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href="#Response_and_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Response and fallout </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response_and_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Later research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2004_DOE_panel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2004_DOE_panel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 2004 DOE panel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2004_DOE_panel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reported_results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reported_results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Reported results </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reported_results-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reported results subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reported_results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Excess_heat_and_energy_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excess_heat_and_energy_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Excess heat and energy production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excess_heat_and_energy_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helium,_heavy_elements,_and_neutrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helium,_heavy_elements,_and_neutrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helium,_heavy_elements,_and_neutrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Proposed mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Criticism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Repulsion_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repulsion_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Repulsion forces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repulsion_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lack_of_expected_reaction_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_expected_reaction_products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Lack of expected reaction products </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_expected_reaction_products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Setup_of_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Setup_of_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Setup of experiments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Setup_of_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reproducibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproducibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Reproducibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproducibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loading_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loading_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1.1 Loading ratio </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loading_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misinterpretation_of_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misinterpretation_of_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Misinterpretation of data </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misinterpretation_of_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calorimetry_errors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calorimetry_errors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Calorimetry errors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calorimetry_errors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Conferences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Patents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Cultural references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations_of_quotations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations_of_quotations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Citations of quotations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations_of_quotations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Cold fusion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" > 36 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="اندماج بارد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اندماج بارد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Студен термоядрен синтез – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Студен термоядрен синтез" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3_freda" title="Fusió freda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fusió freda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studen%C3%A1_f%C3%BAze" title="Studená fúze – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Studená fúze" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kold_fusion" title="Kold fusion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kold fusion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalte_Fusion" title="Kalte Fusion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kalte Fusion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3n_fr%C3%ADa" title="Fusión fría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fusión fría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="گداخت سرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گداخت سرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_froide" title="Fusion froide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fusion froide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhle%C3%A1_fuar" title="Comhleá fuar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhleá fuar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%EC%98%A8_%ED%95%B5%EC%9C%B5%ED%95%A9" title="상온 핵융합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="상온 핵융합" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladna_fuzija" title="Hladna fuzija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hladna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi_dingin" title="Fusi dingin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fusi dingin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusione_nucleare_fredda" title="Fusione nucleare fredda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fusione nucleare fredda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A7%D7%A8" title="היתוך קר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היתוך קר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi_asrep" title="Fusi asrep – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fusi asrep" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidegf%C3%BAzi%C3%B3" title="Hidegfúzió – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hidegfúzió" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Ладно соединување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ладно соединување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koude_kernfusie" title="Koude kernfusie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koude kernfusie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E6%B8%A9%E6%A0%B8%E8%9E%8D%E5%90%88" title="常温核融合 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="常温核融合" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kald_fusjon" title="Kald fusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kald fusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kald_fusjon" title="Kald fusjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kald fusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovuq_sintez" title="Sovuq sintez – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sovuq sintez" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%93_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B4" title="سوړ کیمیاوي جوش – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سوړ کیمیاوي جوش" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimna_fuzja" title="Zimna fuzja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zimna fuzja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fus%C3%A3o_a_frio" title="Fusão a frio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fusão a frio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Холодный ядерный синтез – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Холодный ядерный синтез" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cold fusion" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studen%C3%A1_f%C3%BAzia" title="Studená fúzia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Studená fúzia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladna_fuzija" title="Hladna fuzija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hladna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хладна фузија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хладна фузија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylm%C3%A4fuusio" title="Kylmäfuusio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kylmäfuusio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kall_fusion" title="Kall fusion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kall fusion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Fleischmann–Pons claims of nuclear fusion at room temperature, and subsequent research. For the original use of the term "cold fusion", see <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">muon-catalyzed fusion</a>. For all other definitions, see <a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cold fusion (disambiguation)">Cold fusion (disambiguation)</a>. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">cold welding</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png/250px-Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png/375px-Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png/500px-Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an open-type <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a> used at the New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan</figcaption></figure> Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a> that would occur at, or near, <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a>. It would contrast starkly with the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">"hot" fusion</a> that is known to take place naturally within <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">stars</a> and artificially in <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">hydrogen bombs</a> and prototype <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion reactors</a> under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees, and be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">muon-catalyzed fusion</a>. There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur. In 1989, two <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemists</a> at the University of Utah, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Fleischmann" title="Martin Fleischmann">Martin Fleischmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Pons" title="Stanley Pons">Stanley Pons</a>, reported that their apparatus had produced anomalous heat ("excess heat") of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts, including <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FP1989-2">[2]</a> The small tabletop experiment involved <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> on the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a> (Pd) electrode.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a-3">[3]</a> The reported results received wide media attention<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a-3">[3]</a> and raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._1-4">[4]</a> Many scientists tried to <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">replicate</a> the experiment with the few details available. Expectations diminished as a result of numerous failed replications, the retraction of several previously reported positive replications, the identification of methodological flaws and experimental errors in the original study, and, ultimately, the confirmation that Fleischmann and Pons had not observed the expected nuclear reaction byproducts.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> By late 1989, most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-most_scientists-7">[7]</a> and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as <a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">pathological science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytdoe-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ouellette-9">[9]</a> In 1989 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (DOE) concluded that the reported results of excess heat did not present convincing evidence of a useful source of energy and decided against allocating funding specifically for cold fusion. A second DOE review in 2004, which looked at new research, reached similar conclusions and did not result in DOE funding of cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Presently, since articles about cold fusion are rarely published in <a href="/wiki/Peer-reviewed_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-reviewed journal">peer-reviewed</a> mainstream <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a>, they do not attract the level of scrutiny expected for mainstream <a href="/wiki/Scientific_publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific publications">scientific publications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Nevertheless, some interest in cold fusion has continued through the decades—for example, a Google-funded failed replication attempt was published in a 2019 issue of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> A small community of researchers continues to investigate it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Broad1989b-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-small_community-15">[15]</a> often under the alternative designations low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or condensed matter nuclear science (CMNS).<a href="#cite_note-ACS_Press_Release-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagelsteinMcKubreNagelChubb2004-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiberian2007-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a> is normally understood to occur at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees. This is called "<a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">thermonuclear fusion</a>". Since the 1920s, there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might be possible at much lower temperatures by <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalytically</a> fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemists</a>) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief <a href="/wiki/Media_sensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media sensation">media sensation</a> before the majority of scientists criticized their claim as incorrect after many found they could not replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of researchers who believe that such reactions happen and hope to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_research">Early research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early research">edit</a>]</div> The ability of <a href="/wiki/Palladium_hydride" title="Palladium hydride">palladium to absorb hydrogen</a> was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Graham_(chemist)" title="Thomas Graham (chemist)">Thomas Graham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In the late 1920s, two Austrian-born scientists, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Paneth" title="Friedrich Paneth">Friedrich Paneth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Peters_(chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt Peters (chemist)">Kurt Peters</a>, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, saying that the helium they measured was due to background from the air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanethPeters1926-23">[23]</a> In 1927, Swedish scientist John Tandberg reported that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">electrolytic cell</a> with palladium electrodes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a> On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a> Due to Paneth and Peters's retraction and his inability to explain the physical process, his patent application was denied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE19897-21">[21]</a> The final experiments made by Tandberg with heavy water were similar to the original experiment by Fleischmann and Pons.<a href="#cite_note-similar_to_tandberg-25">[25]</a> Fleischmann and Pons were not aware of Tandberg's work.