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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Political use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Extent</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Extent-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Extent subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Extent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Historical perspective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ethnic perspective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">China proper</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-kok_p%C3%BAn-th%C3%B3%CD%98" title="Tiong-kok pún-thó͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-kok pún-thó͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Унутраны Кітай – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Унутраны Кітай" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xina_estricta" title="Xina estricta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xina estricta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlastn%C3%AD_%C4%8C%C3%ADna" title="Vlastní Čína – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vlastní Čína" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egentlige_Kina" title="Egentlige Kina – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Egentlige Kina" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigentliches_China" title="Eigentliches China – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eigentliches China" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_propia" title="China propia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="China propia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chine_historique" title="Chine historique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chine historique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD_%EB%B3%B8%ED%86%A0" title="중국 본토 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국 본토" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiongkok_sejati" title="Tiongkok sejati – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tiongkok sejati" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cina_delle_18_province" title="Cina delle 18 province – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cina delle 18 province" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%96_%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Ішкі Қытай – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ішкі Қытай" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Дотор газар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дотор газар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historisch_China" title="Historisch China – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Historisch China" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F" title="中国本土 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国本土" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_egentlige_Kina" title="Det egentlige Kina – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det egentlige Kina" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezoito_prov%C3%ADncias" title="Dezoito províncias – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dezoito províncias" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansuyu" title="Hansuyu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hansuyu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Внутренний Китай – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Внутренний Китай" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varsinainen_Kiina" title="Varsinainen Kiina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Varsinainen Kiina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egentliga_Kina" title="Egentliga Kina – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Egentliga Kina" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%C4%B1l_%C3%87in" title="Asıl Çin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Asıl Çin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Внутрішній Китай – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Внутрішній Китай" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اصل چین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اصل چین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c_b%E1%BA%A3n_th%E1%BB%95" title="Trung Quốc bản thổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trung Quốc bản thổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%9C%B0" title="漢地 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="漢地" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E7%9C%81" title="汉地十八省 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="汉地十八省" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8" title="中國本部 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中國本部" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%9C%B0" title="汉地 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="汉地" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Geopolitical term</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg/220px-1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg/330px-1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg/440px-1912_China_map_from_National_Geographic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6980" data-file-height="5326" /></a><figcaption>A 1912 map from an issue of <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></i> magazine showing the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. China proper is shaded in pink, while other Chinese territories have pink borders</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">China proper</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國本土</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">中国本土</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">zhōngguó běntǔ</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">China <i>proper</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">zhōngguó běntǔ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Chung<sup>1</sup> Kuo<sup>2</sup> Pen<sup>3</sup> T'u<sup>3</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國本部</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">中国本部</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">zhōngguó běnbù</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">China core</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">zhōngguó běnbù</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Chung<sup>1</sup> Kuo<sup>2</sup> Pen<sup>3</sup> Pu<sup>4</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Second alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">十八行省</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">shíbā xíngshěng</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Eighteen Provinces</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">shíbā xíngshěng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Third alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">關內十八省</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">关内十八省</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">guānnèi shíbā shěng</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Eighteen Provinces inside <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhaiguan</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">guānnèi shíbā shěng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Fourth alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">內地十八省</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">内地十八省</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">nèidì shíbā shěng</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Eighteen Provinces in mainland</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">nèidì shíbā shěng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Fifth alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中原漢地</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">中原汉地</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">zhōngyuán hàndì</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> territory in <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">zhōngyuán hàndì</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/China_1900.jpg/220px-China_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/China_1900.jpg/330px-China_1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/China_1900.jpg/440px-China_1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="1507" /></a><figcaption>Map of China proper in 1900 from the <a href="/wiki/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Encyclopedic_Dictionary" title="Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary">Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>China proper</b>, also called <b>Inner China</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> to describe the distinction between the historical "Han lands" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">漢地</span></span>)—i.e. regions long dominated by the majority <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> population—and the "frontier" regions of China where more non-Han <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_China" title="Ethnic minorities in China">ethnic groups</a> and new foreign immigrants (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>) reside, sometimes known as "Outer China".