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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predynastic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Predynastic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predynastic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Dynastic_Period_(c._3150–2686_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Dynastic_Period_(c._3150–2686_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early Dynastic Period (c.<span> 3150–2686</span> BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Dynastic_Period_(c._3150–2686_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Kingdom_(2686–2181_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Kingdom_(2686–2181_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Kingdom_(2686–2181_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Intermediate_Period_(2181–2055_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Intermediate_Period_(2181–2055_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Intermediate_Period_(2181–2055_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Kingdom_(2134–1690_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Kingdom_(2134–1690_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Kingdom_(2134–1690_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Intermediate_Period_(1674–1549_BC)_and_the_Hyksos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Intermediate_Period_(1674–1549_BC)_and_the_Hyksos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Intermediate_Period_(1674–1549_BC)_and_the_Hyksos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Kingdom_(1549–1069_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Kingdom_(1549–1069_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Kingdom_(1549–1069_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Intermediate_Period_(1069–653_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Intermediate_Period_(1069–653_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Intermediate_Period_(1069–653_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Period_(653–332_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Period_(653–332_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Late Period (653–332 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Period_(653–332_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemaic_period_(332–30_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemaic_period_(332–30_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemaic_period_(332–30_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_period_(30_BC_–_AD_641)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_period_(30_BC_–_AD_641)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Roman period (30 BC – AD 641)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_period_(30_BC_–_AD_641)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Government and economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government and economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administration_and_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration_and_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Administration and commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration_and_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Social status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Legal system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Natural resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Historical development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sounds_and_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sounds_and_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sounds and grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sounds_and_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Daily_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daily_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Daily life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daily_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Cuisine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Religious beliefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burial_customs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burial_customs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Burial customs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burial_customs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology,_medicine_and_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology,_medicine_and_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Technology, medicine and mathematics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology,_medicine_and_mathematics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology, medicine and mathematics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology,_medicine_and_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Faience_and_glass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faience_and_glass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Faience and glass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faience_and_glass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maritime_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritime_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Maritime technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritime_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Population</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Population-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Population subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archaeogenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeogenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Archaeogenetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeogenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Egypt</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 167 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-167" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">167 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antieke_Egipte" title="Antieke Egipte – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antieke Egipte" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_%C3%84gypten" title="Altes Ägypten – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altes Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B3%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8C%8D%E1%89%A5%E1%8D%85" title="ጥንታዊ ግብፅ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጥንታዊ ግብፅ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="مصر القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصر القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Echipto" title="Antigo Echipto – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antigo Echipto" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="প্ৰাচীন ইজিপ্ট – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰাচীন ইজিপ্ট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exiptu_Antiguu" title="Exiptu Antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Exiptu Antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eh%C3%ADto_Ymaguare" title="Ehíto Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ehíto Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D3%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="НекӀсияб Египет – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="НекӀсияб Египет" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Misir" title="Qədim Misir – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Misir" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قدیم میصر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم میصر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="মিশরীয় সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিশরীয় সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_Ai-ki%CC%8Dp" title="Kó͘-tāi Ai-ki̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi Ai-ki̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Боронғо Мысыр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старажытны Егіпет – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытны Егіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%AD%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старажытны Эгіпет – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытны Эгіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Древен Египет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древен Египет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oids_Egyptn" title="Oids Egyptn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oids Egyptn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipat" title="Stari Egipat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Stari Egipat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henegipt" title="Henegipt – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henegipt" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эртын Египет – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эртын Египет" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antic_Egipte" title="Antic Egipte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antic Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Авалхи Египет – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи Египет" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaang_Ehipto" title="Karaang Ehipto – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karaang Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%BD_Egypt" title="Starověký Egypt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověký Egypt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Aifft" title="Yr Hen Aifft – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Hen Aifft" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_gamle_Egypten" title="Det gamle Egypten – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det gamle Egypten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="مصر لقديمة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="مصر لقديمة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_%C3%84gypten" title="Altes Ägypten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altes Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Egiptus" title="Vana-Egiptus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Egiptus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%91%CE%AF%CE%B3%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Αρχαία Αίγυπτος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Αίγυπτος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eg%C3%A9tt_ant%C3%AEg" title="Egétt antîg – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Egétt antîg" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiguo_Egipto" title="Antiguo Egipto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antiguo Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikva_Egiptio" title="Antikva Egiptio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antikva Egiptio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiguu_Egitu" title="Antiguu Egitu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Antiguu Egitu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Egipto" title="Antzinako Egipto – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Egipto" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مصر باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مصر باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_Egypt" title="Purana Egypt – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Purana Egypt" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89gypte_antique" title="Égypte antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Égypte antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alde_Egypte" title="Alde Egypte – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alde Egypte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%AEc_Egjit" title="Antîc Egjit – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Antîc Egjit" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-%C3%89igipt" title="An tSean-Éigipt – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Éigipt" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_%C3%87henn_Egypt" title="Yn