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nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1954 United States Supreme Court case</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox scotus" style="line-height: 1.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #99c0ff; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; font-size:125%; font-style: italic">Bolling v. Sharpe</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top: 0.5em; font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Argued December 10–11, 1952<br />Reargued December 8–9, 1953<br />Decided May 17, 1954</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Full case name</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Spottswood Thomas Bolling, et al., Petitioners, v. C. Melvin Sharpe, President of the District of Columbia Board of Education, et al.</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citations</th><td class="infobox-data">347 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/us/347/497/case.html">497</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">more</a></i>)<div>74 S. Ct. 693; 98 <a href="/wiki/L._Ed." class="mw-redirect" title="L. Ed.">L. Ed.</a> 884; 1954 <a href="/wiki/U.S._LEXIS" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. LEXIS">U.S. LEXIS</a> 2095; 53 Ohio Op. 331</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">Certiorari</a></i> to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Racial segregation in the public schools of the District of Columbia is a denial of the due process of law guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley F. Reed</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold H. Burton</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Sherman Minton</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinion</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">Warren, joined by <i>unanimous</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Laws applied</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">U.S. Const. amend. V</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Bolling v. Sharpe</b></i>, 347 U.S. 497 (1954), is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark</a> <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal case">case</a> in which the Court held that the Constitution prohibits <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">segregated public schools</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a>. Originally argued on December 10–11, 1952, a year before <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, <i>Bolling</i> was reargued on December 8–9, 1953, and was unanimously decided on May 17, 1954, the same day as <i>Brown</i>. The <i>Bolling</i> decision was supplemented in 1955 with the second <i>Brown</i> opinion, which ordered desegregation "with all deliberate speed". In <i>Bolling</i>, the Court did not address school desegregation in the context of the Fourteenth Amendment's <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>, which applies only to the states, but rather held that school segregation was unconstitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. The Court observed that the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution lacked an Equal Protection Clause, as in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. However, the Court held that the concepts of equal protection and due process are not mutually exclusive, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_incorporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse incorporation">reverse incorporation</a> doctrine. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Carr v. Corning</i> (1950), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">District of Columbia Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals</a> (with Judges <a href="/wiki/Bennett_Champ_Clark" title="Bennett Champ Clark">Bennett Champ Clark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_White_Edgerton" title="Henry White Edgerton">Henry White Edgerton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/E._Barrett_Prettyman" title="E. Barrett Prettyman">E. Barrett Prettyman</a> presiding) affirmed a ruling of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">District of Columbia U.S. District Court</a> that upheld school segregation in the District citing seven laws passed by Congress from 1862 through 1874 that had segregated the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Public_Schools" title="District of Columbia Public Schools">District of Columbia Public Schools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004985_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section VIII of the U.S. Constitution</a>, "Congress shall have the power ... <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_home_rule" title="District of Columbia home rule">[t]o exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District</a> ... as may, by Cession of particular States... become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for ... needful buildings".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 16, 1862, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> signed into law the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Compensated_Emancipation_Act" title="District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act">District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act</a> passed by the <a href="/wiki/37th_United_States_Congress" title="37th United States Congress">37th United States Congress</a> that ended <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Slavery in the District of Columbia">slavery in the District of Columbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 20, 1862, Lincoln signed into law the Washington County Public Primary Schools Act which required that a special property tax be levied on all taxable property owned by non-white persons in <a href="/wiki/Washington_County,_D.C." title="Washington County, D.C.">Washington County</a> "for the purpose of initiating a system of education of colored children in said county".<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next day, Lincoln signed the Georgetown and Washington Cities Colored Children Education Act into law that required the municipal governments of <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)">Georgetown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington City</a> to deposit 10 percent of the property tax revenue collected from non-white property owners into separate funds to be "appropriated for the purpose of initiating a system of primary schools for the education of colored children residing in said cities" under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors">boards of trustees</a> of the public schools in Georgetown and Washington City, and that the boards of trustees "shall possess all the powers, exercise the same functions, and have the same supervision over the schools provided for in this act as are now exercised by them over the public schools now existing in said cities".