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-tandberg_not_known_by_FP-27">[text 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-tandberg_not_known_by_FP2-28">[text 2]</a> The term "cold fusion" was used as early as 1956 in an article in The New York Times about <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">muon-catalyzed fusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurence1956-29">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Palmer_(physicist)" title="Paul Palmer (physicist)">Paul Palmer</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Jones" title="Steven E. Jones">Steven Jones</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a> used the term "cold fusion" in 1986 in an investigation of "geo-fusion", the possible existence of fusion involving hydrogen isotopes in a <a href="/wiki/Planetary_core" title="Planetary core">planetary core</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKowalski2004II.A2-30">[28]</a> In his original paper on this subject with Clinton Van Siclen, submitted in 1985, Jones had coined the term "piezonuclear fusion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKowalski2004II.A2-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fleischmann–Pons_experiment">Fleischmann–Pons experiment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fleischmann–Pons experiment">edit</a>]</div> The most famous cold fusion claims were made by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann in 1989. After a brief period of interest by the wider scientific community, their reports were called into question by nuclear physicists. Pons and Fleischmann never retracted their claims, but moved their research program from the US to France after the controversy erupted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Events_preceding_announcement">Events preceding announcement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Events preceding announcement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg/220px-Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg/330px-Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg/440px-Cold_fusion_electrolysis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Electrolysis cell schematic</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Fleischmann" title="Martin Fleischmann">Martin Fleischmann</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton">University of Southampton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Pons" title="Stanley Pons">Stanley Pons</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a> hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPons1989301-32">[30]</a> To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a>, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> being renewed at intervals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPons1989301-32">[30]</a> Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 <a href="/wiki/Out-of-pocket_expenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Out-of-pocket expenses">out-of-pocket</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreaseSamios1989V1-34">[32]</a> The grant proposal was turned over for <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, and one of the reviewers was <a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Jones" title="Steven E. Jones">Steven Jones</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreaseSamios1989V1-34">[32]</a> Jones had worked for some time on <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">muon-catalyzed fusion</a>, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreaseSamios1989V1-34">[32]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] To avoid future problems, the teams appeared to agree to publish their results simultaneously, though their accounts of their 6 March meeting differ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein19948–9-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Announcement">Announcement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Announcement">edit</a>]</div> In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on 24 March to send their papers to <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> via <a href="/wiki/FedEx" title="FedEx">FedEx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein19948–9-35">[33]</a> Fleischmann and Pons, however, pressured by the University of Utah, which wanted to establish priority on the discovery,<a href="#cite_note-utah_patent-36">[34]</a> broke their apparent agreement, disclosing their work at a press conference on 23 March<a href="#cite_note-nature-lessons-37">[35]</a> (they claimed in the press release that it would be published in Nature<a href="#cite_note-nature-lessons-37">[35]</a> but instead submitted their paper to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreaseSamios1989V1-34">[32]</a> Jones, upset, faxed in his paper to <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> after the press conference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein19948–9-35">[33]</a> Fleischmann and Pons' announcement drew wide media attention,<a href="#cite_note-Brooks-39">[notes 1]</a> as well as attention from the scientific community. The 1986 discovery of <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high-temperature superconductivity</a> had made scientists more open to revelations of unexpected but potentially momentous scientific results that could be replicated reliably even if they could not be explained by established theories.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> Many scientists were also reminded of the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_effect" title="Mössbauer effect">Mössbauer effect</a>, a process involving <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">nuclear transitions</a> in a solid. Its discovery 30 years earlier had also been unexpected, though it was quickly replicated and explained within the existing physics framework.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodstein1994-41">[38]</a> The announcement of a new purported clean source of energy came at a crucial time: adults still remembered the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a> and the problems caused by oil dependence, anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> was starting to become notorious, the <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">anti-nuclear movement</a> was labeling nuclear power plants as dangerous and getting them closed, people had in mind the consequences of <a href="/wiki/Strip_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip mining">strip mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez oil spill</a>, which happened the day after the announcement.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> In the press conference, <a href="/wiki/Chase_N._Peterson" title="Chase N. Peterson">Chase N. Peterson</a>, Fleischmann and Pons, backed by the solidity of their scientific credentials, repeatedly assured the journalists that cold fusion would solve environmental problems, and would provide a limitless inexhaustible source of clean energy, using only seawater as fuel.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> They said the results had been confirmed dozens of times and they had no doubts about them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993xx–xxi-44">[41]</a> In the accompanying press release Fleischmann was quoted saying: "What we have done is to open the door of a new research area, our indications are that the discovery will be relatively easy to make into a usable technology for generating heat and power, but continued work is needed, first, to further understand the science and secondly, to determine its value to energy economics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScanlonHill1999212-45">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Response_and_fallout">Response and fallout</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Response and fallout">edit</a>]</div> Although the experimental protocol had not been published, physicists in several countries attempted, and failed, to replicate the excess heat phenomenon. The first paper submitted to Nature reproducing excess heat, although it passed peer review, was rejected because most similar experiments were negative and there were no theories that could explain a positive result;<a href="#cite_note-Beaudette_rejection-46">[notes 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaudette2002183,_313-47">[43]</a> this paper was later accepted for publication by the journal Fusion Technology. <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Lewis_(chemist)" title="Nathan Lewis (chemist)">Nathan Lewis</a>, professor of chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>, led one of the most ambitious validation efforts, trying many variations on the experiment without success,<a href="#cite_note-CAB-48">[44]</a> while <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> physicist Douglas R. O. Morrison said that "essentially all" attempts in Western Europe had failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a> Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing Fleischmann and Pons' results.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19992-49">[45]</a> On 10 April 1989, a group at <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a> published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Institute of Technology">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> announced neutron production—the strongest replication announced up to that point due to the detection of neutrons and the reputation of the lab.<a href="#cite_note-Broad1989a-50">[46]</a> On 12 April Pons was acclaimed at an ACS meeting.<a href="#cite_note-Broad1989a-50">[46]</a> But Georgia Tech retracted their announcement on 13 April, explaining that their neutron detectors gave false positives when exposed to heat.<a href="#cite_note-Broad1989a-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilford1989-51">[47]</a> Another attempt at independent replication, headed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huggins" title="Robert Huggins">Robert Huggins</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, which also reported early success with a light water control,<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> became the only scientific support for cold fusion in 26 April US Congress hearings.<a href="#cite_note-only-support-53">[text 3]</a> But when he finally presented his results he reported an excess heat of only one degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>, a result that could be explained by chemical differences between heavy and light water in the presence of lithium.<a href="#cite_note-differences-54">[notes 3]</a> He had not tried to measure any radiation<a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a> and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later.<a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein19948–9-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[51]</a> In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Electroanalytical_Chemistry" title="Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry">Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPons1989301-32">[30]</a> This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding <a href="/wiki/Compton_edge" title="Compton edge">Compton edge</a>, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts.<a href="#cite_note-58">[52]</a> Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique,<a href="#cite_note-59">[53]</a> but the only thing left clear was that no gamma ray had been registered and that Fleischmann refused to recognize any mistakes in the data.<a href="#cite_note-60">[54]</a> A much longer paper published a year later went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a> The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a> On 30 April 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by The New York Times. The Times called it a circus the same day, and the Boston Herald attacked cold fusion the following day.<a href="#cite_note-61">[55]</a> On 1 May 1989, the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> held a session on cold fusion in Baltimore, including many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated that they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead, with the ninth, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Rafelski" title="Johann Rafelski">Johann Rafelski</a>, abstaining.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Koonin" title="Steven E. Koonin">Steven E. Koonin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmann," which was met with a standing ovation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993266-62">[56]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglas_R._O._Morrison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Douglas R. O. Morrison (page does not exist)">Douglas R. O. Morrison</a>, a physicist representing <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, was the first to call the episode an example of <a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">pathological science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> On 4 May, due to all this new criticism, the meetings with various representatives from Washington were cancelled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993267–268-64">[58]</a> From 8 May, only the A&M tritium results kept cold fusion afloat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993275,_326-65">[59]</a> In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaiRugariFranceLund198929–34-66">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsFindlayCrastonSené1989375–384-67">[61]</a> Negative results were also published in several other <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a> including <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review C</a> (nuclear physics).<a href="#cite_note-nature_critical_papers-68">[notes 4]</a> In August 1989, in spite of this trend, the state of <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> invested $4.5 million to create the National Cold Fusion Institute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce1990-69">[62]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE198939-70">[63]</a> The panel issued its report in November 1989, concluding that results as of that date did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE198936-71">[64]</a> The panel noted the large number of failures to replicate excess heat and the greater inconsistency of reports of nuclear reaction byproducts expected by established <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjecture</a>. Nuclear fusion of the type postulated would be inconsistent with current understanding and, if verified, would require established conjecture, perhaps even theory itself, to be extended in an unexpected way. The panel was against special funding for cold fusion research, but supported modest funding of "focused experiments within the general funding system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE198937-72">[65]</a> Cold fusion supporters continued to argue that the evidence for excess heat was strong, and in September 1990 the National Cold Fusion Institute listed 92 groups of researchers from 10 countries that had reported corroborating evidence of excess heat, but they refused to provide any evidence of their own arguing that it could endanger their patents.<a href="#cite_note-73">[66]</a> However, no further DOE nor NSF funding resulted from the panel's recommendation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallove1991246–248-74">[67]</a> By this point, however, academic consensus had moved decidedly toward labeling cold fusion as a kind of "pathological science".<a href="#cite_note-nytdoe-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1992-75">[68]</a> In March 1990, Michael H. Salamon, a physicist from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>, and nine co-authors reported negative results.<a href="#cite_note-76">[69]</a> University faculty were then "stunned" when a lawyer representing Pons and Fleischmann demanded the Salamon paper be retracted under threat of a lawsuit. The lawyer later apologized; Fleischmann defended the threat as a legitimate reaction to alleged bias displayed by cold-fusion critics.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes_escapes-77">[70]</a> In early May 1990, one of the two A&M researchers, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Wolf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevin Wolf (page does not exist)">Kevin Wolf</a>, acknowledged the possibility of spiking, but said that the most likely explanation was tritium contamination in the palladium electrodes or simply contamination due to sloppy work.<a href="#cite_note-78">[71]</a> In June 1990 an article in Science by science writer <a href="/wiki/Gary_Taubes" title="Gary Taubes">Gary Taubes</a> destroyed the public credibility of the A&M tritium results when it accused its group leader <a href="/wiki/John_Bockris" title="John Bockris">John Bockris</a> and one of his graduate students of spiking the cells with tritium.<a href="#cite_note-79">[72]</a> In October 1990 Wolf finally said that the results were explained by tritium contamination in the rods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga1993122–123-80">[73]</a> An A&M cold fusion review panel found that the tritium evidence was not convincing and that, while they couldn't rule out spiking, contamination and measurements problems were more likely explanations,<a href="#cite_note-spiking-81">[text 4]</a> and Bockris never got support from his faculty to resume his research. On 30 June 1991, the National Cold Fusion Institute closed after it ran out of funds;<a href="#cite_note-82">[74]</a> it found no excess heat, and its reports of tritium production were met with indifference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993424-83">[75]</a> On 1 January 1991, Pons left the University of Utah and went to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993424-83">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga1993184-84">[76]</a> In 1992, Pons and Fleischmann resumed research with <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Motor_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyota Motor Corporation">Toyota Motor Corporation</a>'s IMRA lab in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993424-83">[75]</a> Fleischmann left for England in 1995, and the contract with Pons was not renewed in 1998 after spending $40 million with no tangible results.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993136–138-85">[77]</a> The IMRA laboratory stopped cold fusion research in 1998 after spending £12 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a-3">[3]</a> Pons has made no public declarations since, and only Fleischmann continued giving talks and publishing papers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993136–138-85">[77]</a> Mostly in the 1990s, several books were published that were critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers.<a href="#cite_note-86">[78]</a> Over the years, several books have appeared that defended them.<a href="#cite_note-87">[79]</a> Around 1998, the University of Utah had already dropped its research after spending over $1 million, and in the summer of 1997, Japan cut off research and closed its own lab after spending $20 million.<a href="#cite_note-wired_steam-88">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_research">Later research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Later research">edit</a>]</div> A 1991 review by a cold fusion proponent had calculated "about 600 scientists" were still conducting research.<a href="#cite_note-small_community_600-89">[81]</a> After 1991, cold fusion research only continued in relative obscurity, conducted by groups that had increasing difficulty securing public funding and keeping programs open. These small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis setups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community.<a href="#cite_note-Broad1989b-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-small_community-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002131–133,_218-90">[82]</a> The Boston Globe estimated in 2004 that there were only 100 to 200 researchers working in the field, most suffering damage to their reputation and career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaley2004-91">[83]</a> Since the main controversy over Pons and Fleischmann had ended, cold fusion research has been funded by private and small governmental scientific investment funds in the United States, Italy, Japan, and India. For example, it was reported in <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>, in May, 2019, that <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> had spent approximately $10 million on cold fusion research. A group of scientists at well-known research labs (e.g., <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Lab">Lawrence Berkeley National Lab</a>, and others) worked for several years to establish experimental protocols and measurement techniques in an effort to re-evaluate cold fusion to a high standard of scientific rigor. Their reported conclusion: no cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a> In 2021, following Nature's 2019 publication of anomalous findings that might only be explained by some localized fusion, scientists at the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Head_Naval_Surface_Warfare_Center" title="Indian Head Naval Surface Warfare Center">Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division</a> announced that they had assembled a group of scientists from the Navy, Army and <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> to undertake a new, coordinated study.