Çhenn Egypt – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Çhenn Egypt" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Seann_%C3%88ipheit" title="An t-Seann Èipheit – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Seann Èipheit" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Exipto" title="Antigo Exipto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Antigo Exipto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Шира Мисаре – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Шира Мисаре" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9A%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4" title="પ્રાચીન ઇજિપ્ત – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પ્રાચીન ઇજિપ્ત" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%91%ED%8A%B8" title="고대 이집트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 이집트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Հին Եգիպտոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Եգիպտոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drevni_Egipat" title="Drevni Egipat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Drevni Egipat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijip%C3%B9t%C3%B9_%E1%BB%8Ckp%E1%BB%A5" title="Ijipùtù Ọkpụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ijipùtù Ọkpụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taga-ugma_nga_Ehipto" title="Taga-ugma nga Ehipto – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Taga-ugma nga Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Kuno" title="Mesir Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesir Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypto_antique" title="Egypto antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Egypto antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Рагон Мысыр – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Рагон Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptaland_hi%C3%B0_forna" title="Egyptaland hið forna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Egyptaland hið forna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antico_Egitto" title="Antico Egitto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antico Egitto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="מצרים העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מצרים העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Kuna" title="Mesir Kuna – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mesir Kuna" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_Egipiti" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Egipiti – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Egipiti" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಪ್ರಾಚೀನ ಈಜಿಪ್ಟ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ರಾಚೀನ ಈಜಿಪ್ಟ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94" title="ძველი ეგვიპტე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი ეგვიპტე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Ежелгі Мысыр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Мысыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ejyp" title="Hen Ejyp – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hen Ejyp" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misri_ya_Kale" title="Misri ya Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Misri ya Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Важ Египет – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ Египет" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89jip_antik" title="Éjip antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Éjip antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misira_kevnare" title="Misira kevnare – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Misira kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egit_Antich" title="Egit Antich – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Egit Antich" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus_antiqua" title="Aegyptus antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aegyptus antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_%C4%92%C4%A3ipte" title="Senā Ēģipte – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Ēģipte" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Дегь Мисри – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Дегь Мисри" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Egiptas" title="Senovės Egiptas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Egiptas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aad_Egypte" title="Aad Egypte – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aad Egypte" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipte_antica" title="Egipte antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaine_Jegiptu" title="Muinaine Jegiptu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Muinaine Jegiptu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_Egyiptom" title="Ókori Egyiptom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori Egyiptom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Стар Египет – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стар Египет" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejipta_tamin%27_ny_Andro_Taloha" title="Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%88%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഈജിപ്ഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C4%A1ittu_tal-qedem" title="Eġittu tal-qedem – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Eġittu tal-qedem" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="प्राचीन इजिप्त संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राचीन इजिप्त संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94" title="ჯვეში ეგვიპტე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში ეგვიპტე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="مصر القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مصر القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesir_Purba" title="Mesir Purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesir Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%96%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9E" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯏꯖꯤꯞ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯏꯖꯤꯞ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masia_Kuno" title="Masia Kuno – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Masia Kuno" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_%C4%82i-g%C4%ADk" title="Gū Ăi-gĭk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū Ăi-gĭk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Eigito" title="Antigo Eigito – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Antigo Eigito" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эртний Египет – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эртний Египет" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ရှေးဟောင်းအီဂျစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှေးဟောင်းအီဂျစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Egypte" title="Oude Egypte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olle_Egypte" title="Olle Egypte – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Olle Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राचीन मिस्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्राचीन मिस्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B8%E3%83%97%E3%83%88" title="古代エジプト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代エジプト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antico_Naggitto" title="Antico Naggitto – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Antico Naggitto" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Шира Мисар – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Шира Мисар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ual_Egypten" title="Ual Egypten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ual Egypten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidens_Egypt" title="Oldtidens Egypt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oldtidens Egypt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt_i_oldtida" title="Egypt i oldtida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Egypt i oldtida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipte_antica" title="Egipte antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Акрет Египет – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Акрет Египет" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9A%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B6%E0%AC%B0" title="ପ୍ରାଚୀନ ମିଶର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପ୍ରାଚୀନ ମିଶର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Misr" title="Qadimgi Misr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Misr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0" title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਮਿਸਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਾਚੀਨ ਮਿਸਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DD%A8%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="پراݨا مصر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پراݨا مصر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%85%E1%80%81%E1%80%AB" title="အီဂျစ်ပွိုင်းလဲင်ႏစခါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အီဂျစ်ပွိုင်းလဲင်ႏစခါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="لرغونی مصر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونی مصر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Iijip" title="Ienshent Iijip – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Iijip" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Важ Египет – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Важ Египет" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Перем коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E" title="ប្រទេសអេសុីបបុរាណ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រទេសអេសុីបបុរាណ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oolt_%C3%84gypten" title="Oolt Ägypten – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Oolt Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytny_Egipt" title="Starożytny Egipt – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytny Egipt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Egito" title="Antigo Egito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antigo Egito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptul_Antic" title="Egiptul Antic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Egiptul Antic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawk%27a_Ihiptu" title="Mawk'a Ihiptu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mawk'a Ihiptu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%95%D2%91%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старовікый Еґіпет – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовікый Еґіпет" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Древний Египет – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний Египет" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%82" title="Былыргы Эгиипэт – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Былыргы Эгиипэт" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Malo_o_Aikupito" title="Le Malo o Aikupito – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Le Malo o Aikupito" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮᱱ ᱢᱤᱥᱚᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱨᱮᱱ ᱢᱤᱥᱚᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egitu_Antigu" title="Egitu Antigu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Egitu Antigu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egjipti_i_lasht%C3%AB" title="Egjipti i lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Egjipti i lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggittu_anticu" title="Eggittu anticu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Eggittu anticu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාතන මිසරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාතන මිසරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Egypt" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قديم مصر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قديم مصر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%BD_Egypt" title="Staroveký