<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, on July 11, 1862, Lincoln signed the Georgetown and Washington Cities Colored Children Schools Act into law that created a separate board of trustees for non-white schools in Georgetown and Washington City who would "possess all the powers and perform all the duties conferred upon and required of the trustees of public schools in the said cities".<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 25, 1864, Lincoln signed into law the Washington County Public Schools Act passed by the <a href="/wiki/38th_United_States_Congress" title="38th United States Congress">38th United States Congress</a> that permitted "any white resident of said county shall be privileged to place his or her child or ward, at any one of the schools provided for the education of white children in said county he or she may think proper to select … and any colored resident shall have the same rights with respect to colored schools", and repealed the special property tax on non-white property owners in Georgetown and Washington City to fund non-white schools and instead required that the municipal governments of Georgetown and Washington City to appropriate from the general funds of their schools districts funding to non-white schools proportionate to the percentage of the enrollment in the districts non-white students constituted.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 23, 1866, President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> signed into law the District of Columbia Public Schools Act passed by the <a href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress" title="39th United States Congress">39th United States Congress</a> that provided that the Washington County Public Schools Act be construed to "require the cities of Washington and Georgetown to pay over to the trustees of colored schools" the funding required under Section 18 of the Washington County Public Schools Act.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 28, 1866, Johnson signed the Washington City Colored Schools Lots Donation Act into law that required the <a href="/wiki/Federal_buildings_in_the_United_States" title="Federal buildings in the United States">Public Buildings Commissioner</a> to "grant and convey to the trustees of colored schools for the cities of Washington and Georgetown … for the sole use of schools for colored children" specific <a href="/wiki/Land_lot" title="Land lot">land lots</a> in Washington City.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 22, 1874, President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> signed into law the <a href="/wiki/Revised_Statutes_of_the_United_States" title="Revised Statutes of the United States">Revised Statutes of the United States Act</a> passed by the <a href="/wiki/43rd_United_States_Congress" title="43rd United States Congress">43rd United States Congress</a> that provided for the revision and consolidation of all federal statutes related to the District of Columbia,<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that retained Section 16 of the Washington County Public Schools Act, retained a separate board of trustees for non-white schools in Georgetown and Washington City, and required the appointment of a separate superintendent for non-white schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in late 1941, a group of parents from the <a href="/wiki/Anacostia" title="Anacostia">Anacostia</a> neighborhood of Washington, D.C., calling themselves the Consolidated Parents Group, petitioned the Board of Education of the District of Columbia to open the nearly-completed <a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa_Junior_High_School" title="John Philip Sousa Junior High School">John Philip Sousa Junior High</a> as an integrated school. The school board denied the petition and the school opened, admitting only whites. On September 11, 1950, <a href="/wiki/Gardner_Bishop" title="Gardner Bishop">Gardner Bishop</a>, Nicholas Stabile and the Consolidated Parents Group attempted to get eleven African-American students (including the case's plaintiff, <b>Spottswood Bolling</b>) admitted to the school, but were refused entry by the school's principal. </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Nabrit_Jr." title="James Nabrit Jr.">James Nabrit Jr.</a>, a professor of law at <a href="/wiki/Howard_University_School_of_Law" title="Howard University School of Law">Howard University School of Law</a>, a historically black university, filed suit in 1951 on behalf of Bolling and the other students in the District Court for the District of Columbia seeking assistance in the students' admission.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the court dismissed the claim, the case was granted a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_certiorari" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of certiorari">writ of certiorari</a> by the Supreme Court in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-CUA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Howard law professor <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Chalmer_Hayes" title="George Edward Chalmer Hayes">George E. C. Hayes</a> worked with Nabrit on the oral argument for the Supreme Court hearing.<sup id="cite_ref-CUA_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CUA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Nabrit's argument in <i>Bolling</i> rested on the unconstitutionality of segregation, the much more famous <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> (decided on the same day) argued that the idea of 'separate but equal' facilities sanctioned by <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>, 163 U.S. 537 (1896) was a fallacy as the facilities for black students were woefully inadequate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decision">Decision</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Decision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Court, led by newly confirmed Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, decided unanimously in favor of the plaintiffs.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his opinion, Justice Warren noted that while the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> was cited in <i>Brown</i> in order to declare segregation unconstitutional, does not apply in the District of Columbia, the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> did apply.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Fifth Amendment lacks an equal protection clause, Warren held that "the concepts of equal protection and due process, both stemming from our American ideal of fairness, are not mutually exclusive."<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While equal protection is a more explicit safeguard against discrimination, the Court stated that "discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process."