<a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a> With few exceptions, researchers have had difficulty publishing in mainstream journals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Broad1989b-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-most_scientists-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-small_community-15">[15]</a> The remaining researchers often term their field Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR), Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullins2004-93">[85]</a> Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reactions (LANR), Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (CMNS) or Lattice Enabled Nuclear Reactions; one of the reasons being to <a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">avoid the negative connotations</a> associated with "cold fusion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002131–133,_218-90">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeife2008154–155-94">[86]</a> The new names avoid making bold implications, like implying that fusion is actually occurring.<a href="#cite_note-95">[87]</a> The researchers who continue their investigations acknowledge that the flaws in the original announcement are the main cause of the subject's marginalization, and they complain of a chronic lack of funding<a href="#cite_note-bbc_march_2009-96">[88]</a> and no possibilities of getting their work published in the highest impact journals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder200427-97">[89]</a> University researchers are often unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues and their professional careers would be at risk.<a href="#cite_note-98">[90]</a> In 1994, <a href="/wiki/David_Goodstein" title="David Goodstein">David Goodstein</a>, a professor of physics at <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a>, advocated increased attention from mainstream researchers and described cold fusion as: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A pariah field, cast out by the scientific establishment. Between cold fusion and respectable science there is virtually no communication at all. Cold fusion papers are almost never published in refereed scientific journals, with the result that those works don't receive the normal critical scrutiny that science requires. On the other hand, because the Cold-Fusioners see themselves as a community under siege, there is little internal criticism. Experiments and theories tend to be accepted at face value, for fear of providing even more fuel for external critics, if anyone outside the group was bothering to listen. In these circumstances, crackpots flourish, making matters worse for those who believe that there is serious science going on here.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodstein1994-41">[38]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG/170px-Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="308" /></a><figcaption>Cold fusion apparatus at the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Naval_Warfare_Systems_Center_San_Diego" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San Diego">Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San Diego</a> (2005)</figcaption></figure> United States Navy researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Naval_Warfare_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center">Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center</a> (SPAWAR) in San Diego have been studying cold fusion since 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullins2004-93">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-MosierBoss2009-99">[91]</a> In 2002 they released a two-volume report, "Thermal and nuclear aspects of the Pd/D2O system", with a plea for funding.<a href="#cite_note-100">[92]</a> This and other published papers prompted a 2004 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a> (DOE) review.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullins2004-93">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2004_DOE_panel">2004 DOE panel</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 2004 DOE panel">edit</a>]</div> In August 2003, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Secretary of Energy">U.S. Secretary of Energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spencer_Abraham" title="Spencer Abraham">Spencer Abraham</a>, ordered the DOE to organize a second review of the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrumfiel2004-101">[93]</a> This was thanks to an April 2003 letter sent by MIT's <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Hagelstein" title="Peter L. Hagelstein">Peter L. Hagelstein</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Weinberger2004-102">[94]</a>: 3  and the publication of many new papers, including the Italian ENEA and other researchers in the 2003 International Cold Fusion Conference,<a href="#cite_note-ENEA_Magazin-103">[95]</a> and a two-volume book by U.S. <a href="/wiki/SPAWAR" class="mw-redirect" title="SPAWAR">SPAWAR</a> in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullins2004-93">[85]</a> Cold fusion researchers were asked to present a review document of all the evidence since the 1989 review. The report was released in 2004. The reviewers were "split approximately evenly" on whether the experiments had produced energy in the form of heat, but "most reviewers, even those who accepted the evidence for excess power production, 'stated that the effects are not repeatable, the magnitude of the effect has not increased in over a decade of work, and that many of the reported experiments were not well documented'".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrumfiel2004-101">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder2005-104">[96]</a> In summary, reviewers found that cold fusion evidence was still not convincing 15 years later, and they did not recommend a federal research program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrumfiel2004-101">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder2005-104">[96]</a> They only recommended that agencies consider funding individual well-thought studies in specific areas where research "could be helpful in resolving some of the controversies in the field".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrumfiel2004-101">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder2005-104">[96]</a> They summarized its conclusions thus: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> While significant progress has been made in the sophistication of calorimeters since the review of this subject in 1989, the conclusions reached by the reviewers today are similar to those found in the 1989 review. The current reviewers identified a number of basic science research areas that could be helpful in resolving some of the controversies in the field, two of which were: 1) material science aspects of deuterated metals using modern characterization techniques, and 2) the study of particles reportedly emitted from deuterated foils using state-of-the-art apparatus and methods. The reviewers believed that this field would benefit from the peer-review processes associated with proposal submission to agencies and paper submission to archival journals. </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Report of the Review of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions, US Department of Energy, December 2004<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE2004-105">[97]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Cold fusion researchers placed a "rosier spin"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder2005-104">[96]</a> on the report, noting that they were finally being treated like normal scientists, and that the report had increased interest in the field and caused "a huge upswing in interest in funding cold fusion research".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeder2005-104">[96]</a> However, in a 2009 BBC article on an American Chemical Society's meeting on cold fusion, particle physicist <a href="/wiki/Frank_Close" title="Frank Close">Frank Close</a> was quoted stating that the problems that plagued the original cold fusion announcement were still happening: results from studies are still not being independently verified and inexplicable phenomena encountered are being labelled as "cold fusion" even if they are not, in order to attract the attention of journalists.<a href="#cite_note-bbc_march_2009-96">[88]</a> In February 2012, millionaire <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Kimmel" title="Sidney Kimmel">Sidney Kimmel</a>, convinced that cold fusion was worth investing in by a 19 April 2009 interview with physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Duncan_(physicist)" title="Robert Duncan (physicist)">Robert Duncan</a> on the US news show <a href="/wiki/60_Minutes" title="60 Minutes">60 Minutes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Columbia_Tribune_SKINR-106">[98]</a> made a grant of $5.5 million to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a> to establish the Sidney Kimmel Institute for Nuclear Renaissance (SKINR). The grant was intended to support research into the interactions of hydrogen with palladium, nickel or platinum under extreme conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia_Tribune_SKINR-106">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Press_Release_Kimmel-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Missourian_SKINR-108">[100]</a> In March 2013 Graham K. Hubler, a nuclear physicist who worked for the Naval Research Laboratory for 40 years, was named director.<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a> One of the SKINR projects is to replicate a 1991 experiment in which a professor associated with the project, Mark Prelas, says bursts of millions of neutrons a second were recorded, which was stopped because "his research account had been frozen". He claims that the new experiment has already seen "neutron emissions at similar levels to the 1991 observation".<a href="#cite_note-110">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> In May 2016, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States House Committee on Armed Services">United States House Committee on Armed Services</a>, in its report on the 2017 National Defense Authorization Act, directed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a> to "provide a briefing on the military utility of recent U.S. industrial base LENR advancements to the House Committee on Armed Services by September 22, 2016".<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a>]</div> Since the Fleischmann and Pons announcement, the Italian national agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development (<a href="/wiki/ENEA_(Italy)" title="ENEA (Italy)">ENEA</a>) has funded Franco Scaramuzzi's research into whether excess heat can be measured from metals loaded with deuterium gas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodstein201087–94-114">[106]</a> Such research is distributed across ENEA departments, <a href="/wiki/Consiglio_Nazionale_delle_Ricerche" class="mw-redirect" title="Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche">CNR</a> laboratories, <a href="/wiki/Istituto_Nazionale_di_Fisica_Nucleare" title="Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare">INFN</a>, universities and industrial laboratories in Italy, where the group continues to try to achieve reliable reproducibility (i.e. getting the phenomenon to happen in every cell, and inside a certain frame of time). In 2006–2007, the ENEA started a research program which claimed to have found excess power of up to 500 percent, and in 2009, ENEA hosted the 15th cold fusion conference.<a href="#cite_note-ENEA_Magazin-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartellucciRosatiScaramuzziViolante2009-115">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> Between 1992 and 1997, Japan's <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_International_Trade_and_Industry" title="Ministry of International Trade and Industry">Ministry of International Trade and Industry</a> sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy (NHE)" program of US$20 million to research cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-pollack-116">[108]</a> Announcing the end of the program in 1997, the director and one-time proponent of cold fusion research Hideo Ikegami stated "We couldn't achieve what was first claimed in terms of cold fusion. (...) We can't find any reason to propose more money for the coming year or for the future."<a href="#cite_note-pollack-116">[108]</a> In 1999 the Japan C-F Research Society was established to promote the independent research into cold fusion that continued in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-JCFRS-117">[109]</a> The society holds annual meetings.<a href="#cite_note-JCFRS2011-118">[110]</a> Perhaps the most famous Japanese cold fusion researcher was <a href="/wiki/Yoshiaki_Arata" title="Yoshiaki Arata">Yoshiaki Arata</a>, from Osaka University, who claimed in a demonstration to produce excess heat when deuterium gas was introduced into a cell containing a mixture of palladium and zirconium oxide,<a href="#cite_note-mixture-119">[text 5]</a> a claim supported by fellow Japanese researcher Akira Kitamura of Kobe University<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitamuraNohmiSasakiTaniike2009-120">[111]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_McKubre" title="Michael McKubre">Michael McKubre</a> at SRI. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> In the 1990s, India stopped its research in cold fusion at the <a href="/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre" title="Bhabha Atomic Research Centre">Bhabha Atomic Research Centre</a> because of the lack of consensus among mainstream scientists and the US denunciation of the research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJayaraman2008-121">[112]</a> Yet, in 2008, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Advanced_Studies" title="National Institute of Advanced Studies">National Institute of Advanced Studies</a> recommended that the Indian government revive this research. Projects were commenced at <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Institute of Technology">Indian Institute of Technology</a>, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the <a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi_Centre_for_Atomic_Research" title="Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research">Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJayaraman2008-121">[112]</a> However, there is still skepticism among scientists and, for all practical purposes, research has stalled since the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a> A special section in the Indian multidisciplinary journal <a href="/wiki/Current_Science" title="Current Science">Current Science</a> published 33 cold fusion papers in 2015 by major cold fusion researchers including several Indian researchers.<a href="#cite_note-currentscience.ac.in-123">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reported_results">Reported results</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reported results">edit</a>]</div> A cold fusion experiment usually includes: <ul><li>a metal, such as <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, in bulk, thin films or powder; and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, or both, in the form of water, gas or plasma.</li></ul> Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also "heat-after-death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off. The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution containing palladium and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution.<a href="#cite_note-reignites-124">[115]</a> Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear—this is known as the "loading time," the time required to saturate the palladium electrode with hydrogen (see "Loading ratio" section). The Fleischmann and Pons early findings regarding helium, neutron radiation and tritium were never replicated satisfactorily, and its levels were too low for the claimed heat production and inconsistent with each other.<a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a> Neutron radiation has been reported in cold fusion experiments at very low levels using different kinds of detectors, but levels were too low, close to background, and found too infrequently to provide useful information about possible nuclear processes.<a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excess_heat_and_energy_production">Excess heat and energy production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Excess heat and energy production">edit</a>]</div> An excess heat observation is based on an <a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">energy balance</a>. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal conditions, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, an electrolysis cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> If the higher temperatures were real, and not an experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10–20% of total input, though this could not be reliably replicated by most researchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE20043-127">[118]</a> Researcher <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Lewis_(chemist)" title="Nathan Lewis (chemist)">Nathan Lewis</a> discovered that the excess heat in Fleischmann and Pons's original paper was not measured, but estimated from measurements that didn't have any excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993256–259-128">[119]</a> Unable to produce excess heat or neutrons, and with positive experiments being plagued by errors and giving disparate results, most researchers declared that heat production was not a real effect and ceased working on the experiments.<a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a> In 1993, after their original report, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments—where excess heat was measured after the electric current supplied to the electrolytic cell was turned off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPons1993-130">[121]</a> This type of report has also become part of subsequent cold fusion claims.<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helium,_heavy_elements,_and_neutrons">Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg/220px-Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg/330px-Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Triple_tracks_in_CR-39.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>"Triple tracks" in a <a href="/wiki/CR-39" title="CR-39">CR-39</a> plastic radiation detector claimed as evidence for neutron emission from palladium deuteride</figcaption></figure> Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a> and particles on readily observable ballistic trajectories. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a> of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detection of tritium. The classical <a href="/wiki/Branching_fraction" title="Branching fraction">branching ratio</a> for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a> of power, the production of 1012 neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers.<a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Mosier-Boss" title="Pamela Mosier-Boss">Mosier-Boss</a> et al. reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using <a href="/wiki/CR-39" title="CR-39">CR-39</a> plastic radiation detectors,<a href="#cite_note-MosierBoss2009-99">[91]</a> but the claims cannot be validated without a <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_analysis_(chemistry)" title="Quantitative analysis (chemistry)">quantitative analysis</a> of neutrons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarras2009-133">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerger2009-134">[125]</a> Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like <a href="/wiki/Tadahiko_Mizuno" title="Tadahiko Mizuno">Tadahiko Mizuno</a> or <a href="/wiki/George_H._Miley" title="George H. Miley">George Miley</a>. The report presented to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy (DOE)</a> in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments did not use state-of-the-art techniques.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE20043,_4,_5-135">[126]</a> In response to doubts about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagelstein2010-136">[127]</a> Considerable attention has been given to measuring 4He production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagelsteinMcKubreNagelChubb2004-17">[17]</a> However, the reported levels are very near to background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium normally present in the air cannot be ruled out. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for 4He, with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE20043,_4-137">[128]</a> One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium was expected to result in the production of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a>—which were not observed and were not observed in subsequent cold fusion experiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19992-49">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersSandquist1990-138">[129]</a> Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002215-139">[130]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002150–153,_162-140">[131]</a> Some researchers also claim to have found them using only light water and nickel cathodes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002215-139">[130]</a> The 2004 DOE panel expressed concerns about the poor quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE20043,_4-137">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_mechanisms">Proposed mechanisms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Proposed mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> Researchers in the field do not agree on a theory for cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002153,_214–216-141">[132]</a> One proposal considers that hydrogen and its <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">isotopes</a> can be absorbed in certain solids, including <a href="/wiki/Palladium_hydride" title="Palladium hydride">palladium hydride</a>, at high densities. This creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes. However, the reduction in separation is not enough to create the fusion rates claimed in the original experiment, by a factor of ten.<a href="#cite_note-distance-142">[133]</a> It was also proposed that a higher density of hydrogen inside the palladium and a lower potential barrier could raise the possibility of fusion at lower temperatures than expected from a simple application of <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">Electron screening</a> of the positive hydrogen nuclei by the negative electrons in the palladium lattice was suggested to the 2004 DOE commission,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagelsteinMcKubreNagelChubb200414–15-143">[134]</a> but the panel found the theoretical explanations not convincing and inconsistent with current physics theories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE2004-105">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> Criticism of cold fusion claims generally take one of two forms: either pointing out the theoretical implausibility that fusion reactions have occurred in electrolysis setups or criticizing the excess heat measurements as being spurious, erroneous, or due to poor methodology or controls. There are several reasons why known fusion reactions are an unlikely explanation for the excess heat and associated cold fusion claims.<a href="#cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">[text 6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repulsion_forces">Repulsion forces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Repulsion forces">edit</a>]</div> Because nuclei are all positively charged, they strongly repel one another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19992-49">[45]</a> Normally, in the absence of a catalyst such as a <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">muon</a>, very high <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energies</a> are required to overcome this <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">charged repulsion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19991-145">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrison19993–5-146">[136]</a> Extrapolating from known fusion rates, the rate for uncatalyzed fusion at room-temperature energy would be 50 orders of magnitude lower than needed to account for the reported excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-147">[137]</a> In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas.<a href="#cite_note-148">[138]</a> But deuterium nuclei inside a palladium lattice are further apart than in deuterium gas, and there should be fewer fusion reactions, not more.<a href="#cite_note-distance-142">[133]</a> Paneth and Peters in the 1920s already knew that palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199219–20-149">[139]</a> This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199219–20-149">[139]</a> Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electrolysis to make palladium absorb more deuterium and force the deuterium further together inside the rods, thus anticipating the main elements of Fleischmann and Pons' experiment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199219–20-149">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-similar_to_tandberg-25">[25]</a> They all hoped that pairs of hydrogen nuclei would fuse together to form helium, which at the time was needed in Germany to fill <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">zeppelins</a>, but no evidence of helium or of increased fusion rate was ever found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199219–20-149">[139]</a> This was also the belief of geologist Palmer, who convinced Steven Jones that the helium-3 occurring naturally in Earth perhaps came from fusion involving hydrogen isotopes inside catalysts like nickel and palladium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199263–64-150">[140]</a> This led their team in 1986 to independently make the same experimental setup as Fleischmann and Pons (a palladium cathode submerged in heavy water, absorbing deuterium via electrolysis).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199264–66-151">[141]</a> Fleischmann and Pons had much the same belief,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose199232–33-152">[142]</a> but they calculated the pressure to be of 1027 <a href="/wiki/Standard_atmosphere_(unit)" title="Standard atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</a>, when cold fusion experiments achieve a loading ratio of only one to one, which has only between 10,000 and 20,000 atmospheres.<a href="#cite_note-pressure-153">[text 7]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_R._Huizenga" title="John R. Huizenga">John R. Huizenga</a> says they had misinterpreted the <a href="/wiki/Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a>, leading them to believe that there was enough pressure to bring deuterons so close to each other that there would be spontaneous fusions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga199333,_47-154">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lack_of_expected_reaction_products">Lack of expected reaction products</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lack of expected reaction products">edit</a>]</div> Conventional deuteron fusion is a two-step process,<a href="#cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">[text 6]</a> in which an unstable high-energy <a href="/wiki/Reaction_intermediate" title="Reaction intermediate">intermediary</a> is formed: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2H</a> + 2H → <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">4He</a><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">*</a> + 24 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a></dd></dl> Experiments have shown only three decay pathways for this excited-state nucleus, with the <a href="/wiki/Branching_fraction" title="Branching fraction">branching ratio</a> showing the probability that any given intermediate follows a particular pathway.<a href="#cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">[text 6]</a> The products formed via these decay pathways are: <dl><dd>4He* → <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a> + <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3He</a> + 3.3 MeV (<a href="/wiki/Branching_fraction" title="Branching fraction">ratio</a>=50%)</dd> <dd>4He* → <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a> + <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3H</a> + 4.0 MeV (ratio=50%)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">4He* → 4He</a> + <a href="/wiki/Gamma_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma particle">γ</a> + 24 MeV (ratio=10−6)</dd></dl> Only about one in a million of the intermediaries take the third pathway, making its products very rare compared to the other paths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19992-49">[45]</a> This result is consistent with the predictions of the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-consistent-155">[text 8]</a> If 1 watt (6.242 × 1018 eV/s)<a href="#cite_note-watt-ev-156">[notes 5]</a> were produced from ~2.2575 × 1011 deuteron fusions per second, with the known branching ratios, the resulting neutrons and tritium (3H) would be easily measured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer19992-49">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga19937-157">[144]</a> Some researchers reported detecting 4He but without the expected neutron or tritium production; such a result would require branching ratios strongly favouring the third pathway, with the actual rates of the first two pathways lower by at least five orders of magnitude than observations from other experiments, directly contradicting both theoretically predicted and observed branching probabilities.<a href="#cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">[text 6]</a> Those reports of 4He production did not include detection of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>, which would require the third pathway to have been changed somehow so that gamma rays are no longer emitted.<a href="#cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">[text 6]</a> The known rate of the decay process together with the inter-atomic spacing in a <a href="/wiki/Metallic_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic crystal">metallic crystal</a> makes heat transfer of the 24 MeV excess energy into the host metal lattice prior to the intermediary's decay inexplicable by conventional understandings of <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> and energy transfer,<a href="#cite_note-158">[145]</a> and even then there would be measurable levels of radiation.<a href="#cite_note-159">[146]</a> Also, experiments indicate that the ratios of deuterium fusion remain constant at different energies.<a href="#cite_note-Huizenga_chemical_environment-160">[147]</a> In general, pressure and chemical environment cause only small changes to fusion ratios.<a href="#cite_note-Huizenga_chemical_environment-160">[147]</a> An early explanation invoked the <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Phillips_process" title="Oppenheimer–Phillips process">Oppenheimer–Phillips process</a> at low energies, but its magnitude was too small to explain the altered ratios.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga199375–76,_113-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Setup_of_experiments">Setup of experiments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Setup of experiments">edit</a>]</div> Cold fusion setups utilize an input power source (to ostensibly provide <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">platinum group</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a>, a deuterium or hydrogen source, a <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a>, and, at times, detectors to look for byproducts such as helium or neutrons. Critics have variously taken issue with each of these aspects and have asserted that there has not yet been a consistent reproduction of claimed cold fusion results in either energy output or byproducts. Some cold fusion researchers who claim that they can consistently measure an excess heat effect have argued that the apparent lack of reproducibility might be attributable to a lack of quality control in the electrode metal or the amount of hydrogen or deuterium loaded in the system. Critics have further taken issue with what they describe as mistakes or errors of interpretation that cold fusion researchers have made in calorimetry analyses and energy budgets.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reproducibility">edit</a>]</div> In 1989, after Fleischmann and Pons had made their claims, many research groups tried to reproduce the Fleischmann-Pons experiment, without success. A few other research groups, however, reported successful reproductions of cold fusion during this time. In July 1989, an Indian group from the <a href="/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre" title="Bhabha Atomic Research Centre">Bhabha Atomic Research Centre</a> (<a href="/wiki/P._K._Iyengar" title="P. K. Iyengar">P. K. Iyengar</a> and M. Srinivasan) and in October 1989, <a href="/wiki/John_Bockris" title="John Bockris">John Bockris</a>' group from <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a> reported on the creation of tritium. In December 1990, professor <a href="/wiki/Richard_Oriani" title="Richard Oriani">Richard Oriani</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> reported excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubes1993364–365-162">[149]</a> Groups that did report successes found that some of their cells were producing the effect, while other cells that were built exactly the same and used the same materials were not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatt1998-163">[150]</a> Researchers who continued to work on the topic have claimed over the years that many successful replications had been made, but still had problems getting reliable replications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a> is one of the main principles of the scientific method, and its lack led most physicists to believe that the few positive reports could be attributed to experimental error.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatt1998-163">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-reger-165">[text 9]</a> The DOE 2004 report said among its conclusions and recommendations: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Ordinarily, new scientific discoveries are claimed to be consistent and reproducible; as a result, if the experiments are not complicated, the discovery can usually be confirmed or disproved in a few months. The claims of cold fusion, however, are unusual in that even the strongest proponents of cold fusion assert that the experiments, for unknown reasons, are not consistent and reproducible at the present time. (...) Internal inconsistencies and lack of predictability and reproducibility remain serious concerns. (...) The Panel recommends that the cold fusion research efforts in the area of heat production focus primarily on confirming or disproving reports of excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUS_DOE2004-105">[97]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Loading_ratio">Loading ratio</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Loading ratio">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg/170px-Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg/255px-Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Gas-ColdFusionCell-SRI-Intl-McKubre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Michael McKubre working on deuterium gas-based cold fusion cell used by <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a></figcaption></figure> Cold fusion researchers (<a href="/wiki/Michael_McKubre" title="Michael McKubre">McKubre</a> since 1994,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_National_Agency_for_New_Technologies,_Energy_and_Sustainable_Economic_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development">ENEA</a> in 2011<a href="#cite_note-ENEA_Magazin-103">[95]</a>) have speculated that a cell that is loaded with a deuterium/palladium ratio lower than 100% (or 1:1) will not produce excess heat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> Since most of the negative replications from 1989 to 1990 did not report their ratios, this has been proposed as an explanation for failed reproducibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> This loading ratio is hard to obtain, and some batches of palladium never reach it because the pressure causes cracks in the palladium, allowing the deuterium to escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> Fleischmann and Pons never disclosed the deuterium/palladium ratio achieved in their cells;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga199382-166">[152]</a> as of 2002<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit">[update]</a> there were no longer any batches of the palladium used by Fleischmann and Pons because the supplier changed the manufacturing process,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> and researchers still had problems finding batches of palladium that achieved heat production reliably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002145–148-164">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Misinterpretation_of_data">Misinterpretation of data</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Misinterpretation of data">edit</a>]</div> Some research groups initially reported that they had replicated the Fleischmann and Pons results but later retracted their reports and offered an alternative explanation for their original positive results. A group at <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Institute of Technology">Georgia Tech</a> found problems with their neutron detector, and Texas A&M discovered bad wiring in their thermometers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird1998261–262-167">[153]</a> These retractions, combined with negative results from some famous laboratories,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">[6]</a> led most scientists to conclude, as early as 1989, that no positive result should be attributed to cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird1998261–262-167">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaeta1999(pages_5–6;_"Response";_Heeter,_Robert_F.)