Egypt – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveký Egypt" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipt" title="Stari Egipt – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stari Egipt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="میسری کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میسری کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Стари Египат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стари Египат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Egipat" title="Stari Egipat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stari Egipat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinainen_Egypti" title="Muinainen Egypti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinainen Egypti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forntida_Egypten" title="Forntida Egypten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Forntida Egypten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_Ehipto" title="Sinaunang Ehipto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="பண்டைய எகிப்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய எகிப்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Борынгы Мисыр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Мисыр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A8_%E0%B0%88%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81" title="పురాతన ఈజిప్టు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పురాతన ఈజిప్టు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="อียิปต์โบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อียิปต์โบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B8_%D2%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Мисри Қадим – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мисри Қадим" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_M%C4%B1s%C4%B1r" title="Antik Mısır – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Mısır" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadymy_M%C3%BCs%C3%BCr" title="Gadymy Müsür – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Gadymy Müsür" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%CC%B1sa%CC%B1t_gbangbang" title="Ma̱sa̱t gbangbang – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Ma̱sa̱t gbangbang" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Стародавній Єгипет – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавній Єгипет" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قدیم مصر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم مصر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%95%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%85%D9%82%D9%89_%D9%85%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89%D8%B1" title="قەدىمقى مىسىر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قەدىمقى مىسىر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guj_Aigib" title="Guj Aigib – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Guj Aigib" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigo_Ezito" title="Antigo Ezito – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Antigo Ezito" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amuine_Egipt" title="Amuine Egipt – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Amuine Egipt" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_C%E1%BA%ADp_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Ai Cập cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ai Cập cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Eg%C3%BCpt%C3%BCs" title="Vana-Egüptüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vana-Egüptüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadton_Ehipto" title="Hadton Ehipto – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hadton Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98_%D7%A2%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%9F" title="אוראלט עגיפטן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלט עגיפטן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%81g%C3%ADpt%C3%AC_Ay%C3%A9ij%E1%BB%8D%CC%81un" title="Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%B1s%C4%B1ro_Antik" title="Mısıro Antik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mısıro Antik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuob%C4%97s_Eg%C4%97pts" title="Senuobės Egėpts – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Senuobės Egėpts" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古埃及" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijipiti_Ukot_Ikaan%CC%84" title="Ijipiti Ukot Ikaan̄ – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Ijipiti Ukot Ikaan̄" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%A6%C9%99dim%C9%99_Misir" title="Ǧədimə Misir – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Ǧədimə Misir" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%9A%E2%B5%95%E2%B4%B0_%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%87%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵎⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵎⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11768#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the magazine, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_(magazine)" title="Ancient Egypt (magazine)">Ancient Egypt (magazine)</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the TV series, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians_(TV_series)" title="Ancient Egyptians (TV series)">Ancient Egyptians (TV series)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Ancient Egypt</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3150 BC</span>–332/30 BC<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)"><img alt="Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/150px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/225px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/300px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1577" data-file-height="3219" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3150</span> BC to 30 BC)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>see <a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">List of historical capitals of Egypt</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3150 BC</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3150 BC</span> – 2686 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2686 BC – 2181 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2134 BC – 1690 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">1549 BC – 1078/77 BC<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">664 BC – 332 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">332 BC – 30 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">332/30 BC<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Egypt</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ancient Egypt</b> was a civilization of ancient <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a>. It was concentrated along the lower reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a>, situated within the contemporary territory of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">prehistoric Egypt</a> and coalesced around 3100<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">BC</a> (according to <a href="/wiki/Conventional_Egyptian_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional Egyptian chronology">conventional Egyptian chronology</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChronology2000_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChronology2000-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the political unification of <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Upper and Lower Egypt</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> or king <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> (often identified with <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodsonHilton200446_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodsonHilton200446-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">history of ancient Egypt</a> unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by periods of relative instability known as "Intermediate Periods". The various kingdoms fall into one of three categories: the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age">Middle Bronze Age</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a>. </p><p>Ancient Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, ruling much of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and a sizable portion of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. After this period, it entered an era of slow decline. During the course of its history, ancient Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Achaemenid Egypt">Achaemenid Persians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonians</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. The Greek <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a>, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled until 30<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, when, under <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, it fell to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and became <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">a Roman province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton1994217_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton1994217-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egypt remained under Roman control until 642 AD, when it was <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">conquered</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. </p><p>The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Nile River valley for agriculture</a>. The predictable <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">flooding</a> and controlled <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social development</a> and culture. With resources to spare, the <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administration</a> sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">writing system</a>, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">a military</a> intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite <a href="/wiki/Scribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribes">scribes</a>, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">religious beliefs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames20058Manuelian19986–7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames20058Manuelian19986–7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the <a href="/wiki/Stone_quarries_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Stone quarries of ancient Egypt">quarrying</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_temple" title="Egyptian temple">temples</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisks</a>; a system of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mathematics">mathematics</a>, a practical and effective <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">system of medicine</a>, irrigation systems, and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">Egyptian faience</a> and glass technology, new forms of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">literature</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty" title="Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty">earliest known peace treaty</a>, made with the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton1994153_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton1994153-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its <a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">architecture</a> were widely copied, and its antiquities were carried off to be studied, admired or coveted in the far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_in_the_Western_imagination" title="Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination">inspired the imaginations</a> of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">scientific investigation</a> of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200584_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200584-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History of ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200317,_67–69_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200317,_67–69-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">agricultural economy</a> and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200317_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200317-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">Nomadic</a> <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">modern human</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> began living in the Nile valley through the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Middle Pleistocene</a> some 120,000 years ago. By the late <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period, the arid climate of Northern Africa had become increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region. </p> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_remua5kx8cnr4cn4a9uvlogwifr3o3y"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" coords="790,94,901,118" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt" alt="Late Period of ancient Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" coords="695,81,900,105" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt" alt="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" coords="577,67,689,91" title="New Kingdom of Egypt" alt="New Kingdom of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" coords="442,54,654,78" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt" alt="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" coords="392,40,524,64" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt" alt="Middle Kingdom of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" coords="302,27,507,51" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt" alt="First Intermediate Period of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" coords="262,14,373,38" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt" alt="Old Kingdom of Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" coords="118,0,296,24" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)" alt="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_remua5kx8cnr4cn4a9uvlogwifr3o3y" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/remua5kx8cnr4cn4a9uvlogwifr3o3y.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predynastic_period">Predynastic period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/220px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/330px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/440px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>A typical <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> jar decorated with gazelles (Predynastic Period)</figcaption></figure> <p>In Predynastic and <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic</a> times, the <a href="/wiki/African_humid_period" title="African humid period">Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today</a>. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> and traversed by herds of grazing <a href="/wiki/Ungulates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ungulates">ungulates</a>. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of <a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">waterfowl</a>. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIkram19925_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIkram19925-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By about <a href="/wiki/6th_millennium_BC" title="6th millennium BC">5500 BC</a>, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>, and identifiable by their <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">pottery</a> and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the <a href="/wiki/Badarian_culture" title="Badarian culture">Badarian culture</a>, which probably originated in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert (Egypt)">Western Desert</a>; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, and its use of copper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes1964220_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1964220-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Badari was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada culture</a>: the Naqada I (<a href="/wiki/Amratian_culture" title="Amratian culture">Amratian</a>), the Naqada II (<a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh</a>), and Naqada III (<a href="/wiki/Semainean" class="mw-redirect" title="Semainean">Semainean</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp198914_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp198914-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> imported <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, used to shape blades and other objects from <a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flakes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstonHarrellShaw200046–47_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstonHarrellShaw200046–47-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAston199423–26_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAston199423–26-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutual trade with the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> was established during Naqada II (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3600–3350 BC</span>); this period was also the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">trade with Mesopotamia</a>, which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtaç2014424–425_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtaç2014424–425-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Establishing a power center at <a href="/wiki/Nekhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nekhen">Nekhen</a> (in Greek, Hierakonpolis), and later at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200361_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200361-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also traded with <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> to the south, the oases of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">western desert</a> to the west, and the cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200361Ataç2014424–425_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200361Ataç2014424–425-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="FA and no dates? Needs correcting ASAP (April 2020)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality <a href="/wiki/Hand_drill_(hieroglyph)" title="Hand drill (hieroglyph)">decorative stone vases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_palette" title="Cosmetic palette">cosmetic palettes</a>, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">ceramic glaze</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">faience</a>, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonPeltenburg2000178–179_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonPeltenburg2000178–179-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaience_in_different_Periods2000_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaience_in_different_Periods2000-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> for writing the ancient Egyptian language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_100_Hierakompolis,_Naqada_II_culture_(c._3500-3200_BCE).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg/660px-Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg/990px-Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg/1320px-Tomb_100_Hierakompolis%2C_Naqada_II_culture_%28c._3500-3200_BCE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7869" data-file-height="2229" /></a><figcaption>Early tomb painting from <a href="/wiki/Nekhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nekhen">Nekhen</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500 BC</span>, Naqada, possibly Gerzeh culture</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Dynastic_Period_(c._3150–2686_BC)"><span id="Early_Dynastic_Period_.28c._3150.E2.80.932686_BC.29"></span>Early Dynastic Period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3150–2686</span> BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)</a></div> <p>The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a> civilization of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and of ancient <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>. The third-century<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC Egyptian priest <a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a> grouped the long line of kings from <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton19946_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton19946-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/220px-Narmer_Palette.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/330px-Narmer_Palette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Narmer_Palette.jpg/440px-Narmer_Palette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2566" data-file-height="1808" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a> depicts the unification of the Two Lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200832_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200832-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a>, who is depicted wearing <a href="/wiki/Regalia_of_the_Pharaoh" title="Regalia of the Pharaoh">royal regalia</a> on the ceremonial <i>Narmer Palette,</i> in a symbolic act of unification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199412–13_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199412–13-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, from which he could control the <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</a> tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200370_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200370-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Kingdom_(2686–2181_BC)"><span id="Old_Kingdom_.282686.E2.80.932181_BC.29"></span>Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/220px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/330px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/440px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">pyramids of Giza</a> are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.</figcaption></figure> <p>Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>, fueled by the increased <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> and resulting population growth, made possible by a well-developed central administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200540_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200540-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the <a href="/wiki/Giza_Necropolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giza Necropolis">Giza pyramids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx</a>, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a>, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">crop yield</a>, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">justice system</a> to maintain peace and order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003102_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003102-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khafre_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/220px-Khafre_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/330px-Khafre_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khafre_statue.jpg/440px-Khafre_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> enthroned</figcaption></figure> <p>With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_temple" title="Egyptian temple">temples</a>, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003116–117_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003116–117-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarchs</a> began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with <a href="/wiki/4.2_kiloyear_event" class="mw-redirect" title="4.2 kiloyear event">severe droughts</a> between 2200 and 