<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to the technicalities raised by the case's location in the District of Columbia, the Court held that, in light of their decision in <i>Brown</i> that segregation in state public schools is prohibited by the Constitution, it would be "unthinkable that the same Constitution would impose a lesser duty on the Federal Government".<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court concluded: "racial segregation in the public schools of the District of Columbia is a denial of the due process of law guaranteed by the 5th Amendment".<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court restored both <i>Bolling</i> and <i>Brown</i> to the docket until they could reconvene to discuss how to effectively implement the decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some scholars have argued that the Court's decision in <i>Bolling</i> should have been reached on other grounds. For example, Judge <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">Michael W. McConnell</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit</a> wrote that Congress never "required that the schools of the District of Columbia be segregated".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to that rationale, the segregation of schools in Washington D.C. was unauthorized and therefore illegal. </p><p>In a debate, law professors <a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Randy_Barnett" title="Randy Barnett">Randy Barnett</a> agreed that while the result was desirable, <i>Bolling</i> does not reconcile with the Constitution, with Barnett saying: "You are right to point out that the Supreme Court's decision in <i>Bolling v. Sharpe</i> is very difficult to reconcile with the text of the Constitution. For this reason, you know that among constitutional scholars of all stripes <i>Bolling</i> is one of the most controversial and difficult cases ever decided by the Court."<sup id="cite_ref-originalism_debate_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-originalism_debate-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">University of Michigan Law School</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Richard_Primus" title="Richard Primus">Richard Primus</a> has argued that the conventional wisdom among constitutional scholars is that <i>Bolling</i> was not wrongly decided or that the reverse incorporation doctrine is illegitimate, and instead both were "justified by the force of sheer normative necessity."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004977_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004977-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004985-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004985_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrimus2004">Primus 2004</a>, p. 985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr_v._Corning-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_v._Corning_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Carr v. Corning</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/182/14/73298/">182 F.2d 14</a> (D.C. Cir. 1950).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRossiter2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Rossiter" title="Clinton Rossiter">Rossiter, Clinton</a>, ed. (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers"><i>The Federalist Papers</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/New_American_Library" title="New American Library">Signet Classics</a>. p. 548. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780451528810" title="Special:BookSources/9780451528810"><bdi>9780451528810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federalist+Papers&rft.pages=548&rft.pub=Signet+Classics&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780451528810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">12 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-12-376">376</a>, Session 2, "Chap. LIV.—An Act for the Release of certain Persons held to Service or Labor in the District of Columbia".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">12 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-12-394">394</a>, Session 2, "Chap. LXXVII.—An Act to provide for the Public Instruction of Youth in Primary Schools throughout the County of Washington, in the District of Columbia, without the Limits of the Cities of Washington and Georgetown", Section 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">12 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-12-407">407</a>, Session 2, "Chap. LXXXIII.—An Act providing for the Education of Colored Children in the Cities of Washington and Georgetown, District of Columbia, and for other Purposes", Sections 1, 2, and 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">12 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-12-537">537</a>, Session 2, "Chap. CLI.—An Act relating to Schools for the Education of Colored Children in the Cities of Washington and Georgetown, in the District of Columbia".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">13 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-13-187">187</a>, Session 1, "Chap. CLVI.—An Act to provide for the Public Instruction of Youth in the County of Washington, District of Columbia, and for other Purposes", Sections 16 and 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">14 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-14-216">216</a>, Session 1, "Chap. CCXVII.—An Act relating to Public Schools in the District of Columbia".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">14 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-14-343">343</a>, Session 1, "Chap. CCCVIII.—An Act donating certain Lots in the City of Washington for Schools for Colored Children in the District of Columbia".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-1">1</a>, Part 2, Session 1, "An Act to revise and consolidate the statutes of the United States, general and permanent in their nature, relating to the District of Columbia, in force on the first day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-three".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-33">33</a>, Part 2, Session 1, "Chapter 12. Public Schools", Sections 282, 294, and 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/4-five/washington-dc-2.html">"Washington, D.C.: A Challenge to Jim Crow in the Nation's Capital"</a>. <i>Smithsonian National Museum of American History</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Washington%2C+D.C.