<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no fixed extent for China <i>proper</i>, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese history</a>. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no <a href="/wiki/Direct_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct translation">direct translation</a> for "China <i>proper</i>" in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> at the time due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions. Even to today, the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>, due to issues pertaining to contemporary territorial claim and ethnic politics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b>Outer China</b> usually includes the geographical regions of <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gobi_Desert" title="Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guizhou_Plateau" title="Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau">Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain proper</a> versus the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">France proper</a> in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> managed to expand all the way to <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Harry_Harding_(political_scientist)" title="Harry Harding (political scientist)">Harry Harding</a>, the concept can date back to 1827.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But as early as in 1795, <a href="/wiki/William_Winterbotham" title="William Winterbotham">William Winterbotham</a> adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tartary" title="Chinese Tartary">Chinese Tartary</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributary_states_of_China" title="List of tributary states of China">states tributary to China</a>. He adopted the opinions of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde" title="Jean-Baptiste Du Halde">Du Halde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Grosier" title="Jean-Baptiste Grosier">Grosier</a> and suspected that the name of "China" came from <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>. He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, which the Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">江南</span></span>, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called <a href="/wiki/South_Zhili" class="mw-redirect" title="South Zhili">South Zhili</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">南直隶</span></span>, Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Ming–Qing transition</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Proper_1944.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/China_Proper_1944.png/220px-China_Proper_1944.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/China_Proper_1944.png/330px-China_Proper_1944.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/China_Proper_1944.png/440px-China_Proper_1944.png 2x" data-file-width="1314" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption>A 1944 map of China Proper, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>), Sinkiang (<a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Office_of_War_Information" title="United States Office of War Information">War Information Office</a> <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_film" title="Propaganda film">propaganda film</a> <span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Why_We_Fight" title="Why We Fight">Why We Fight</a></i>:</span> <span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_China" title="The Battle of China">The Battle of China</a></i></span>. The outer borders include <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of the Republic of China">several areas claimed</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, published in 1790, and <i>The Monthly Review</i>, published in 1749.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Jize" title="Zeng Jize">Zeng Jize</a> used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Dulimbai Gurun" is the Manchu name for China (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國</span></span>, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom").<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in the Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國人</span></span>, Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Qing <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns#Campaigns_against_the_Dzungars_and_the_pacification_of_Xinjiang_(1755–59)" title="Ten Great Campaigns">conquered Dzungaria in 1759</a>, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中外一家</span></span>) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">內外一家</span></span>, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Manchu official <a href="/wiki/Tulisen" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulisen">Tulisen</a>'s Manchu language <a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Chinese_Embassy_to_the_Khan_of_the_Tourgouth_Tartars,_in_the_years_1712,_13,_14,_and_15" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars, in the years 1712, 13, 14, and 15">account of his meeting</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalmyk people">Torghut Mongol leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayuka_Khan" title="Ayuka Khan">Ayuki Khan</a>, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun; <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國</span></span>, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Qing dynasty used "China" (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and the territories newly acquired by the Qing empire. In the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a>'s <i>Shengwuji</i> (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the Inner Asian polities <i>guo</i>, while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called "<i>Zhongguo</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside the borders of Ming China, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty. Han Chinese intellectuals gradually embraced the new meaning of "China" and began to recognize it as their homeland.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">內地十八省</span></span>), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">內地</span></span>), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">郡县</span></span>), while they referred to the non-Han areas of China such as the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a>, Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">外藩</span></span>) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">藩部</span></span>, "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">外國</span></span>, "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam, the Ryukyus and Japan<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="Japan did not pay tribute to China during whole the Qing era (November 2021)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:China_proper#Dubious" title="Talk:China proper">discuss</a></i>]</sup>, who paid tribute to Qing China or were <a href="/wiki/Vassal_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Vassal states">vassal states</a> of China but were not part of China. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_use">Political use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, a series of <a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93Japan_relations#Meiji_Restoration_and_the_rise_of_the_Japanese_Empire_1868–1931" title="History of China–Japan relations">Sino-Japanese</a> conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">unified, undivided Chinese nation</a> became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939, <a href="/wiki/Gu_Jiegang" title="Gu Jiegang">Gu Jiegang</a> published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately",<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which argued that the widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Chinese dynasties</a>. Gu further theorized that "<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F" class="extiw" title="ja:中国本土">中国本部</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for the Japanese invasion of Mongolia, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of "<a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a>" (Chinese nation),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern">Modern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_autonomous_regions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/China_autonomous_regions.svg/220px-China_autonomous_regions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/China_autonomous_regions.svg/330px-China_autonomous_regions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/China_autonomous_regions.svg/440px-China_autonomous_regions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Much of the regions outside of China proper are <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China" title="Autonomous regions of China">autonomous regions</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since the current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Chinese language</a>. </p><p>The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as <a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan" title="East Turkestan">East Turkestan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a>) for the <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which is based on the <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states" title="Succession of states">succession of states</a> principle. According to sinologist <a href="/wiki/Colin_Mackerras" title="Colin Mackerras">Colin Mackerras</a>, foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to the much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> boundaries?"