2150<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHassan2011_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199469_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199469-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Intermediate_Period_(2181–2055_BC)"><span id="First_Intermediate_Period_.282181.E2.80.932055_BC.29"></span>First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period of Egypt</a></div> <p>After Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central government</a> collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003120_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003120-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a> and originality of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and <a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a>. By 2160<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, rulers in <a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Herakleopolis</a> controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef family</a>, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC the northern Theban forces under <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II</a> finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199429_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199429-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Kingdom_(2134–1690_BC)"><span id="Middle_Kingdom_.282134.E2.80.931690_BC.29"></span>Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/220px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/330px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/440px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, most probably <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> or <a href="/wiki/Senwosret_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Senwosret II">Senwosret II</a>. It functioned as a divine guardian for the <a href="/wiki/Imiut_fetish" title="Imiut fetish">imiut</a>; the divine kilt, suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg/220px-Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg/330px-Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg/440px-Stone_pyramidion_of_Middle_Kingdom_pharaoh_Amenemhat_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pyramidion_of_Amenemhat_III" title="Pyramidion of Amenemhat III">Pyramidion of Amenemhat III</a>, capstone of the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Amenemhat_III_(Dahshur)" title="Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur)">Black Pyramid</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg/220px-Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg/330px-Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg/440px-Coffin_of_Nakhtkhnum_MET_DP354909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3927" data-file-height="2897" /></a><figcaption>Coffin of Khnumnakht in 12th dynasty style, with palace facade, columns of inscriptions, and two Wedjat eyes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrajetzki200741–54_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrajetzki200741–54-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003148_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003148-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mentuhotep II and his <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty</a> successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a>, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a> around 1985<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of <a href="/wiki/Itjtawy" title="Itjtawy">Itjtawy</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Faiyum_Oasis" title="Faiyum Oasis">Faiyum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199479_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199479-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a> and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "<a href="/wiki/Walls_of_the_Ruler" title="Walls of the Ruler">Walls of the Ruler</a>", to defend against foreign attack.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003158_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003158-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003179–182_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003179–182-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200890_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200890-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a>, allowed <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a> settlers from the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> into the Delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Nile floods</a> later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to assume greater control of the Delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003188_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003188-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Intermediate_Period_(1674–1549_BC)_and_the_Hyksos"><span id="Second_Intermediate_Period_.281674.E2.80.931549_BC.29_and_the_Hyksos"></span>Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period of Egypt</a></div> <p>Around 1785<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asian</a> people called the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at <a href="/wiki/Avaris" title="Avaris">Avaris</a>, forcing the former central government to retreat to <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">composite bow</a> and the horse-drawn <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003189_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003189-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubian</a> allies, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kushites</a>, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kings <a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Seqenenre Tao II">Seqenenre Tao II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a> were ultimately able to defeat the <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a> to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose's successor, <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a>, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty and, in the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the kings, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003224_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003224-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Kingdom_(1549–1069_BC)"><span id="New_Kingdom_.281549.E2.80.931069_BC.29"></span>New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/220px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/330px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/440px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun%27s_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutankhamun's mask">golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The New Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> Empire, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>. Military campaigns waged under <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Tuthmosis I</a> and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Tuthmosis III</a> extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. </p><p>Between their reigns, <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Punt</a> and the Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton1994104–107_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton1994104–107-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Tuthmosis III died in 1425<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, Egypt had an empire extending from <a href="/wiki/Niya_(kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (kingdom)">Niya</a> in north west <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Fourth Cataract</a> of the Nile in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200548_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200548-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>, whose growing cult was based in <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBleiberg200549–50_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBleiberg200549–50-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1350<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a>, he touted the previously obscure <a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">sun deity</a> <a href="/wiki/Aten" title="Aten">Aten</a> as the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">supreme deity</a>, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAldred1988259_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAldred1988259-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was devoted to his new <a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amarna_art" title="Amarna art">artistic style</a>. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a>, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna Period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'ConnorCline2001273_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'ConnorCline2001273-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/220px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/330px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/440px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption>Four colossal statues of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> flank the entrance of his temple <a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Abu Simbel</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1279<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty" title="Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty">peace treaty</a>, around 1258<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETyldesley200176–77_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETyldesley200176–77-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> to the west, and the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the military was able to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perire" title="Battle of Perire">repel</a> these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and <a href="/wiki/End_of_the_19th_Dynasty" title="End of the 19th Dynasty">civil unrest</a>. After regaining their power, the high priests at the <a href="/wiki/Precinct_of_Amun-Re" title="Precinct of Amun-Re">temple of Amun</a> in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200554_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200554-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Intermediate_Period_(1069–653_BC)"><span id="Third_Intermediate_Period_.281069.E2.80.93653_BC.29"></span>Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period of Egypt</a></div> <p>Following the death of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> in 1078<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of <a href="/wiki/Tanis,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanis, Egypt">Tanis</a>. The south was effectively controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Theban_High_Priests_of_Amun_(21st_and_22nd_Dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theban High Priests of Amun (21st and 22nd Dynasty)">High Priests of Amun at Thebes</a>, who recognized Smendes in name only.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECerny1975645_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECerny1975645-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> in 945<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in <a href="/wiki/Leontopolis" title="Leontopolis">Leontopolis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cushi" title="Cushi">Kushites</a> threatened from the south. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rulers_of_Kush,_Kerma_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/220px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/330px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/440px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4295" data-file-height="3506" /></a><figcaption>Statues of two pharaohs of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Fifth Dynasty</a> and several other <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kushite</a> kings, <a href="/wiki/Kerma_Museum" title="Kerma Museum">Kerma Museum</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonnet2006128_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonnet2006128-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Around 727<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC the Kushite king <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the <a href="/wiki/25th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="25th Dynasty">25th Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003345_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003345-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> created an empire nearly as large as the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>'s. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonnet2006142–154_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonnet2006142–154-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of <a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">pyramids (many in modern Sudan)</a> since the Middle Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMokhtar1990161–163_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMokhtar1990161–163-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling20119–11_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling20119–11-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilverman199736–37_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverman199736–37-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> sphere of influence, and by 700<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC the Assyrians began the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a>. The reigns of both <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a>, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thebes" title="Sack of Thebes">sacked the temples of Thebes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003358_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003358-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Period_(653–332_BC)"><span id="Late_Period_.28653.E2.80.93332_BC.29"></span>Late Period (653–332 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period of ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Persian_Egypt" title="History of Persian Egypt">History of Persian Egypt</a></div> <p>The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Sixth Dynasty</a>. By 653<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the Saite king <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">navy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Greek influence</a> expanded greatly as the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a> became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of <a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais</a> witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the Persian Empire, led by <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating the pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">Battle of Pelusium</a>. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a>. A few revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, but Egypt was never able to overthrow the Persians until the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003383_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003383-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> in the sixth satrapy of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a>. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-Seventh_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-Seventh Dynasty">Twenty-Seventh Dynasty</a>, ended in 402<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth</a>, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a>. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Thirty-First Dynasty</a>, began in 343<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, but shortly after, in 332<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> without a fight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003385_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003385-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemaic_period_(332–30_BC)"><span id="Ptolemaic_period_.28332.E2.80.9330_BC.29"></span>Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_(3rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE)_-_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/220px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/330px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/440px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> wearing the <a href="/wiki/Pschent" title="Pschent">double crown of Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 332<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> conquered Egypt with little resistance from the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persians</a> and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a>, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new <a href="/wiki/Capital_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital (political)">capital city</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture, that included the famous <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Mouseion" title="Mouseion">Mouseion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003405_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003405-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a> lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemies</a> made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003411_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003411-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic culture</a> did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Egyptian gods</a> were <a href="/wiki/Syncretic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncretic religion">syncretized</a> into composite deities, such as <a href="/wiki/Serapis" title="Serapis">Serapis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">classical Greek</a> forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003418_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003418-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200562_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200562-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_period_(30_BC_–_AD_641)"><span id="Roman_period_.2830_BC_.E2.80.93_AD_641.29"></span>Roman period (30 BC – AD 641)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fayum-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/220px-Fayum-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="456" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/330px-Fayum-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg/440px-Fayum-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="1367" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portraits" title="Fayum mummy portraits">Fayum mummy portraits</a> epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.</figcaption></figure> <p>Egypt became a province of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in 30<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, following the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic</a> Queen <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> by <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a> Augustus) in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a>. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman army</a>, under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200563_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200563-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003426_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003426-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the mid-first century AD, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Greco-Roman</a> religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003431_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003431-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 391, the Christian emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius</a> introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick2001373_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick2001373-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacMullen198463_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMullen198463-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">their language</a>, the ability to read <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic writing</a> slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a> or abandoned to the desert.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003445_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003445-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Empire</a> with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Persian</a> army in the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a> (618–628). It was then recaptured by the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (629–639), and was <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">finally captured</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Muslim Rashidun army</a> in 639–641, marking the end of both Byzantine rule and of the period typically considered Ancient Egypt.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_economy">Government and economy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration_and_commerce">Administration and commerce</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/220px-Pharaoh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/330px-Pharaoh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pharaoh.svg/440px-Pharaoh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty and power.</figcaption></figure> <p>The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme <a href="/wiki/Commander" title="Commander">military commander</a> and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a>, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the <a href="/wiki/Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Archives">archives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nomes</a> each governed by a <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarch</a>, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they <a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">places of worship</a>, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system of <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a> and treasuries administered by <a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">overseers</a>, who redistributed grain and goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998363_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998363-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">coinage</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late period</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they did use a type of money-barter system,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeskell200423_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeskell200423-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with standard sacks of grain and the <i><a href="/wiki/Deben_(unit)" title="Deben (unit)">deben</a></i>, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140<span class="nowrap"> </span>deben.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the fifth century<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metal</a> rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1984125_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1984125-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_status">Social status</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_a_Nobleman,_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg/220px-Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg/330px-Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg/440px-Relief_of_a_Nobleman%2C_ca._1295-1070_B.C.E._36.261.