%3A+A+Challenge+to+Jim+Crow+in+the+Nation%27s+Capital&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fbrown%2Fhistory%2F4-five%2Fwashington-dc-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CUA-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CUA_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CUA_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CUA_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200716031330/https://libguides.law.cua.edu/exhibits/bolling">"Bolling v. Sharpe"</a>. <i>The Catholic University of America, Judge Kathryn J. Dufour Law Library</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libguides.law.cua.edu/exhibits/bolling">the original</a> on July 16, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+University+of+America%2C+Judge+Kathryn+J.+Dufour+Law+Library&rft.atitle=Bolling+v.+Sharpe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibguides.law.cua.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fbolling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._499_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bolling v. Sharpe</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/497/#499">497, 499</a> (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolling_v._Sharpe_p._500_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bolling v. Sharpe</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/497/#500">497, 500</a> (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell,_Michael2001" class="citation book cs1">McConnell, Michael (2001). Balkin (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatbrownvboardo00jmba"><i>What Brown v. Board of Education should have said : the nation's top legal experts rewrite America's landmark civil rights decision</i></a></span>. New York University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatbrownvboardo00jmba/page/168">168</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9889-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9889-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-9889-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47721772">47721772</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 15,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+should+have+said+%3A+the+nation%27s+top+legal+experts+rewrite+America%27s+landmark+civil+rights+decision&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47721772&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9889-8&rft.au=McConnell%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatbrownvboardo00jmba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-originalism_debate-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-originalism_debate_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnettSunstein,_Cass2005" class="citation web cs1">Barnett, Randy; Sunstein, Cass (May 2, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210303053853/http://legalaffairs.org/webexclusive/debateclub_cie0505.msp">"Constitution in Exile?"</a>. <i>Legal Affairs</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legalaffairs.org/webexclusive/debateclub_cie0505.msp">the original</a> on March 3, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 27,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Affairs&rft.atitle=Constitution+in+Exile%3F&rft.date=2005-05-02&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft.au=Sunstein%2C+Cass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegalaffairs.org%2Fwebexclusive%2Fdebateclub_cie0505.msp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004977-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004977_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrimus2004">Primus 2004</a>, p. 977.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Primus" title="Richard Primus">Primus, Richard A.</a> (2004). "<i>Bolling</i> Alone". <i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review" title="Columbia Law Review">Columbia Law Review</a></i>. <b>104</b> (4): 975–1041. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4099366">10.2307/4099366</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4099366">4099366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Bolling+Alone&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=975-1041&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4099366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4099366%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Primus&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABolling+v.+Sharpe" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Bolling v. Sharpe"><i>Bolling v. Sharpe</i></a> at Wikisource</li> <li>Text of <i>Bolling v. Sharpe</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 497 (1954) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/497">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16234924501041992561">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/497/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep347/usrep347497/usrep347497.pdf">Library of Congress</a> </li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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to the United States Constitution">United States Fifth Amendment</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Fifth_Amendment_criminal_procedure_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US5thAmendment_crimpro" title="Template:US5thAmendment crimpro"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US5thAmendment_crimpro" title="Template talk:US5thAmendment crimpro"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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title="Grand juries in the United States">Grand Jury</a> Clause</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurtado_v._California" title="Hurtado v. California">Hurtado v. California</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Bain" title="Ex parte Bain">Ex parte Bain</a></i> (1887)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wong_Wing_v._United_States" title="Wong Wing v. United States">Wong Wing v. United States</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_v._Dow" title="Maxwell v. Dow">Maxwell v. Dow</a></i> (1900)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Moreland" title="United States v. Moreland">United States v. Moreland</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beck_v._Washington" title="Beck v. Washington">Beck v. Washington</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cotton" title="United States v. Cotton">United States v. Cotton</a></i> (2002)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Double_Jeopardy_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meaning of "same offense"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Blockburger_v._United_States" title="Blockburger v. United States">Blockburger v. United States</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grady_v._Corbin" title="Grady v. Corbin">Grady v. Corbin</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Felix" title="United States v. Felix">United States v. Felix</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Dixon" title="United States v. Dixon">United States v. Dixon</a></i> (1993)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After acquittal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Randenbush" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Randenbush">United