-168">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calorimetry_errors">Calorimetry errors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Calorimetry errors">edit</a>]</div> The calculation of excess heat in electrochemical cells involves certain assumptions.<a href="#cite_note-169">[155]</a> Errors in these assumptions have been offered as non-nuclear explanations for excess heat. One assumption made by Fleischmann and Pons is that the efficiency of electrolysis is nearly 100%, meaning nearly all the electricity applied to the cell resulted in electrolysis of water, with negligible <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">resistive heating</a> and substantially all the electrolysis product leaving the cell unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> This assumption gives the amount of energy expended converting liquid D2O into gaseous D2 and O2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990Appendix-170">[156]</a> The efficiency of electrolysis is less than one if hydrogen and oxygen recombine to a significant extent within the calorimeter. Several researchers have described potential mechanisms by which this process could occur and thereby account for excess heat in electrolysis experiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShkediMcDonaldBreenMaguire1995-171">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesHansenJonesShelton19951-172">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2002-173">[159]</a> Another assumption is that heat loss from the calorimeter maintains the same relationship with measured temperature as found when calibrating the calorimeter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990-33">[31]</a> This assumption ceases to be accurate if the temperature distribution within the cell becomes significantly altered from the condition under which calibration measurements were made.<a href="#cite_note-174">[160]</a> This can happen, for example, if fluid circulation within the cell becomes significantly altered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._16-175">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992-176">[162]</a> Recombination of hydrogen and oxygen within the calorimeter would also alter the heat distribution and invalidate the calibration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2002-173">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2005-177">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2006-178">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Publications">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information" title="Institute for Scientific Information">ISI</a> identified cold fusion as the scientific topic with the largest number of published papers in 1989, of all scientific disciplines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183,_209-179">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Laureate">Nobel Laureate</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a> declared himself a supporter of cold fusion in the fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> (publisher of PRL) in protest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraMiltonSchwinger2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9SmZSN8F164CpgPA550_550]-180">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose1992197–198-181">[167]</a> The number of papers sharply declined after 1990 because of two simultaneous phenomena: first, scientists abandoned the field; second, journal editors declined to review new papers. Consequently, cold fusion fell off the ISI charts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183,_209-179">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183-182">[168]</a> Researchers who got negative results turned their backs on the field; those who continued to publish were simply ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga1993208-183">[169]</a> A 1993 paper in Physics Letters A was the last paper published by Fleischmann, and "one of the last reports [by Fleischmann] to be formally challenged on technical grounds by a cold fusion skeptic."<a href="#cite_note-last_challenged-184">[text 10]</a> The Journal of Fusion Technology (FT) established a permanent feature in 1990 for cold fusion papers, publishing over a dozen papers per year and giving a mainstream outlet for cold fusion researchers. When editor-in-chief <a href="/wiki/George_H._Miley" title="George H. Miley">George H. Miley</a> retired in 2001, the journal stopped accepting new cold fusion papers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183-182">[168]</a> This has been cited as an example of the importance of sympathetic influential individuals to the publication of cold fusion papers in certain journals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183-182">[168]</a> The decline of publications in cold fusion has been described as a "failed information epidemic".<a href="#cite_note-fie-185">[text 11]</a> The sudden surge of supporters until roughly 50% of scientists support the theory, followed by a decline until there is only a very small number of supporters, has been described as a characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">pathological science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pathological-186">[text 12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langmuir-187">[notes 6]</a> The lack of a shared set of unifying concepts and techniques has prevented the creation of a dense network of collaboration in the field; researchers perform efforts in their own and in disparate directions, making the transition to "normal" science more difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBettencourtKaiserKaur2009-188">[170]</a> Cold fusion reports continued to be published in a few journals like <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Electroanalytical_Chemistry" title="Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry">Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Il_Nuovo_Cimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Il Nuovo Cimento">Il Nuovo Cimento</a>. Some papers also appeared in <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Physical_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Physical Chemistry">Journal of Physical Chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics Letters A">Physics Letters A</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Hydrogen_Energy" title="International Journal of Hydrogen Energy">International Journal of Hydrogen Energy</a>, and a number of Japanese and Russian journals of physics, chemistry, and engineering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183-182">[168]</a> Since 2005, <a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften">Naturwissenschaften</a> has published cold fusion papers; in 2009, the journal named a cold fusion researcher to its editorial board. In 2015 the Indian multidisciplinary journal <a href="/wiki/Current_Science" title="Current Science">Current Science</a> published a special section devoted entirely to cold fusion related papers.<a href="#cite_note-currentscience.ac.in-123">[114]</a> In the 1990s, the groups that continued to research cold fusion and their supporters established (non-peer-reviewed) periodicals such as Fusion Facts, Cold Fusion Magazine, <a href="/wiki/Infinite_Energy_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite Energy Magazine">Infinite Energy Magazine</a> and New Energy Times to cover developments in cold fusion and other fringe claims in energy production that were ignored in other venues. The internet has also become a major means of communication and self-publication for CF researchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002183–187-189">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conferences">Conferences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conferences">edit</a>]</div> Cold fusion researchers were for many years unable to get papers accepted at scientific meetings, prompting the creation of their own conferences. The <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Cold_Fusion" title="International Conference on Cold Fusion">International Conference on Cold Fusion</a> (ICCF) was first held in 1990 and has met every 12 to 18 months since. Attendees at some of the early conferences were described as offering no criticism to papers and presentations for fear of giving ammunition to external critics,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPark200012–13-190">[172]</a> thus allowing the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">crackpots</a> and hampering the conduct of serious science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodstein1994-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[notes 7]</a> Critics and skeptics stopped attending these conferences, with the notable exception of Douglas Morrison,<a href="#cite_note-192">[173]</a> who died in 2001. With the founding in 2004 of the International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS),<a href="#cite_note-193">[174]</a> the conference was renamed the International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002131–133,_218-90">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeife2008154–155-94">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-taubes378-194">[175]</a>—for reasons that are detailed in the <a href="#Later_research">subsequent research section</a> above—but reverted to the old name in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-195">[176]</a> Cold fusion research is often referenced by proponents as "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR,<a href="#cite_note-bbc_march_2009-96">[88]</a> but according to sociologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bart_Simon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bart Simon (page does not exist)">Bart Simon</a> the "cold fusion" label continues to serve a social function in creating a <a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">collective identity</a> for the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002131–133,_218-90">[82]</a> Since 2006, the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> (APS) has included cold fusion sessions at their semiannual meetings, clarifying that this does not imply a softening of skepticism.<a href="#cite_note-aps_meeting-196">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Noorden2007-197">[178]</a> Since 2007, the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) meetings also include "invited symposium(s)" on cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Noorden2007para._2-198">[179]</a> An ACS program chair, Gopal Coimbatore, said that without a proper forum the matter would never be discussed and, "with the world facing an energy crisis, it is worth exploring all possibilities."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Noorden2007-197">[178]</a> On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Naval_Warfare_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center">Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center</a> (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> using a heavy water electrolysis setup and a <a href="/wiki/CR-39" title="CR-39">CR-39</a> detector,<a href="#cite_note-ACS_Press_Release-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-reignites-124">[115]</a> a result previously published in <a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften">Naturwissenschaften</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarras2009-133">[124]</a> The authors claim that these neutrons are indicative of nuclear reactions.<a href="#cite_note-afp_march_2009-199">[180]</a> Without quantitative analysis of the number, energy, and timing of the neutrons and exclusion of other potential sources, this interpretation is unlikely to find acceptance by the wider scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarras2009-133">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerger2009-134">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patents">Patents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Patents">edit</a>]</div> Although details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones.<a href="#cite_note-utah_patent-36">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) announced on 12 April 1989 that it had applied for its own patents based on theoretical work of one of its researchers, <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Hagelstein" title="Peter L. Hagelstein">Peter L. Hagelstein</a>, who had been sending papers to journals from 5 to 12 April.<a href="#cite_note-Broad1989-200">[181]</a> An MIT graduate student applied for a patent but was reportedly rejected by the USPTO in part by the citation of the "negative" MIT Plasma Fusion Center's cold fusion experiment of 1989. On 2 December 1993 the University of Utah licensed all its cold fusion patents to ENECO, a new company created to profit from cold fusion discoveries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein199443-201">[182]</a> and in March 1998 it said that it would no longer defend its patents.<a href="#cite_note-wired_steam-88">[80]</a> The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Patent_and_Trademark_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Patent and Trademark Office">U.S. Patent and Trademark Office</a> (USPTO) now rejects patents claiming cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-Weinberger2004-102">[94]</a> Esther Kepplinger, the deputy commissioner of patents in 2004, said that this was done using the same argument as with <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Perpetual motion machine">perpetual motion machines</a>: that they do not work.<a href="#cite_note-Weinberger2004-102">[94]</a> Patent applications are required to show that the invention is "useful", and this <a href="/wiki/Utility_(patentability_requirement)" title="Utility (patentability requirement)">utility</a> is dependent on the invention's ability to function.<a href="#cite_note-incredible-202">[183]</a> In general USPTO rejections on the sole grounds of the invention's being "inoperative" are rare, since such rejections need to demonstrate "proof of total incapacity",<a href="#cite_note-incredible-202">[183]</a> and cases where those rejections are upheld in a Federal Court are even rarer: nevertheless, in 2000, a rejection of a cold fusion patent was appealed in a Federal Court and it was upheld, in part on the grounds that the inventor was unable to establish the utility of the invention.<a href="#cite_note-incredible-202">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-patent_case-203">[notes 8]</a> A U.S. patent might still be granted when given a different name to disassociate it from cold fusion,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002193,_233-204">[184]</a> though this strategy has had little success in the US: the same claims that need to be patented can identify it with cold fusion, and most of these patents cannot avoid mentioning Fleischmann and Pons' research due to legal constraints, thus alerting the patent reviewer that it is a cold-fusion-related patent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002193,_233-204">[184]</a> David Voss said in 1999 that some patents that closely resemble cold fusion processes, and that use materials used in cold fusion, have been granted by the USPTO.<a href="#cite_note-voss-science-205">[185]</a> The inventor of three such patents had his applications initially rejected when they were reviewed by experts in nuclear science; but then he rewrote the patents to focus more on the electrochemical parts so they would be reviewed instead by experts in electrochemistry, who approved them.<a href="#cite_note-voss-science-205">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[186]</a> When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion.<a href="#cite_note-voss-science-205">[185]</a> Melvin Miles was granted in 2004 a patent for a cold fusion device, and in 2007 he described his efforts to remove all instances of "cold fusion" from the patent description to avoid having it rejected outright.<a href="#cite_note-Sanderson2007-207">[187]</a> At least one patent related to cold fusion has been granted by the <a href="/wiki/European_Patent_Office" title="European Patent Office">European Patent Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fox1994a-208">[188]</a> A patent only legally prevents others from using or benefiting from one's invention. However, the general public perceives a patent as a stamp of approval, and a holder of three cold fusion patents said the patents were very valuable and had helped in getting investments.<a href="#cite_note-voss-science-205">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cultural references">edit</a>]</div> A 1990 <a href="/wiki/Michael_Winner" title="Michael Winner">Michael Winner</a> film <a href="/wiki/Bullseye!_(1990_film)" title="Bullseye! (1990 film)">Bullseye!</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine" title="Michael Caine">Michael Caine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Moore" title="Roger Moore">Roger Moore</a>, referenced the Fleischmann and Pons experiment. The film – a comedy – concerned conmen trying to steal scientists' purported findings. However, the film had a poor reception, described as "appallingly unfunny".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadio_Times_Film_Unit2013181–182-209">[189]</a> In Undead Science, sociologist Bart Simon gives some examples of cold fusion in popular culture, saying that some scientists use cold fusion as a synonym for outrageous claims made with no supporting proof,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> and courses of ethics in science give it as an example of pathological science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> It has appeared as a joke in <a href="/wiki/Murphy_Brown" title="Murphy Brown">Murphy Brown</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Simpsons" title="The Simpsons">The Simpsons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> It was adopted as a software product name <a href="/wiki/Adobe_ColdFusion" title="Adobe ColdFusion">Adobe ColdFusion</a> and a brand of protein bars (Cold Fusion Foods).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> It has also appeared in advertising as a synonym for impossible science, for example a 1995 advertisement for <a href="/wiki/Pepsi_Max" title="Pepsi Max">Pepsi Max</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> The plot of <a href="/wiki/The_Saint_(1997_film)" title="The Saint (1997 film)">The Saint</a>, a 1997 action-adventure film, parallels the story of Fleischmann and Pons, although with a different ending.