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1332" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Painted limestone relief of a noble member of Ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom</figcaption></figure> <p>Egyptian society was highly stratified, and <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble family</a> that owned the land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998383_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998383-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005136_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005136-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillard1978109_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillard1978109-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a> was entitled to petition the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a> and his court for redress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">doctors</a> in the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavery2012_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavery2012-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such as <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Wife_of_Amun" title="God's Wife of Amun">Divine Wives of Amun</a>. Despite these freedoms, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Women in ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian women</a> did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_system">Legal system</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/220px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/330px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png/440px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372_Cropped_and_bg_reduced.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Seated_Scribe" title="The Seated Scribe">The Seated Scribe</a> from <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">5th dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ma%27at" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'at">Ma'at</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although no <a href="/wiki/Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal codes</a> from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local councils of elders, known as <i>Kenbet</i> in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the <i>Great Kenbet</i>, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003472_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003472-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or <a href="/wiki/Impalement" title="Impalement">impaling</a> the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the New Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracles</a> played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDowell1999168_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDowell1999168-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egyptian agriculture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Gardens of ancient Egypt">Gardens of ancient Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rope_stretching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Rope_stretching.jpg/220px-Rope_stretching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Rope_stretching.jpg/330px-Rope_stretching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Rope_stretching.jpg/440px-Rope_stretching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2398" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>Measuring and recording the harvest, from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/TT69" title="TT69">Menna</a> at <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a> (Eighteenth Dynasty)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg/220px-Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg/330px-Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg/440px-Le_Jardin_de_N%C3%A9bamoun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4933" data-file-height="4313" /></a><figcaption>Rectangular fishpond with ducks and <a href="/wiki/Lotus_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus (plant)">lotus</a> planted round with date palms and fruit trees, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Nebamun" title="Tomb of Nebamun">Tomb of Nebamun</a>, Thebes, 18th Dynasty</figcaption></figure> <p>A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich <a href="/wiki/Fertile_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertile soil">fertile soil</a> resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. <a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a> was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998361_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998361-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: <i><a href="/wiki/Season_of_the_Inundation" title="Season of the Inundation">Akhet</a></i> (flooding), <i><a href="/wiki/Season_of_the_Emergence" title="Season of the Emergence">Peret</a></i> (planting), and <i><a href="/wiki/Season_of_the_Harvest" title="Season of the Harvest">Shemu</a></i> (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the <a href="/wiki/Growing_season" title="Growing season">growing season</a> lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000514_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000514-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From March to May, farmers used <a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">sickles</a> to harvest their crops, which were then <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshed</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Flail" title="Flail">flail</a> to separate the straw from the grain. <a href="/wiki/Winnowing" title="Winnowing">Winnowing</a> removed the <a href="/wiki/Chaff" title="Chaff">chaff</a> from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000506_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000506-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Egyptians cultivated <a href="/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer">emmer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000510_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000510-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">Flax</a> plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> and to make clothing. <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a> growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000577,_630_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000577,_630-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricultural_Scenes,_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg/660px-Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg/990px-Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg/1320px-Agricultural_Scenes%2C_Tomb_of_Nakht_MET_15.5.19b_detail_2_rgb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption>A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer, painting in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/TT52" title="TT52">Nakht</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Animals">Animals</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1337" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sennedjem" title="Sennedjem">Sennedjem</a> plows his fields in <a href="/wiki/Aaru" title="Aaru">Aaru</a> with a pair of oxen, <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Medina" title="Deir el-Medina">Deir el-Medina</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals, both <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wild</a>, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian cattle">Cattle</a> were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular <a href="/wiki/Cattle_count" title="Cattle count">censuses</a>, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">Poultry</a>, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nile provided a plentiful source of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000409_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000409-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and <a href="/wiki/Oxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxen">oxen</a> as <a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">beasts of burden</a>, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a>. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that <a href="/wiki/North_African_elephant" title="North African elephant">elephants</a> were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cats_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Cats in ancient Egypt">Cats</a>, dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a> <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeptnerSludskii199283–95_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeptnerSludskii199283–95-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were reserved for royalty. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess <a href="/wiki/Bastet_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastet (mythology)">Bastet</a> and the ibis god <a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a>, and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003229_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003229-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_resources">Natural resources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Egypt" title="Mining industry of Egypt">Mining industry of Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stone_quarries_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Stone quarries of ancient Egypt">Stone quarries of ancient Egypt</a></div> <p>Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a> allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and <a href="/wiki/Fashion_jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion jewelry">fashion jewelry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreavesLittle1930123_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreavesLittle1930123-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">Embalmers</a> used salts from the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_El_Natrun" title="Wadi El Natrun">Wadi Natrun</a> for <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummification</a>, which also provided the <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> needed to make plaster.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas1962413_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas1962413-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ore-bearing <a href="/wiki/Rock_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock formation">rock formations</a> were found in distant, inhospitable <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Eastern Desert</a> and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">Wadi Hammamat</a> was a notable source of granite, <a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">greywacke</a>, and gold. <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a> was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200028_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200028-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> as cosmetic substances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogan2011"Sulphur"_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogan2011"Sulphur"-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Egyptians worked deposits of the <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead ore</a> <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from <a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">malachite</a> ore mined in the Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheel198914_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheel198914-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">alluvial deposits</a>, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000166_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000166-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">porphyry</a>, greywacke, <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a> dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of <a href="/wiki/Emerald" title="Emerald">emeralds</a> in Wadi Sikait and <a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">amethyst</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wadi_el-Hudi" title="Wadi el-Hudi">Wadi