States v. Randenbush</a></i> (1834)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ball_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ball v. United States (page does not exist)">Ball v. United States</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burton_v._United_States" title="Burton v. United States">Burton v. United States</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fong_Foo_v._United_States" title="Fong Foo v. United States">Fong Foo v. United States</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ashe_v._Swenson" title="Ashe v. Swenson">Ashe v. Swenson</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burks_v._United_States" title="Burks v. United States">Burks v. United States</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evans_v._Michigan" title="Evans v. Michigan">Evans v. Michigan</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bravo-Fernandez_v._United_States" title="Bravo-Fernandez v. United States">Bravo-Fernandez v. United States</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McElrath_v._Georgia" title="McElrath v. Georgia">McElrath v. Georgia</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After conviction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wilson" title="United States v. Wilson">United States v. Wilson</a></i> (1833)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_v._Massachusetts" title="Ludwig v. Massachusetts">Ludwig v. Massachusetts</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grady_v._Corbin" title="Grady v. Corbin">Grady v. Corbin</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Felix" title="United States v. Felix">United States v. Felix</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Dixon" title="United States v. Dixon">United States v. Dixon</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._United_States_(2023)" title="Smith v. United States (2023)">Smith v. United States</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After mistrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Perez" title="United States v. Perez">United States v. Perez</a></i> (1824)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Jorn" title="United States v. Jorn">United States v. Jorn</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Dinitz" title="United States v. Dinitz">United States v. Dinitz</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Kennedy" title="Oregon v. Kennedy">Oregon v. Kennedy</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blueford_v._Arkansas" title="Blueford v. Arkansas">Blueford v. Arkansas</a></i> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple punishment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Blockburger_v._United_States" title="Blockburger v. United States">Blockburger v. United States</a></i> (1932)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dual sovereignty doctrine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Lanza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Lanza (page does not exist)">United States v. Lanza</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartkus_v._Illinois" title="Bartkus v. Illinois">Bartkus v. Illinois</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waller_v._Florida" title="Waller v. Florida">Waller v. Florida</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wheeler_(1978)" title="United States v. Wheeler (1978)">United States v. Wheeler</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heath_v._Alabama" title="Heath v. Alabama">Heath v. Alabama</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_v._Sanchez_Valle" title="Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle">Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gamble_v._United_States" title="Gamble v. United States">Gamble v. United States</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Denezpi_v._United_States" title="Denezpi v. United States">Denezpi v. United States</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Bigelow" title="Ex parte Bigelow">Ex parte Bigelow</a></i> (1885)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palko_v._Connecticut" title="Palko v. Connecticut">Palko v. Connecticut</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_ex_rel._Francis_v._Resweber" title="Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber">Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baxstrom_v._Herold" title="Baxstrom v. Herold">Baxstrom v. Herold</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_v._Pearce" title="North Carolina v. Pearce">North Carolina v. Pearce</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Benton_v._Maryland" title="Benton v. Maryland">Benton v. Maryland</a></i> (1969)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Self-Incrimination_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Self-Incrimination_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-Incrimination Clause">Self-Incrimination Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Curcio_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Curcio v. United States (page does not exist)">Curcio v. United States</a></i> (1957)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._California" title="Griffin v. California">Griffin v. California</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boulden_v._Holman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boulden v. Holman (page does not exist)">Boulden v. Holman</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Florida" title="Williams v. Florida">Williams v. Florida</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michigan_v._Tucker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michigan v. Tucker (page does not exist)">Michigan v. Tucker</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Arizona" title="Edwards v. Arizona">Edwards v. Arizona</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Elstad" title="Oregon v. Elstad">Oregon v. Elstad</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Doe_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doe v. United States (page does not exist)">Doe v. United States</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Perkins" title="Illinois v. Perkins">Illinois v. Perkins</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McNeil_v._Wisconsin" title="McNeil v. Wisconsin">McNeil v. Wisconsin</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_v._United_States_(1999)" title="Mitchell v. United States (1999)">Mitchell v. United States</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Hubbell" title="United States v. Hubbell">United States v. Hubbell</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dickerson_v._United_States" title="Dickerson v. United States">Dickerson v. United States</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chavez_v._Martinez" title="Chavez v. Martinez">Chavez v. Martinez</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yarborough_v._Alvarado" title="Yarborough