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> In Undead Science, Simon posits that film might have affected the public perception of cold fusion, pushing it further into the science fiction realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">[190]</a> Similarly, the tenth episode of 2000 science fiction TV drama <a href="/wiki/Life_Force_(TV_series)" title="Life Force (TV series)">Life Force</a> ("Paradise Island") is also based around cold fusion, specifically the efforts of eccentric scientist Hepzibah McKinley (<a href="/wiki/Amanda_Walker" title="Amanda Walker">Amanda Walker</a>), who is convinced she has perfected it based on her father's incomplete research into the subject.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hill_and_Beyond-211">[191]</a> The episode explores its potential benefits and viability within the ongoing post-apocalyptic <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> scenario of the series.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hill_and_Beyond-211">[191]</a> In the 2023 video game <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Heart_(video_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic Heart (video game)">Atomic Heart</a>, cold fusion is responsible for nearly all of the technological advances.<a href="#cite_note-212">[192]</a> The video game and television series <a href="/wiki/Fallout_(franchise)" title="Fallout (franchise)">Fallout</a> also features cold fusion as a major source of energy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fission" title="Cold fission">Cold fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer" title="Energy Catalyzer">Energy Catalyzer</a> (E-cat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday-efficiency_effect" title="Faraday-efficiency effect">Faraday-efficiency effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incredible_utility" title="Incredible utility">Incredible utility</a> (patent concept)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_confinement_fusion" title="Lattice confinement fusion">Lattice confinement fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Nuclear transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterson_power_cell" title="Patterson power cell">Patterson power cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widom%E2%80%93Larsen_theory" title="Widom–Larsen theory">Widom–Larsen theory</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Brooks-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Brooks_39-0">^</a> For example, in 1989, the Economist editorialized that the cold fusion "affair" was "exactly what science should be about."<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beaudette_rejection-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Beaudette_rejection_46-0">^</a> On 26 January 1990, journal Nature rejected Oriani's paper, citing the lack of nuclear ash and the general difficulty that others had in replication.<a href="#CITEREFBeaudette2002">Beaudette 2002</a>, p. 183 It was later published in Fusion Technology.<a href="#CITEREFOrianiNelsonLeeBroadhurst1990">Oriani et al. 1990</a>, pp. 652–662 </li> <li id="cite_note-differences-54"><a href="#cite_ref-differences_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, pp. 228–229, 255 "(...) there are indeed chemical differences between heavy and light water, especially once lithium is added, as it was in the Pons-Fleischmann electrolyte. This had been in the scientific literature since 1958. It seems that the electrical conductivity of heavy water with lithium is considerably less than that of light water with lithium. And this difference is more than enough to account for the heavy water cell running hotter (...) (quoting a member of the A&M group) 'they're making the same mistake we did'" </li> <li id="cite_note-nature_critical_papers-68"><a href="#cite_ref-nature_critical_papers_68-0">^</a> E.g.: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs2">Miskelly GM, Heben MJ, Kumar A, Penner RM, Sailor MJ, Lewis NL (1989), "Analysis of the Published Calorimetric Evidence for Electrochemical Fusion of Deuterium in Palladium", <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>, 246 (4931): 793–796, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Sci...246..793M">1989Sci...246..793M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.246.4931.793">10.1126/science.246.4931.793</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17748706">17748706</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42943868">42943868</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+Published+Calorimetric+Evidence+for+Electrochemical+Fusion+of+Deuterium+in+Palladium&rft.volume=246&rft.issue=4931&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E793-%3C%2Fspan%3E796&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.246.4931.793&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42943868%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17748706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Sci...246..793M&rft.aulast=Miskelly&rft.aufirst=GM&rft.au=Heben%2C+MJ&rft.au=Kumar%2C+A&rft.au=Penner%2C+RM&rft.au=Sailor%2C+MJ&rft.au=Lewis%2C+NL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs2">Aberdam D, Avenier M, Bagieu G, Bouchez J, Cavaignac JF, Collot J, et al. 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C, 42 (5): R1809 – R1812, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PhRvC..42.1809R">1990PhRvC..42.1809R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.42.R1809">10.1103/PhysRevC.42.R1809</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9966919">9966919</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+C&rft.atitle=Energy+and+flux+limits+of+cold-fusion+neutrons+using+a+deuterated+liquid+scintillator&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER1809+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER1812%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9966919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevC.42.R1809&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990PhRvC..42.1809R&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.au=Becchetti%2C+FD&rft.au=Ben-Jacob%2C+E&rft.au=Garik%2C+P&rft.au=Musser%2C+J&rft.au=Orr%2C+B&rft.au=Tarl%C3%A9%2C+G&rft.au=Tomasch%2C+A&rft.au=Holder%2C+JS&rft.au=Redina%2C+D&rft.au=Heuser%2C+B&rft.au=Wicker%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLewisBarnesHebenKumar1989">Lewis et al. 1989</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-watt-ev-156"><a href="#cite_ref-watt-ev_156-0">^</a> 1 W = 1 J/s ; 1 J = 6.242 × 1018 eV since 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 joule </li> <li id="cite_note-Langmuir-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Langmuir_187-0">^</a> Sixth criterion of Langmuir: "During the course of the controversy the ratio of supporters to critics rises to near 50% and then falls gradually to oblivion. <a href="#CITEREFLangmuirHall1989">Langmuir & Hall 1989</a>, pp. 43–44", quoted in <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, p. 104, paraphrased in <a href="#CITEREFBall2001">Ball 2001</a>, p. 308. It has also been applied to the number of published results, in <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. xi, 207–209 "The ratio of the worldwide positive results on cold fusion to negative results peaked at approximately 50% (...) qualitatively in agreement with Langmuir's sixth criteria." </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> The first three conferences are commented in detail in <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 237–247, 274–285, specially 240, 275–277 </li> <li id="cite_note-patent_case-203"><a href="#cite_ref-patent_case_203-0">^</a> Swartz, 232 F.3d 862, 56 USPQ2d 1703, (Fed. Cir. 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/FEDERAL/judicial/fed/opinions/00opinions/00-1108.html">decision</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080312055400/http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/FEDERAL/judicial/fed/opinions/00opinions/00-1108.html">Archived</a> 12 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2164_07.htm">"2164.07 Relationship of Enablement Requirement to Utility Requirement of 35 U.S.C. 101 – 2100 Patentability. B. Burden on the Examiner. Examiner Has Initial Burden To Show That One of Ordinary Skill in the Art Would Reasonably Doubt the Asserted Utility"</a>, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120912152657/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2164_07.htm">archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2164.07+Relationship+of+Enablement+Requirement+to+Utility+Requirement+of+35+U.S.C.+101+%E2%80%93+2100+Patentability.+B.+Burden+on+the+Examiner.+Examiner+Has+Initial+Burden+To+Show+That+One+of+Ordinary+Skill+in+the+Art+Would+Reasonably+Doubt+the+Asserted+Utility&rft.pub=U.S.+Patent+and+Trademark+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fweb%2Foffices%2Fpac%2Fmpep%2Fdocuments%2F2100_2164_07.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, in reference to <a href="/wiki/Title_35_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 35 of the United States Code">35 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/35/101">§ 101</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs2">Alan L. Durham (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RzZydAHtUoIC&q=patent+cold+fusion&pg=PA72">Patent law essentials: a concise guide</a> (2nd, illustrated ed.), <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>, p. 72 (footnote 30), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275982058" title="Special:BookSources/9780275982058"><bdi>9780275982058</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patent+law+essentials%3A+a+concise+guide&rft.pages=72+%28footnote+30%29&rft.edition=2nd%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780275982058&rft.au=Alan+L.+Durham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRzZydAHtUoIC%26q%3Dpatent%2Bcold%2Bfusion%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs2">Jeffrey G. Sheldon (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aIFyzuKs6q0C&q=patent+cold+fusion&pg=RA1-PT332">How to write a patent application</a> (illustrated ed.), <a href="/wiki/Practising_Law_Institute" title="Practising Law Institute">Practising Law Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87224-044-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87224-044-5"><bdi>978-0-87224-044-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+write+a+patent+application&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Practising+Law+Institute&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87224-044-5&rft.au=Jeffrey+G.+Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaIFyzuKs6q0C%26q%3Dpatent%2Bcold%2Bfusion%26pg%3DRA1-PT332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cold-fusion-is-hot-again/">"60 Minutes: Once Considered Junk Science, Cold Fusion Gets A Second Look By Researchers"</a>, <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>, 17 April 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120212001503/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/04/17/60minutes/main4952167.shtml">archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=60+Minutes%3A+Once+Considered+Junk+Science%2C+Cold+Fusion+Gets+A+Second+Look+By+Researchers&rft.pub=CBS&rft.date=2009-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Fcold-fusion-is-hot-again%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FP1989-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FP1989_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleischmannPons1989">Fleischmann & Pons 1989</a>, p. 301 ("It is inconceivable that this [amount of heat] could be due to anything but nuclear processes... We realise that the results reported here raise more questions than they provide answers...") </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoss1999a_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVoss1999a">Voss 1999a</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._1-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._1_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowne1989">Browne 1989</a>, para. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowne1989">Browne 1989</a>, <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989_6-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowne1989">Browne 1989</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-most_scientists-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-most_scientists_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-most_scientists_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, pp. 262, 265–266, 269–270, 273, 285, 289, 293, 313, 326, 340–344, 364, 366, 404–406, <a href="#CITEREFGoodstein1994">Goodstein 1994</a>, <a href="#CITEREFVan_Noorden2007">Van Noorden 2007</a>, <a href="#CITEREFKean2010">Kean 2010</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytdoe-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytdoe_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytdoe_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2004" class="citation news cs2">Chang, Kenneth (25 March 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/25/us/us-will-give-cold-fusion-second-look-after-15-years.html">"US will give cold fusion a second look"</a>, The New York Times, retrieved 8 February 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=US+will+give+cold+fusion+a+second+look&rft.date=2004-03-25&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F03%2F25%2Fus%2Fus-will-give-cold-fusion-second-look-after-15-years.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ouellette-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Ouellette_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOuellette2011" class="citation web cs2">Ouellette, Jennifer (23 December 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.discovery.com/space/could-interstellar-starships-use-cold-fusion-propulsion-111223.html">"Could Starships Use Cold Fusion Propulsion?"</a>, Discovery News, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107185538/http://news.discovery.com/space/could-interstellar-starships-use-cold-fusion-propulsion-111223.html">archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discovery+News&rft.atitle=Could+Starships+Use+Cold+Fusion+Propulsion%3F&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.aulast=Ouellette&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.discovery.com%2Fspace%2Fcould-interstellar-starships-use-cold-fusion-propulsion-111223.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFUS_DOE2004">US DOE 2004</a>, <a href="#CITEREFChoi2005">Choi 2005</a>, <a href="#CITEREFFeder2005">Feder 2005</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodstein1994">Goodstein 1994</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLabingerWeininger2005">Labinger & Weininger 2005</a>, p. 1919 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoziol2021" class="citation web cs1">Koziol, Michael (22 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/cold-fusion-or-low-energy-nuclear-reactions-us-navy-researchers-reopen-case">"Whether Cold Fusion or Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions, U.S. Navy Researchers Reopen Case"</a>. 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Gift given by Sidney Kimmel Foundation, created by founder of the Jones Group"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011010/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-02/uom-mg021012.php">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 10 February 2012, (press release), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/wire-news/90341685/55-million-gift-aids-search-for-alternative-energy.html">alternative link</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Missourian_SKINR-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Missourian_SKINR_108-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbiamissourian.com/stories/2012/02/10/sidney-kimmel-foundation-awards-55-million-mu-scientists/">"Sidney Kimmel Foundation awards $5.5 million to MU scientists"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305101814/http://www.columbiamissourian.com/stories/2012/02/10/sidney-kimmel-foundation-awards-55-million-mu-scientists/">Archived</a> 5 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Allison Pohle, Missourian, 10 February 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Christian Basi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://munews.missouri.edu/news-releases/2013/0308-hubler-named-director-of-nuclear-renaissance-institute-at-mu/">Hubler Named Director of Nuclear Renaissance Institute at MU</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023438/http://munews.missouri.edu/news-releases/2013/0308-hubler-named-director-of-nuclear-renaissance-institute-at-mu/">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (press release) Missouri University News Bureau, 8 March 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbiatribune.com/news/2012/oct/28/professor-revisits-fusion-work-from-two-decades/">Professor revisits fusion work from two decades ago</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102004909/http://www.columbiatribune.com/news/2012/oct/28/professor-revisits-fusion-work-from-two-decades/">Archived</a> 2 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Columbia Daily Tribune, 28 October 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Mark A. 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The cell is calibrated ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._16-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne1989para._16_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowne1989">Browne 1989</a>, para. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992">Wilson et al. 1992</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2005-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShanahan2005_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShanahan2005">Shanahan 2005</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShanahan2006-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShanahan2006_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShanahan2006">Shanahan 2006</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183,_209-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183,_209_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183,_209_179-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 180–183, 209 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehraMiltonSchwinger2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9SmZSN8F164CpgPA550_550]-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMehraMiltonSchwinger2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9SmZSN8F164CpgPA550_550]_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMehraMiltonSchwinger2000">Mehra, Milton & Schwinger 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9SmZSN8F164C&pg=PA550">550</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose1992197–198-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClose1992197–198_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, pp. 197–198 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183_182-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183_182-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002180–183_182-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 180–183 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuizenga1993208-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuizenga1993208_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 208 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBettencourtKaiserKaur2009-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBettencourtKaiserKaur2009_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBettencourtKaiserKaur2009">Bettencourt, Kaiser & Kaur 2009</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002183–187-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002183–187_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 183–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPark200012–13-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPark200012–13_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPark2000">Park 2000</a>, pp. 12–13 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 276, <a href="#CITEREFPark2000">Park 2000</a>, pp. 12–13, <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, p. 108 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iscmns.org/mission/faq/#ref1">"ISCMNS FAQ"</a>. iscmns.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111223114431/http://www.iscmns.org/faq.htm#ref1">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iscmns.org&rft.atitle=ISCMNS+FAQ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiscmns.org%2Fmission%2Ffaq%2F%23ref1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-taubes378-194"><a href="#cite_ref-taubes378_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, pp. 378, 427 anomalous effects in deuterated metals, which was the new, preferred, politically palatable nom de science for cold fusion [back in October 1989]." </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagelMelich2008" class="citation book cs1">Nagel, David J.; Melich, Michael E., eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120731065530/http://www.iscmns.org/iccf14/ProcICCF14b.pdf">Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science and the 14th International Conference on Cold Fusion (ICCF-14) – 10–15 August 2008 Washington DC</a> (PDF). Vol. 2. New Energy Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-578-06694-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-578-06694-3"><bdi>978-0-578-06694-3</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iscmns.org/iccf14/ProcICCF14b.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 July 2012. 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Broad">Broad, William J.</a> (13 April 1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/13/us/cold-fusion-patents-sought.html">"'Cold Fusion' Patents Sought"</a>, The New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170129235214/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/13/us/cold-fusion-patents-sought.html">archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Cold+Fusion%27+Patents+Sought&rft.date=1989-04-13&rft.au=Broad%2C+William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F04%2F13%2Fus%2Fcold-fusion-patents-sought.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewenstein199443-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewenstein199443_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewenstein1994">Lewenstein 1994</a>, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-incredible-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-incredible_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-incredible_202-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-incredible_202-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2107_01.htm">"2107.01 General Principles Governing Utility Rejections (R-5) – 2100 Patentability. II. Wholly inoperative inventions; "incredible" utility"</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Patent_and_Trademark_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Patent and Trademark Office">U.S. Patent and Trademark Office</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120827184025/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2107_01.htm">archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2107.01+General+Principles+Governing+Utility+Rejections+%28R-5%29+%E2%80%93+2100+Patentability.+II.+Wholly+inoperative+inventions%3B+%22incredible%22+utility&rft.pub=U.S.+Patent+and+Trademark+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fweb%2Foffices%2Fpac%2Fmpep%2Fdocuments%2F2100_2107_01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedure" title="Manual of Patent Examining Procedure">Manual of Patent Examining Procedure</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002193,_233-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002193,_233_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002193,_233_204-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 193, 233 </li> <li id="cite_note-voss-science-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-voss-science_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voss-science_205-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voss-science_205-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voss-science_205-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFVoss1999b">Voss 1999b</a>, in reference to US patents <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5,616,219">US 5,616,219</a> , <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5,628,886">US 5,628,886</a>  and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5,672,259">US 5,672,259</a>  </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_C._Rislove2006" class="citation journal cs2">Daniel C. Rislove (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925131935/http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/lawreview/issues/2006-4/rislove.pdf">"A Case Study of Inoperable Inventions: Why Is the USPTO Patenting Pseudoscience?"</a> (PDF), Wisconsin Law Review, 2006 (4): 1302–1304, footnote 269 in page 1307, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/lawreview/issues/2006-4/rislove.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 September 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wisconsin+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Case+Study+of+Inoperable+Inventions%3A+Why+Is+the+USPTO+Patenting+Pseudoscience%3F&rft.volume=2006&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1302-%3C%2Fspan%3E1304%2C+footnote+269+in+page+1307&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Daniel+C.+Rislove&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhosted.law.wisc.edu%2Flawreview%2Fissues%2F2006-4%2Frislove.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanderson2007-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Sanderson2007_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanderson2007">Sanderson 2007</a>, in reference to US patent <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US6,764,561">US 6,764,561</a>  </li> <li id="cite_note-Fox1994a-208"><a href="#cite_ref-Fox1994a_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFox1994">Fox 1994</a> in reference to Canon's <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=EP568118">EP 568118</a>  </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERadio_Times_Film_Unit2013181–182-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadio_Times_Film_Unit2013181–182_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRadio_Times_Film_Unit2013">Radio Times Film Unit 2013</a>, pp. 181–182 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon200291–95,_116–118_210-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 91–95, 116–118 </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Hill_and_Beyond-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hill_and_Beyond_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hill_and_Beyond_211-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGown2003" class="citation book cs1">McGown, Alistair (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hillbeyondchildr0000mcgo">The Hill and Beyond: Children's Television Drama – An Encyclopedia</a>. BFI. p. 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0851708781" title="Special:BookSources/0851708781"><bdi>0851708781</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hill+and+Beyond%3A+Children%27s+Television+Drama+%E2%80%93+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=BFI&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0851708781&rft.aulast=McGown&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhillbeyondchildr0000mcgo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nexushub.co.za/nexus/atomic-heart-everything-you-need-to-know.html">"Atomic Heart – Everything You Need to Know"</a>. Nexus Hub.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nexus+Hub&rft.atitle=Atomic+Heart+%E2%80%93+Everything+You+Need+to+Know&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnexushub.co.za%2Fnexus%2Fatomic-heart-everything-you-need-to-know.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations_of_quotations">Citations of quotations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Citations of quotations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-tandberg_not_known_by_FP-27"><a href="#cite_ref-tandberg_not_known_by_FP_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, p. 214 says the similarity was discovered on 13 April 1991, by a computer scientist and disseminated via the Internet. Another computer scientist translated an old article in the Swedish technical journal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ny_Teknika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ny Teknika (page does not exist)">Ny Teknika</a>. Taubes says: "Ny Teknika seemed to believe that Tandberg had missed on the discovery of the century, done in by an ignorant patent bureau. When Pons heard the story, he agreed." </li> <li id="cite_note-tandberg_not_known_by_FP2-28"><a href="#cite_ref-tandberg_not_known_by_FP2_28-0">^</a> Brigham Young University discovered Tandberg's 1927 patent application, and showed it as proof that Utah University didn't have priority for the discovery of cold fusion, cited in <a href="#CITEREFWilford1989">Wilford 1989</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-only-support-53"><a href="#cite_ref-only-support_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, pp. 225–226, 229–231 "[p. 225] Like those of MIT or Harvard or Caltech, and official Stanford University announcement is not something to be taken lightly. (...) [p. 230] With the news out of Stanford, the situation, as one Department of Energy official put it, 'had come to a head'. The department had had its laboratory administrators send emissaries to Washington immediately. (...) the secretary of energy, had made the pursuit of cold fusion the department's highest priority (...) The government laboratories had free reign [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] to pursue their cold fusion research, Ianniello said, to use whatever resources they needed, and DOE would cover the expenses. (...) [p. 231] While Huggins may have appeared to be the savior of cold fusion, his results also made him, and Stanford, a prime competitor [of MIT] for patents and rights.", <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, pp. 184, 250 "[p. 184] The only support for Fleischmann and Pons [at the 26 April US congress hearings] came from Robert Huggins (...) [p. 250] The British Embassy in Washington rushed news of the proceedings to the Cabinet Office and Department of Energy in London. (...) noting that Huggin's heat measurements lent some support but that he had not checked for radiation, and also emphasizing that none of the US government laboratories had yet managed to replicate the effect.", <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, p. 56 "Of the above speakers (in the US Congress hearings) only Huggins supported the Fleischmann-Pons claim of excess heat." </li> <li id="cite_note-spiking-81"><a href="#cite_ref-spiking_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaubes1993">Taubes 1993</a>, pp. 418–420 "While it is not possible for us to categorically exclude spiking as a possibility, it is our opinion, that possibility is much less probable than that of inadvertent contamination or other explained factors in the measurements.", <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 128–129 </li> <li id="cite_note-mixture-119"><a href="#cite_ref-mixture_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news131101595.html">"Physicist Claims First Real Demonstration of Cold Fusion"</a>, Physorg.com, 27 May 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120315124847/http://www.physorg.com/news131101595.html">archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physorg.com&rft.atitle=Physicist+Claims+First+Real+Demonstration+of+Cold+Fusion&rft.date=2008-05-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews131101595.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988">. The peer reviewed papers referenced at the end of the article are "The Establishment of Solid Nuclear Fusion Reactor" – Journal of High Temperature Society, Vol. 34 (2008), No. 2, pp.85–93 and "Atomic Structure Analysis of Pd Nano-Cluster in Nano-Composite Pd⁄ZrO2 Absorbing Deuterium" – Journal of High Temperature Society, Vol. 33 (2007), No. 3, pp.142–156 </li> <li id="cite_note-branching_and_gamma-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-branching_and_gamma_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-branching_and_gamma_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-branching_and_gamma_144-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-branching_and_gamma_144-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-branching_and_gamma_144-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFUS_DOE1989">US DOE 1989</a>, p. 29, <a href="#CITEREFSchaffer1999">Schaffer 1999</a>, pp. 1, 2, <a href="#CITEREFScaramuzzi2000">Scaramuzzi 2000</a>, p. 4, <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, pp. 265–268 "(...) the equality of the two channels is known to be preserved from high energy through 20 keV and down to about 5 keV. A reason that it is not as well known below this energy because the individual rates are so low. However, the rate is known at room temperature from muon catalysed fusion experiments. (...) theory can even accommodate the subtle variations in the ratio at these low temperatures [below 200 °C, where the first channel predominates due to 'molecular resonance excitation']", <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 6–7, 35–36, 75, 108–109, 112–114, 118–125, 130, 139, 173, 183, 217–218, 243–245 "[page 7] [the first two branches of the reaction] have been studied over a range of deuteron kinetic energies down to a few kiloelectron volts (keV). (...) [branching ratio] appear to be essentially constant at low energies. There is no reason to think that these branching ratios would be measurably altered for cold fusion. [page 108] The near equality of [the first two reaction branches] has been verified also for muon-catalyzed fusion. [in this case the ratio is 1.4 in favor of the first branch, due to 'the p-wave character of muon capture in muon-catalyzed fusion.']", <a href="#CITEREFGoodstein1994">Goodstein 1994</a> (explaining Pons and Fleischmann would both be dead if they had produced neutrons in proportion to their measurements of excess heat) ("It has been said . . . three 'miracles' are necessary [for D + D fusion to behave in a way consistent with the reported results of cold fusion experiments]") </li> <li id="cite_note-pressure-153"><a href="#cite_ref-pressure_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, pp. 257–258, <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 33, 47–48, 79, 99–100, 207, 216 "By comparing cathode charging of deuterium into palladium with gas charging for a D7Pd ratio of unity, one obtains an equivalent pressure of 1.5x104 atmospheres, a value more than 20 orders of magnitude (1020) less than the Fleischmann-Pons claimed pressure.", Huizenga also cites <a href="#CITEREFUS_DOE2004">US DOE 2004</a>, pp. 33–34 in chapter IV. Materials Characterization: D. 'Relevant' Materials Parameters: 2. Confinement Pressure, which has a similar explanation. </li> <li id="cite_note-consistent-155"><a href="#cite_ref-consistent_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuizenga1993">Huizenga 1993</a>, pp. 6–7, 35–36 "[page 7] This well established experimental result is consistent with the Bohr model, which predicts that the compound nucleus decays predominantly by particle emission [first two branches], as opposed to radioactive capture [third branch], whenever it is energetically possible." </li> <li id="cite_note-reger-165"><a href="#cite_ref-reger_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRegerGoodeBall2009">Reger, Goode & Ball 2009</a>, pp. 814–815 "After several years and multiple experiments by numerous investigators, most of the scientific community now considers the original claims unsupported by the evidence. [from image caption] Virtually every experiment that tried to replicate their claims failed. Electrochemical cold fusion is widely considered to be discredited." </li> <li id="cite_note-last_challenged-184"><a href="#cite_ref-last_challenged_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabingerWeininger2005">Labinger & Weininger 2005</a>, p. 1919 Fleischmann's paper was challenged in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrison1994" class="citation journal cs1">Morrison, R.O. Douglas (28 February 1994). "Comments on claims of excess enthalpy by Fleischmann and Pons using simple cells made to boil". Phys. Lett. A. 185 (5–6): 498–502. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhLA..185..498M">1994PhLA..185..498M</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.380.7178">10.1.1.380.7178</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0375-9601%2894%2991133-9">10.1016/0375-9601(94)91133-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Lett.+A&rft.atitle=Comments+on+claims+of+excess+enthalpy+by+Fleischmann+and+Pons+using+simple+cells+made+to+boil&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E498-%3C%2Fspan%3E502&rft.date=1994-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.380.7178%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0375-9601%2894%2991133-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994PhLA..185..498M&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=R.O.