a href="/wiki/Muscoidea" title="Muscoidea">Muscoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthomyiidae" title="Anthomyiidae">Anthomyiidae <small>(cabbage flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanniidae" title="Fanniidae">Fanniidae <small>(little house flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscidae" title="Muscidae">Muscidae <small>(house flies, stable flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scathophagidae" title="Scathophagidae">Scathophagidae <small>(dung flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;line-height:3em;"><a href="/wiki/Oestroidea" title="Oestroidea">Oestroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calliphoridae" title="Calliphoridae">Calliphoridae <small>(blow-flies: bluebottles, greenbottles)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesembrinellidae" title="Mesembrinellidae">Mesembrinellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_batfly" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand batfly">Mystacinobiidae <small>(New Zealand batfly)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botfly" title="Botfly">Oestridae <small>(botflies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhiniidae" title="Rhiniidae">Rhiniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinophoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhinophoridae">Rhinophoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flesh_fly" title="Flesh fly">Sarcophagidae <small>(flesh flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachinidae" title="Tachinidae">Tachinidae <small>(tachina flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulurumyiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulurumyiidae">Ulurumyiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;line-height:3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hippoboscoidea" title="Hippoboscoidea">Hippoboscoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glossinidae <small>(tsetse flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippoboscidae" title="Hippoboscidae">Hippoboscidae <small>(louse flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nycteribiidae" title="Nycteribiidae">Nycteribiidae <small>(bat flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streblidae" title="Streblidae">Streblidae <small>(bat flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Stratiomyomorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratiomyomorpha">Stratiomyomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Stratiomyoidea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Stratiomyoidea" title="Stratiomyoidea">Stratiomyoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantophthalmidae" title="Pantophthalmidae">Pantophthalmidae <small>(timber flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratiomyidae" title="Stratiomyidae">Stratiomyidae <small>(soldier flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylomyidae" title="Xylomyidae">Xylomyidae <small>(wood soldier flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Tabanomorpha" title="Tabanomorpha">Tabanomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhagionoidea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhagionoidea (page does not exist)">Rhagionoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austroleptis" title="Austroleptis">Austroleptidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolbomyia" title="Bolbomyia">Bolbomyiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhagionidae" title="Rhagionidae">Rhagionidae <small>(snipe flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Tabanoidea" title="Tabanoidea">Tabanoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athericidae" title="Athericidae">Athericidae <small>(water snipe flies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreoleptidae" title="Oreoleptidae">Oreoleptidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelecorhynchidae" title="Pelecorhynchidae">Pelecorhynchidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabanidae" title="Tabanidae">Tabanidae <small>(horse and deer flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Vermileonidae" title="Vermileonidae">Vermileonomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Vermileonoidea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Vermileonidae" title="Vermileonidae">Vermileonoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vermileonidae" title="Vermileonidae">Vermileonidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Xylophagidae" title="Xylophagidae">Xylophagomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Xylophagoidea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Xylophagidae" title="Xylophagidae">Xylophagoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylophagidae" title="Xylophagidae">Xylophagidae <small>(awl flies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_Diptera_families" title="List of Diptera families">List of families of Diptera</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_interactions_with_insects" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Insects_in_culture" title="Template:Insects in culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Insects_in_culture" title="Template talk:Insects in culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Insects_in_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Insects in culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_interactions_with_insects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_interactions_with_insects" title="Human interactions with insects">Human interactions with insects</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects<br />of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a><br />in culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In the arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_art" title="Insects in art">Insects in art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beetlewing" title="Beetlewing">Beetlewing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Musca_depicta" title="Musca depicta">Musca depicta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropods_in_film" title="Arthropods in film">Arthropods in film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_literature" title="Insects in literature">Insects in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_music" title="Insects in music">Insects in music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_insect-inspired_songs" title="List of insect-inspired songs">List of insect-inspired songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_on_stamps" title="Insects on stamps">Insects on stamps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In fishing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait">Fishing bait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_fishing" title="Fly fishing">Fly fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_fly" title="Artificial fly">Artificial fly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_tying" title="Fly tying">Fly tying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_medicine" title="Insects in medicine">In medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apitherapy" title="Apitherapy">Apitherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apitoxin" title="Apitoxin">Apitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittin" title="Melittin">Melittin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lytta_vesicatoria" title="Lytta vesicatoria">Spanish fly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantharidin" title="Cantharidin">Cantharidin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_mythology" title="Insects in mythology">In mythology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bees_in_mythology" title="Bees in mythology">Bees in mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicadas_in_mythology" title="Cicadas in mythology">Cicadas in mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">Scarab (artifact)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockroach_racing" title="Cockroach racing">Cockroach racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockroaches_in_popular_culture" title="Cockroaches in popular culture">Cockroaches in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_fighting" title="Cricket fighting">Cricket fighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomophagy_in_humans" title="Entomophagy in humans">Entomophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flea_circus" title="Flea circus">Flea circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_ethics" title="Insects in ethics">Insects in ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_religion" title="Insects in religion">Insects in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingzhe" title="Jingzhe">Jingzhe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_entomology" title="Economic entomology">Economic<br />entomology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneficial_insect" title="Beneficial insect">Beneficial insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">Biological pest control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">Beekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bee_pollen" title="Bee pollen">Bee pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crop_plants_pollinated_by_bees" title="List of crop plants pollinated by bees">List of crop plants pollinated by bees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beeswax" title="Beeswax">Beeswax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propolis" title="Propolis">Propolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_jelly" title="Royal jelly">Royal jelly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmine" title="Carmine">Carmine/Cochineal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_cochineal" title="Polish cochineal">Polish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">Chitin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermes_(dye)" title="Kermes (dye)">Kermes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture">Sericulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">Silk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">Shellac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)#Insects" title="Pest (organism)">Harmful<br />insects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_bites_and_stings" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect bites and stings">Insect bites and stings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_sting_allergy" title="Insect sting allergy">Insect sting allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_bug" title="Bed bug">Bed bug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworm" title="Woodworm">Woodworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-stored_product_entomology" title="Home-stored product entomology">Home-stored product entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothes_moth" title="Clothes moth">Clothes moth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Zinsser" title="Hans Zinsser">Hans Zinsser</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Rats,_Lice_and_History" title="Rats, Lice and History">Rats, Lice and History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafcadio_Hearn" title="Lafcadio Hearn">Lafcadio Hearn</a> (<i>Insect Literature</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concerns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bees_and_toxic_chemicals" title="Bees and toxic chemicals">Bees and toxic chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endangered_insects" title="List of endangered insects">List of endangered insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">Insecticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonicotinoid" title="Neonicotinoid">Neonicotinoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide_toxicity_to_bees" title="Pesticide toxicity to bees">Pesticide toxicity to bees</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories,<br />templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Insects_and_humans" title="Category:Insects and humans">Insects and humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Insecticides" title="Template:Insecticides">Insecticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Pesticides" title="Template:Pesticides">Pesticides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beetle_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Beetle_icon.svg/25px-Beetle_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Beetle_icon.svg/38px-Beetle_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Beetle_icon.svg/50px-Beetle_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="159" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Insects" title="Portal:Insects">Insects portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Glossina</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205256" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q205256">Q205256</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Glossina" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Glossina">Glossina</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Glossinidae/">Glossinidae</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">BioLib: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id116598">116598</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=103823">103823</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a 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class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/67370">67370</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1406594">1406594</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Invasive_Species_Compendium" title="Invasive Species Compendium">ISC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/102385">102385</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7393">7393</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=753708">753708</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=139454">139454</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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