v. Alvarado">Yarborough v. Alvarado</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Seibert" title="Missouri v. Seibert">Missouri v. Seibert</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Patane" title="United States v. Patane">United States v. Patane</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corley_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Corley v. United States (page does not exist)">Corley v. United States</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Powell" title="Florida v. Powell">Florida v. Powell</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maryland_v._Shatzer" title="Maryland v. Shatzer">Maryland v. Shatzer</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Berghuis_v._Thompkins" title="Berghuis v. Thompkins">Berghuis v. Thompkins</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/J._D._B._v._North_Carolina" title="J. D. B. v. North Carolina">J. D. B. v. North Carolina</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bobby_v._Dixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bobby v. Dixon">Bobby v. Dixon</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Howes_v._Fields" title="Howes v. Fields">Howes v. Fields</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salinas_v._Texas" title="Salinas v. Texas">Salinas v. Texas</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vega_v._Tekoh" title="Vega v. Tekoh">Vega v. Tekoh</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Due_Process_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nichols_v._Coolidge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nichols v. Coolidge (page does not exist)">Nichols v. Coolidge</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Railroad_Retirement_Board_v._Alton_Railroad_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co.">Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co.</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Carolene_Products_Co." title="United States v. Carolene Products Co.">United States v. Carolene Products Co.</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schneider_v._Rusk" title="Schneider v. Rusk">Schneider v. Rusk</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Bellei" title="Rogers v. Bellei">Rogers v. Bellei</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Richardson_v._Davis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richardson v. Davis (page does not exist)">Richardson v. Davis</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frontiero_v._Richardson" title="Frontiero v. Richardson">Frontiero v. Richardson</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture_v._Moreno" title="Department of Agriculture v. Moreno">Department of Agriculture v. Moreno</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morton_v._Mancari" title="Morton v. Mancari">Morton v. Mancari</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schlesinger_v._Ballard" title="Schlesinger v. Ballard">Schlesinger v. Ballard</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weinberger_v._Wiesenfeld" title="Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld">Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathews_v._Eldridge" title="Mathews v. Eldridge">Mathews v. Eldridge</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hills_v._Gautreaux" title="Hills v. Gautreaux">Hills v. Gautreaux</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathews_v._Diaz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathews v. Diaz (page does not exist)">Mathews v. Diaz</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_v._Mow_Sun_Wong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong (page does not exist)">Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_v._Davis" title="Washington v. Davis">Washington v. Davis</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathews_v._Lucas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathews v. Lucas (page does not exist)">Mathews v. Lucas</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Califano_v._Goldfarb" title="Califano v. Goldfarb">Califano v. Goldfarb</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Califano_v._Webster" title="Califano v. Webster">Califano v. Webster</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fiallo_v._Bell" title="Fiallo v. Bell">Fiallo v. Bell</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Califano_v._Torres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Califano v. Torres (page does not exist)">Califano v. Torres</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vance_v._Bradley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vance v. Bradley (page does not exist)">Vance v. Bradley</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Davis_v._Passman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Davis v. Passman (page does not exist)">Davis v. Passman</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Califano_v._Westcott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Califano v. Westcott (page does not exist)">Califano v. Westcott</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harris_v._Rosario&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harris v. Rosario (page does not exist)">Harris v. Rosario</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._McRae" title="Harris v. McRae">Harris v. McRae</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fullilove_v._Klutznick" title="Fullilove v. Klutznick">Fullilove v. Klutznick</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rostker_v._Goldberg" title="Rostker v. Goldberg">Rostker v. Goldberg</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heckler_v._Mathews&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heckler v. Mathews (page does not exist)">Heckler v. Mathews</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lyng_v._Castillo" title="Lyng v. Castillo">Lyng v. Castillo</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bowen_v._Gilliard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bowen v. Gilliard (page does not exist)">Bowen v. Gilliard</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metro_Broadcasting,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC">Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miller_v._Albright" title="Miller v. Albright">Miller v. Albright</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nguyen_v._INS" title="Nguyen v. INS">Nguyen v. INS</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zadvydas_v._Davis" title="Zadvydas v. Davis">Zadvydas v. Davis</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flores-Villar_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flores-Villar v. United States (page does not exist)">Flores-Villar v. United States</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kerry_v._Din" title="Kerry v. Din">Kerry v. Din</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sessions_v._Morales-Santana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sessions