<sup id="cite_ref-Mackerras_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackerras-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extent">Extent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Extent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg/220px-Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg/330px-Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg/440px-Ming_foreign_relations_1580.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>The approximate extent of China proper during the late <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, the last dynasty of China ruled by the Han people. <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> was still administered as part of China proper before it was conqured by the Manchu. </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/250px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/375px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/500px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png 2x" data-file-width="2449" data-file-height="3080" /></a><figcaption>The Eighteen Provinces of China proper in 1875, before Taiwan's separation from Fujian in 1885 and its annexation by Japan in 1895</figcaption></figure> <p>There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_perspective">Historical perspective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Historical perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">dynasties of China</a> founded by the Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>, while others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> dynasties, were forced to relinquish the North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north. </p><p>The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">布政使司</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Bùzhèngshǐ Sī</span></i>) and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely <a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a>. The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the "Eighteen Provinces" (<span lang="zh">一十八行省</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Yīshíbā Xíngshěng</span></i>, or <span lang="zh">十八省</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Shíbā Shěng</span></i>) of China proper under the Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper. </p><p>There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">some parts of Manchuria</a> were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a>), which is inside the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Great_Wall" title="Ming Great Wall">Ming Great Wall</a>; however, the Qing conquered it before entering the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern <a href="/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Kham</a> in Greater Tibet was added to <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, while much of what now constitutes northern <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> was added to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. </p><p>Near the end of the Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895. <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Fengtian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> (Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside the provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912. </p><p>The Provinces of the Qing Dynasty were: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="11">Eighteen provinces </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Postal_romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal romanization">Postal</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese</a></th> <th rowspan="7"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postal_romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal romanization">Postal</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese</a></th> <th rowspan="7"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postal_romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal romanization">Postal</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Anhwei</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Ānhuī</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">安徽省</span></span></td> <td>Hunan</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Húnán</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">湖南省</span></span></td> <td>Kweichow</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guìzhōu</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">貴州省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chekiang</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhèjiāng</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">浙江省</span></span></td> <td>Kansu</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gānsù</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">甘肅省</span></span></td> <td>Shansi</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shānxī</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山西省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chihli</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhílì</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">直隸省</span></span></td> <td>Kiangsu</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiāngsū</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">江蘇省</span></span></td> <td>Shantung</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shāndōng</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">山東省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fukien</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fújiàn</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">福建省</span></span></td> <td>Kiangsi</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiāngxī</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">江西省</span></span></td> <td>Shensi</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shǎnxī</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">陝西省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Honan</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Hénán</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">河南省</span></span></td> <td>Kwangtung</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guǎngdōng</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">廣東省</span></span></td> <td>Szechwan</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sìchuān</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">四川省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hupeh</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Húběi</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">湖北省</span></span></td> <td>Kwangsi</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guǎngxī</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">廣西省</span></span></td> <td>Yunnan</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yúnnán</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">雲南省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="11">Additional provinces in late Qing dynasty </th></tr> <tr> <td>Fengtien</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Fèngtiān</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">奉天省</span></span> </td> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <td>Heilungkiang</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Hēilóngjiāng</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">黑龍江省</span></span> </td> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <td>Kirin</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jílín</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吉林省</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sinkiang</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xīnjiāng</a></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">新疆省</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by their <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Eighteen-Star Flag</a>. Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by their Five-Striped Flag. Some revolutionaries, such as <a href="/wiki/Zou_Rong" title="Zou Rong">Zou Rong</a>, used the term <i>Zhongguo Benbu</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中国本部</span></span>) which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Qing dynasty fell, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor</a> bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of <a href="/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Five Races Under One Union</a>, with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. As a result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China. </p><p>The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed. <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili), <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> from Jiangsu, <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> from Sichuan, <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> autonomous region from <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a> from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_region_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous region of China">autonomous region</a>. The provinces that the late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning. </p><p>When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in <a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a> (former <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>) since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on the mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the <a href="/wiki/Qamdo_Prefecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Qamdo Prefecture">Qamdo area</a> into the Tibet area (later the <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet Autonomous Region</a>). The Republic of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in 1946, which was also acknowledged by the PRC government since its founding in 1949. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_perspective">Ethnic perspective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethnic perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg/220px-Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg/330px-Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg/440px-Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The approximate extent of the Han ethnicity in China and Taiwan as of 1983, denoted in brown<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Scattered distribution is denoted by circles</figcaption></figure> <p>China proper is often associated with the Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity. </p><p>However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including the Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_people" title="Zhuang people">Zhuang</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao people</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bouyei_people" title="Bouyei people">Bouyei</a>. Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by the late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. </p><p>Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> is used to classify its subdivisions. </p><p>In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and Chinese" or "Chinese" only. 98% of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China proper, is still a controversial subject. See <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History of Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a> for more information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" 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dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Manchuria" title="Outer Manchuria">Outer Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_Minzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhonghua Minzu">Zhonghua Minzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_macro-regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese macro-regions">Chinese macro-regions</a>—Socio-economic divisions of China proper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbia_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbia proper">Serbia proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia proper">Russia proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_India" title="Mainland India">Mainland India</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>Eighteen Provinces inside <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">the Pass</a></b> (<span lang="zh-Hans">关内十八省</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">關內十八省</span>) used within China, in reference to the eighteen provinces within the Great Wall.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes including the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolian Plateau</a> as a whole.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Source: United States Central Intelligence Agency, 1983. The map shows the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups according to the majority ethnic group by region in 1983. This map does not represent the current distribution of ethnic groups due to internal migration and assimilation.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Definition-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Definition_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Definition_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/china/cn_glos.html">"Glossary – China"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> Country Studies. <q>Used broadly to mean China within the Great Wall, with its eighteen historic provinces.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glossary+%E2%80%93+China&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Ffrd%2Fcs%2Fchina%2Fcn_glos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/geo/outer.htm">"Outer China"</a>. <i>depts.washington.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=depts.washington.edu&rft.atitle=Outer+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fchinaciv%2Fgeo%2Fouter.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry Harding, "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations, and Reservations", in <i>The China Quarterly</i>, 136 (December 1993), pp. 660–686. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S030574100003229X">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Winterbotham" title="William Winterbotham">Winterbotham, William</a> (1795). <i>An Historical, Geographical, and Philosophical View of the Chinese Empire...</i>, London: Printed for, and sold by the editor; J. Ridgway; and W. Button. (pp. 35–37: General Description of the Chinese Empire → <b>China Proper</b>→ 1. Origin of its Name, 2. Extent, Boundaries, &c.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copyright has passed, "Full View" available through <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marquis Tseng, "China: The Sleep and the Awakening", <i>The Asiatic Quarterly Review</i>, Vol. III 3 (1887), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117">Hauer 2007</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80">Dvořák 1895</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102">Wu 1995</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf">Zhao 2006</a>, pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77">Dunnell 2004</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83">Dunnell 2004</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 503.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77">Dunnell 2004</a>, pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205">Cassel 2012</a>, pp. 44, 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218">Perdue 2009</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Esherick, "How the Qing Became China," in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali and Eric Van Young, ed., <i>Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0742540308" title="Special:BookSources/0742540308">0742540308</a>): 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2010" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, Rowe (15 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC"><i>China's Last Empire - The Great Qing</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674054554" title="Special:BookSources/9780674054554"><bdi>9780674054554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Last+Empire+-+The+Great+Qing&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010-02-15&rft.isbn=9780674054554&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=Rowe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKN7Awmzx2PAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF颉刚Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">颉刚</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">顾</span></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shehui.pku.edu.cn/upload/editor/file/20180627/20180627102430_7376.pdf"><bdi lang="zh">"中国本部"一名亟应废弃</bdi></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh" style="font-style: normal;">益世报</span></span></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+normal%3B%22%3E%E7%9B%8A%E4%B8%96%E6%8A%A5%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.atitle=%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8%22%E4%B8%80%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%9F%E5%BA%94%E5%BA%9F%E5%BC%83&rft.aulast=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E9%A2%89%E5%88%9A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.aufirst=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E9%A1%BE%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shehui.pku.edu.cn%2Fupload%2Feditor%2Ffile%2F20180627%2F20180627102430_7376.