+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fie-185"><a href="#cite_ref-fie_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAckermann2006">Ackermann 2006</a> "(p. 11) Both the Polywater and Cold Nuclear Fusion journal literatures exhibit episodes of epidemic growth and decline." </li> <li id="cite_note-pathological-186"><a href="#cite_ref-pathological_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClose1992">Close 1992</a>, pp. 254–255, 329 "[paraphrasing Morrison] The usual cycle in such cases, he notes, is that interest suddenly erupts (...) The phenomenon then separates the scientists in two camps, believers and skeptics. Interest dies as only a small band of believers is able to 'produce the phenomenon' (...) even in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary, the original practitioners may continue to believe in it for the rest of the careers.", <a href="#CITEREFBall2001">Ball 2001</a>, p. 308, <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon 2002</a>, pp. 104, <a href="#CITEREFBettencourtKaiserKaur2009">Bettencourt, Kaiser & Kaur 2009</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAckermann2006" class="citation journal cs2">Ackermann, Eric (February 2006), "Indicators of failed information epidemics in the scientific journal literature: A publication analysis of Polywater and Cold Nuclear Fusion", Scientometrics, 66 (3): 451–466, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11192-006-0033-0">10.1007/s11192-006-0033-0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29197941">29197941</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientometrics&rft.atitle=Indicators+of+failed+information+epidemics+in+the+scientific+journal+literature%3A+A+publication+analysis+of+Polywater+and+Cold+Nuclear+Fusion&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E451-%3C%2Fspan%3E466&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11192-006-0033-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29197941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ackermann&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2009/03/dayintech_0323">"March 23, 1989: Cold Fusion Gets Cold Shoulder"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=March+23%2C+1989%3A+Cold+Fusion+Gets+Cold+Shoulder&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.aulast=Alfred&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fscience%2Fdiscoveries%2Fnews%2F2009%2F03%2Fdayintech_0323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2001" class="citation book cs2">Ball, Phillip (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifesmatrixbiogr0000ball">Life's matrix: a biography of water</a> (illustrated, reprinted ed.), University of California Press, <a 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possible cold fusion reactions"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston_Chronicle" title="Houston Chronicle">Houston Chronicle</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Houston+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Navy+scientist+announces+possible+cold+fusion+reactions&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chron.com%2Fdisp%2Fstory.mpl%2Ffront%2F6333164.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBettencourtKaiserKaur2009" class="citation journal cs2">Bettencourt, Luís M.A.; Kaiser, David I.; Kaur, Jasleen (July 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/dikaiser/www/BKK.Topological.pdf">"Scientific discovery and topological transitions in collaboration networks"</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Informetrics" title="Journal of 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Informetrics&rft.atitle=Scientific+discovery+and+topological+transitions+in+collaboration+networks&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E210-%3C%2Fspan%3E221&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F50230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1914074%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.570.8621%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joi.2009.03.001&rft.aulast=Bettencourt&rft.aufirst=Lu%C3%ADs+M.A.&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+David+I.&rft.au=Kaur%2C+Jasleen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fdikaiser%2Fwww%2FBKK.Topological.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/50230">MIT Open Access Articles</a>.</li> <li><link 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enea.it/en/publications/volume-pdf/Cold_Fusion_Italy.pdf">Cold Fusion: The history of research in Italy</a> (PDF). Translated by Costigliola, Chiara Maria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313124607/http://www.enea.it/en/publications/volume-pdf/Cold_Fusion_Italy.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+Fusion%3A+The+history+of+research+in+Italy&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enea.it%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fvolume-pdf%2FCold_Fusion_Italy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"> In the foreword by the president of ENEA the belief is expressed that the cold fusion phenomenon is proved.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehraMiltonSchwinger2000" class="citation book cs2">Mehra, Jagdish; Milton, K. 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New evidence for existence of controversial energy source"</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">ACS</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=222&content_id=WPCP_012362&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=5885551e-7f60-4185-a6f1-c4bfe8d5e26d">the original</a> on 2 October 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Cold+fusion%27+rebirth%3F+New+evidence+for+existence+of+controversial+energy+source&rft.pub=ACS&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Sampson&rft.aufirst=Mark+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.acs.org%2Fportal%2Facs%2Fcorg%2Fcontent%3F_nfpb%3Dtrue%26_pageLabel%3DPP_ARTICLEMAIN%26node_id%3D222%26content_id%3DWPCP_012362%26use_sec%3Dtrue%26sec_url_var%3Dregion1%26__uuid%3D5885551e-7f60-4185-a6f1-c4bfe8d5e26d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson2007" class="citation journal cs2">Sanderson, Katharine (29 March 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090827033736/http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=3234">"Cold fusion is back at the American Chemical Society"</a>, Nature News, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=3234">the original</a> on 27 August 2009, retrieved 18 July 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+News&rft.atitle=Cold+fusion+is+back+at+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.date=2007-03-29&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft.aulast=Sanderson&rft.aufirst=Katharine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bioedonline.org%2Fnews%2Fnews.cfm%3Fart%3D3234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScanlonHill1999" class="citation book cs1">Scanlon, Eileen; Hill, Roger (1999). Communicating science: contexts and channels. 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(2000), "Ten years of cold fusion: an eye-witness account", <a href="/wiki/Accountability_in_Research" title="Accountability in Research">Accountability in Research</a>, 8 (1&2): 77–101, <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.380.8109">10.1.1.380.8109</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08989620008573967">10.1080/08989620008573967</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0898-9621">0898-9621</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17959730">17959730</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6158268">6158268</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Accountability+in+Research&rft.atitle=Ten+years+of+cold+fusion%3A+an+eye-witness+account&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1%262&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6158268%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08989620008573967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17959730&rft.issn=0898-9621&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.380.8109%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Scaramuzzi&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Schaffer, Michael J. 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(2003), <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> US (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RLZin-f9eooC&q=announcement&pg=PA86">Responsible Conduct of Research</a> (2nd illustrated ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514846-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514846-6"><bdi>978-0-19-514846-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Responsible+Conduct+of+Research&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd+illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514846-6&rft.aulast=Shamoo&rft.aufirst=Adil+E.&rft.au=Resnik%2C+David+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRLZin-f9eooC%26q%3Dannouncement%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShanahan2002" class="citation journal cs2">Shanahan, Kirk L. 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(1989), "Upper bounds on 'cold fusion' in electrolytic cells", Nature, 342 (6248): 375–384, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.342..375W">1989Natur.342..375W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F342375a0">10.1038/342375a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4347251">4347251</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Upper+bounds+on+%27cold+fusion%27+in+electrolytic+cells&rft.volume=342&rft.issue=6248&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E384&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4347251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F342375a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.342..375W&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=D.E.&rft.au=Findlay%2C+D.J.S.&rft.au=Craston%2C+D.H.&rft.au=Sen%C3%A9%2C+M.R.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+M.&rft.au=Croft%2C+S.&rft.au=Hooton%2C+B.W.&rft.au=Jones%2C+C.P.&rft.au=Kucernak%2C+A.R.J.&rft.au=Mason%2C+J.A.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+R.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilner1989" class="citation journal cs2">Wilner, Bertil (May 1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F339180a0">"No new fusion under the Sun"</a>, Nature, 339 (6221): 180, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.339..180W">1989Natur.339..180W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F339180a0">10.1038/339180a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26487447">26487447</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=No+new+fusion+under+the+Sun&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=6221&rft.pages=180&rft.date=1989-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26487447%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F339180a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.339..180W&rft.aulast=Wilner&rft.aufirst=Bertil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F339180a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992" class="citation journal cs2">Wilson, R.H.; Bray, J.W.; Kosky, P.G.; Vakil, H.B.; Will, F.G. (1992), "Analysis of experiments on the calorimetry of LiOD-D2O electrochemical cells", Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 332 (1–2): 1–31, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0728%2892%2980338-5">10.1016/0022-0728(92)80338-5</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Electroanalytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+experiments+on+the+calorimetry+of+LiOD-D%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3EO+electrochemical+cells&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-0728%2892%2980338-5&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft.au=Bray%2C+J.W.&rft.au=Kosky%2C+P.G.&rft.au=Vakil%2C+H.B.&rft.au=Will%2C+F.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+fusion" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_fusion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130406141010/http://www.iscmns.org/">International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science</a> (iscmns.org), organizes the ICCF conferences and publishes the Journal of Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iscmns.org/library.htm">library.htm</a> of published papers and proceedings.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lenr-forum.com/forum/index.php/Attachment/386-IEEE-brief-DeChiaro-9-2015-pdf/">Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) Phenomena and Potential Applications</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151007025026/http://www.lenr-forum.com/forum/index.php/Attachment/386-IEEE-brief-DeChiaro-9-2015-pdf/">Archived</a> 7 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: <a href="/wiki/Naval_Surface_Warfare_Center" title="Naval Surface Warfare Center">Naval Surface Warfare Center</a> report NSWCDD-PN-15-0040 by Louis F. 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</a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 36 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-hgkmg","wgBackendResponseTime":140,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.085","walltime":"2.229","ppvisitednodes":{"value":24339,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":375311,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":22678,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":523086,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1972.897 1 -total"," 31.88% 628.894 3 Template:Reflist"," 22.97% 453.195 184 Template:Sfn"," 20.93% 412.973 59 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.20% 161.744 28 Template:Cite_book"," 6.29% 124.153 154 Template:Harvnb"," 4.54% 89.592 23 Template:Cite_web"," 4.30% 84.775 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.23% 83.369 17 Template:Cite_news"," 3.80% 75.005 1 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[\"CITEREFClose1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsPinch1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCreaseSamios1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_C._Rislove2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerry2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeder2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeder2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleischmannPons1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleischmannPons1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleischmannPonsAndersonLi1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleischmannPonsHawkinsHoffman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFootlick1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaiRugariFranceLund1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodstein1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHagelstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHagelsteinMcKubreNagelChubb2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHambling2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuizenga1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayaraman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesHansenJonesShelton1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephsonNagelSmithBiberian2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKean2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitamuraNohmiSasakiTaniike2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoonin_S.E.M_Nauenberg1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKowalski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKozima2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoziol2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruglinski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabingerWeininger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangmuirHall1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurence1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewenstein1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisBarnesHebenKumar1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallove1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Anderson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartellucciRosatiScaramuzziViolante2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGown2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehraMiltonSchwinger2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMengoliBernardiniManduchiZannoni1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrison1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrison1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMosier-BossSzpakGordonForsley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMullins2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagelMelich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrianiNelsonLeeBroadhurst1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOuellette2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanethPeters1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPark2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetit2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlatt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollack1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollack1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPool1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadio_Times_Film_Unit2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegerGoodeBall2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogersSandquist1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRousseau1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaeta1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalamonWrennBergesonCrawford1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScanlonHill1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScaramuzzi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaffer1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeife2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShamooResnik2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanahan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanahan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanahan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShkediMcDonaldBreenMaguire1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivisan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzpakMosier-BossMilesFleischmann2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTate1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubes1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubes1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUS_DOE1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUS_DOE2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Noorden2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoss1999a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoss1999b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberger2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilford1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsFindlayCrastonSené1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilner1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonBrayKoskyVakil1992\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 59,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Cold Fusion\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 154,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Patent\"] = 5,\n 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