v. Morales-Santana (page does not exist)">Sessions v. Morales-Santana</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California">Department of Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Vaello_Madero" title="United States v. Vaello Madero">United States v. Vaello Madero</a></i> (2022)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Department_of_State_v._Mu%C3%B1oz" title="Department of State v. Muñoz">Department of State v. Muñoz</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Takings_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Takings_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Takings Clause">Takings Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Barron_v._Baltimore" title="Barron v. Baltimore">Barron v. Baltimore</a></i> (1833)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kohl_v._United_States" title="Kohl v. United States">Kohl v. United States</a></i> (1875)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Lawton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Lawton (page does not exist)">United States v. Lawton</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cole_v._City_of_La_Grange" title="Cole v. City of La Grange">Cole v. City of La Grange</a></i> (1885)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Head_v._Amoskeag_Manufacturing_Co." title="Head v. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.">Head v. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.</a></i> (1885)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Monongahela_Nav._Co._v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States (page does not exist)">Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States</a></i> (1893)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chicago,_Burlington_%26_Quincy_Railroad_Co._v._City_of_Chicago" title="Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago">Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peabody_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peabody v. United States (page does not exist)">Peabody v. United States</a></i> (1913)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Cress&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Cress (page does not exist)">United States v. Cress</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Block_v._Hirsh" title="Block v. Hirsh">Block v. Hirsh</a></i> (1921)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Coal_Co._v._Mahon" title="Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon">Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seaboard_Air_Line_Ry._Co._v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seaboard Air Line Ry. Co. v. United States (page does not exist)">Seaboard Air Line Ry. Co. v. United States</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rindge_Company_v._County_of_Los_Angeles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rindge Company v. County of Los Angeles (page does not exist)">Rindge Company v. County of Los Angeles</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonard_v._Earle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonard v. Earle (page does not exist)">Leonard v. Earle</a></i> (1929)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisville_Joint_Stock_Land_Bank_v._Radford" title="Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford">Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._General_Motors_Corp.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. General Motors Corp. (page does not exist)">United States v. General Motors Corp.</a></i> (1945)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Causby" title="United States v. Causby">United States v. Causby</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kimball_Laundry_Co._v._United_States" title="Kimball Laundry Co. v. United States">Kimball Laundry Co. v. United States</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Pewee_Coal_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Pewee Coal Co. (page does not exist)">United States v. Pewee Coal Co.</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Berman_v._Parker" title="Berman v. Parker">Berman v. Parker</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nelson_v._City_of_New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nelson v. City of New York (page does not exist)">Nelson v. City of New York</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Dow&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Dow (page does not exist)">United States v. Dow</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Armstrong_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Armstrong v. United States">Armstrong v. United States</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penn_Central_Transportation_Co._v._New_York_City" title="Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City">Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaiser_Aetna_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaiser Aetna v. United States (page does not exist)">Kaiser Aetna v. United States</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agins_v._City_of_Tiburon" title="Agins v. City of Tiburon">Agins v. City of Tiburon</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Webb%27s_Fabulous_Pharmacies,_Inc._v._Beckwith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Inc. v. Beckwith (page does not exist)">Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Inc. v. Beckwith</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loretto_v._Teleprompter_Manhattan_CATV_Corp." title="Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp.">Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp.</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Housing_Authority_v._Midkiff" title="Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff">Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ruckelshaus_v._Montanato_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ruckelshaus v. Montanato Company (page does not exist)">Ruckelshaus v. Montanato Company</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williamson_County_Regional_Planning_Commission_v._Hamilton_Bank_of_Johnson_City" title="Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City">Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Riverside_Bayview" title="United States v. Riverside Bayview">United States v. Riverside Bayview</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keystone_Bituminous_Coal_Ass%27n_v._DeBenedictis" title="Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis">Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_English_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_v._Los_Angeles_County" title="First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. Los Angeles County">First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. Los Angeles County</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nollan_v._California_Coastal_Commission" title="Nollan