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weblio.jp/wkpja/content/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F"><bdi lang="ja">中国本土</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weblio.jp%2Fwkpja%2Fcontent%2F%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%259B%25BD%25E6%259C%25AC%25E5%259C%259F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190210044414/http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49157/49163/8594511.html"><bdi lang="zh">"中华民族是一个"？——追记抗战初期一场关于中国是不是多民族国家的辩论</bdi></a>. 29 December 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49157/49163/8594511.html">the original</a> on 10 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA%22%EF%BC%9F%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E8%BF%BD%E8%AE%B0%E6%8A%97%E6%88%98%E5%88%9D%E6%9C%9F%E4%B8%80%E5%9C%BA%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E5%A4%9A%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E7%9A%84%E8%BE%A9%E8%AE%BA&rft.date=2008-12-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheory.people.com.cn%2FGB%2F49157%2F49163%2F8594511.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF葛Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text2017" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">葛</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">兆光</span></span> (27 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232335/http://www.sohu.com/a/127357656_488111"><bdi lang="zh">徘徊到纠结——顾颉刚关于"中国"与"中华民族"的历史见解</bdi></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sohu" title="Sohu">Sohu</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sohu.com/a/127357656_488111">the original</a> on 9 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sohu&rft.atitle=%E5%BE%98%E5%BE%8A%E5%88%B0%E7%BA%A0%E7%BB%93%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E9%A1%BE%E9%A2%89%E5%88%9A%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%22%E4%B8%8E%22%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%22%E7%9A%84%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E8%A7%81%E8%A7%A3&rft.date=2017-02-27&rft.aulast=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%91%9B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.aufirst=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E5%85%86%E5%85%89%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sohu.com%2Fa%2F127357656_488111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackerras-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mackerras_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackerras2012" class="citation book cs1">Mackerras, Colin (2012). "Han-minority relations". In Gries, Peter Hays (ed.). <i>State and Society in 21st Century China: Crisis, Contention and Legitimation</i>. Psychology Press. pp. 219–220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Han-minority+relations&rft.btitle=State+and+Society+in+21st+Century+China%3A+Crisis%2C+Contention+and+Legitimation&rft.pages=219-220&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mackerras&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZou1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zou_Rong" title="Zou Rong">Zou, Rong</a> (1903). "Chapter 4". <i>The Revolutionary Army</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4&rft.btitle=The+Revolutionary+Army&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Zou&rft.aufirst=Rong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=China_proper&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassel2012" class="citation book cs1">Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC"><i>Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199792054" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199792054"><bdi>978-0199792054</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grounds+of+Judgment%3A+Extraterritoriality+and+Imperial+Power+in+Nineteenth-Century+China+and+Japan&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199792054&rft.aulast=Cassel&rft.aufirst=Par+Kristoffer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt2JTJW0X6LkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde" title="Jean-Baptiste Du Halde">Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste</a> (1736). <i>The General History of China. Containing a geographical, historical, chronological, political and physical description of the empire of China, Chinese-Tartary, Corea and Thibet...</i>, London: J. Watts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Grosier" title="Jean-Baptiste Grosier">Grosier, Jean-Baptiste</a> (1788). <i>A General Description of China. Containing the topography of the fifteen provinces which compose this vast empire, that of Tartary, the isles, and other tributary countries...</i>, London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson.</li> <li>Darby, William (1827). <i>Darby's Universal Gazetteer, or, A New Geographical Dictionary. ... Illustrated by a ... Map of the United States</i> (p. 154),. Philadelphia: Bennett and Walton.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDvořák1895" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ"><i>Chinas religionen ...</i></a> Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199792054" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199792054"><bdi>978-0199792054</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinas+religionen+...&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Aschendorff+%28Druck+und+Verlag+der+Aschendorffschen+Buchhandlung%29&rft.date=1895&rft.isbn=978-0199792054&rft.aulast=Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTmhtAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnellElliottForetMillward2004" class="citation book cs1">Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC"><i>New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134362226" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134362226"><bdi>978-1134362226</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Qing+Imperial+History%3A+The+Making+of+Inner+Asian+Empire+at+Qing+Chengde&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1134362226&rft.aulast=Dunnell&rft.aufirst=Ruth+W.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+Mark+C.&rft.au=Foret%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Millward%2C+James+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6qFH-53_VnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Mark C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804746847" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804746847"><bdi>978-0804746847</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0804746847&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauer2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC"><i>Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache</i></a>. Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3447055284" title="Special:BookSources/978-3447055284"><bdi>978-3447055284</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handw%C3%B6rterbuch+der+Mandschusprache&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3447055284&rft.aulast=Hauer&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNESwGW_5uLoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2009" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Peter C (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC"><i>China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia</i></a> (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674042025" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674042025"><bdi>978-0674042025</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Marches+West%3A+The+Qing+Conquest+of+Central+Eurasia&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674042025&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ4L-_cjmSqoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wu, Shuhui (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC"><i>Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 - 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao</i></a>. Vol. 2 of Tunguso Sibirica (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3447037563" title="Special:BookSources/978-3447037563"><bdi>978-3447037563</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Eroberung+von+Qinghai+unter+Ber%C3%BCcksichtigung+von+Tibet+und+Khams+1717+-+1727%3A+anhand+der+Throneingaben+des+Grossfeldherrn+Nian+Gengyao&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3447037563&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Shuhui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzqVug_wN4hEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChina+proper" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 3–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700405282349">10.1177/0097700405282349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062627">20062627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587815">144587815</a>.</cite><span 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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