v. California Coastal Commission">Nollan v. California Coastal Commission</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pennell_v._City_of_San_Jose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pennell v. City of San Jose (page does not exist)">Pennell v. City of San Jose</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preseault_v._Interstate_Commerce_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Preseault v. Interstate Commerce Commission (page does not exist)">Preseault v. Interstate Commerce Commission</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yee_v._City_of_Escondido&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yee v. City of Escondido (page does not exist)">Yee v. City of Escondido</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucas_v._South_Carolina_Coastal_Council" title="Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council">Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dolan_v._City_of_Tigard" title="Dolan v. City of Tigard">Dolan v. City of Tigard</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Babbitt_v._Youpee" title="Babbitt v. Youpee">Babbitt v. Youpee</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suitum_v._Tahoe_Regional_Planning_Agency" title="Suitum v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency">Suitum v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phillips_v._Washington_Legal_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phillips v. Washington Legal Foundation (page does not exist)">Phillips v. Washington Legal Foundation</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Enterprises_v._Apfel" title="Eastern Enterprises v. Apfel">Eastern Enterprises v. Apfel</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palazzolo_v._Rhode_Island" title="Palazzolo v. Rhode Island">Palazzolo v. Rhode Island</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tahoe-Sierra_Preservation_Council,_Inc._v._Tahoe_Regional_Planning_Agency" title="Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency">Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brown_v._Legal_Foundation_of_Washington&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington (page does not exist)">Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lingle_v._Chevron_U.S.A._Inc." title="Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc.">Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc.</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Remo_Hotel,_L.P._v._City_%26_County_of_San_Francisco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Remo Hotel, L.P. v. City & County of San Francisco (page does not exist)">San Remo Hotel, L.P. v. City & County of San Francisco</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London" title="Kelo v. City of New London">Kelo v. City of New London</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stop_the_Beach_Renourishment_v._Florida_Department_of_Environmental_Protection" title="Stop the Beach Renourishment v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection">Stop the Beach Renourishment v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Game_%26_Fish_Commission_v._United_States" title="Arkansas Game & Fish Commission v. United States">Arkansas Game & Fish Commission v. United States</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Horne_v._Department_of_Agriculture" title="Horne v. Department of Agriculture">Horne v. Department of Agriculture I</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Koontz_v._St._Johns_River_Water_Management_District" title="Koontz v. St. Johns River Water Management District">Koontz v. St. Johns River Water Management District</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Horne_v._Department_of_Agriculture" title="Horne v. Department of Agriculture">Horne v. Department of Agriculture II</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murr_v._Wisconsin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murr v. Wisconsin (page does not exist)">Murr v. Wisconsin</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knick_v._Township_of_Scott,_Pennsylvania" title="Knick v. Township of Scott, Pennsylvania">Knick v. Township of Scott, Pennsylvania</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cedar_Point_Nursery_v._Hassid" title="Cedar Point Nursery v. Hassid">Cedar Point Nursery v. Hassid</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pakdel_v._City_and_County_of_San_Francisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakdel v. City and County of San Francisco">Pakdel v. City and County of San Francisco</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyler_v._Hennepin_County" title="Tyler v. Hennepin County">Tyler v. Hennepin County</a></i> (2023)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sheetz_v._County_of_El_Dorado" title="Sheetz v. County of El Dorado">Sheetz v. County of El Dorado</a></i> (2024)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/DeVillier_v._Texas" title="DeVillier v. Texas">DeVillier v. Texas</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&oldid=1258691981">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bolling_v._Sharpe&oldid=1258691981</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_history_of_Washington,_D.C." title="Category:African-American history of Washington, D.C.">African-American history of Washington, D.C.</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_rights_movement_case_law" title="Category:Civil rights movement case law">Civil rights movement case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_equal_protection_case_law" title="Category:United States equal protection case law">United States equal protection case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Category:United States Supreme Court cases">United States Supreme Court cases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_Warren_Court" title="Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court">United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_school_desegregation_case_law" title="Category:United States school desegregation case law">United States school desegregation case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1954_in_United_States_case_law" title="Category:1954 in United States case law">1954 in United States case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_history_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Category:Legal history of the District of Columbia">Legal history of the District of Columbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_due_process_case_law" title="Category:United States due process case law">United States due process case law</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_June_2013" title="Category:Use mdy dates from June 2013">Use mdy dates from June 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 02:03<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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