el-Hudi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200051_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200051-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Ancient Egyptian trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/220px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/330px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg/440px-Relief_of_Hatshepsut%27s_expedition_to_the_Land_of_Punt_by_%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2211" /></a><figcaption>Hatshepsut's trading expedition to the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their <a href="/wiki/Foreign_contacts_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt">foreign neighbors</a> to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Period</a>, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200372_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200372-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a> stationed in southern <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> dates to slightly before the First Dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorat1992433–440_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorat1992433–440-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sakan" title="Tell es-Sakan">Tell es-Sakan</a> in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorat1986109–129_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorat1986109–129-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a> yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Punt</a> provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003322_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003322-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egypt relied on trade with <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>, which had to be imported from far-away <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998145_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998145-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_development">Historical development</h3></div> <table style="font-size: 88%; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid blue; margin: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center; clear: right; float: right; margin-right: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0.75em; background-color: var(--background-color-base); color:var( --color-base ); text-align: center"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /><br /><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z1.png?4dc06" height="16" title="Z1" alt="Z1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I6.png?19fec" height="17" title="I6 [km]" alt="km" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G17.png?3741e" height="38" title="G17 [m]" alt="m" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /><br /><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O49.png?dd778" height="18" title="O49" alt="O49" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background: silver; color:black; border-bottom: 1px solid blue; padding: 0.5em"><i>r n kmt</i><br /> 'Egyptian language' <br />in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a> is a northern <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> language closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has the longest known history of any language having been written from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200</span><span class="nowrap"> </span>BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are <a href="/wiki/Old_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Egyptian">Old Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a> (Classical Egyptian), <a href="/wiki/Late_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Egyptian">Late Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004161_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004161-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004162_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004162-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Egyptian was a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a>, but it became more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a>, which replaced the older inflectional <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>. There was a change from the older <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">verb–subject–object</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> to <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137–2138_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137–2138-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabet</a>. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Egyptian Orthodox Church</a>, and traces of it are found in modern <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVittman1991197–227_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVittman1991197–227-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sounds_and_grammar">Sounds and grammar</h3></div> <p>Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a> and voiced and voiceless <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a>. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a46_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a46-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">triliteral</a> or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton <b><span title="Ancient Egyptian-language romanization"><i lang="egy-Latn">S-Ḏ-M</i></span></b> is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is <i><span title="Ancient Egyptian-language romanization"><i lang="egy-Latn">sḏm</i></span></i>, 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a74_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a74-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><span title="Ancient Egyptian-language romanization"><i lang="egy-Latn">sḏm ḥmt</i></span></i>, 'the woman hears'. </p><p>Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call <i><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">nisbation</a></i> because of its similarity with Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004175_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004175-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word order is <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">predicate–subject</span> in verbal and adjectival sentences, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">subject–predicate</span> in nominal and adverbial sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200067,_70,_109_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200067,_70,_109-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2147_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2147-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verbs and nouns are negated by the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particle</a> <i>n</i>, but <i>nn</i> is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a> falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004173_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004173-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing">Writing</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/218px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg" decoding="async" width="218" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/328px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg/437px-Rosetta_Stone_BW.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2066" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 196</span> BC) enabled linguists to begin <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_ancient_Egyptian_scripts" title="Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts">deciphering ancient Egyptian scripts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200013_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200013-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphic writing</a> dates from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3000</span><span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a>, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a10–26_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a10–26-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> with the addition of some Demotic signs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20007_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20007-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004166_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004166-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Islamic periods in Egypt,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005164_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005164-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion" title="Jean-François Champollion">Jean-François Champollion</a>, were hieroglyphs <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_ancient_Egyptian_scripts" title="Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts">substantially deciphered</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20008_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20008-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Ancient Egyptian literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minnakht_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/220px-Minnakht_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/330px-Minnakht_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/440px-Minnakht_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Hieroglyphs on stela in <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1321</span> BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the <i>Per Ankh</i> institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989235_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989235-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">Coffin Texts</a>, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in <a href="/wiki/Ramesside_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramesside Period">Ramesside</a> administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Harkhuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Harkhuf">Harkhuf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weni_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Weni the Elder">Weni</a>. The genre known as <i><a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">Sebayt</a></i> ('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the <a href="/wiki/Ipuwer_Papyrus" title="Ipuwer Papyrus">Ipuwer papyrus</a>, a poem of lamentations describing <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> and social upheaval, is a famous example. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a></i>, written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a>, might be the classic of Egyptian literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim197511_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim197511-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also written at this time was the <a href="/wiki/Westcar_Papyrus" title="Westcar Papyrus">Westcar Papyrus</a>, a set of stories told to <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim1975215_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim1975215-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Amenemope" title="Instruction of Amenemope">Instruction of Amenemope</a> is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDayGordonWilliamson199523_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDayGordonWilliamson199523-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Late_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Egyptian">vernacular language</a> was more often employed to write popular pieces such as the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Wenamun" title="Story of Wenamun">Story of Wenamun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Any" title="Instruction of Any">Instruction of Any</a>. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">demotic</a> script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim1980159_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim1980159-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daily_life">Daily life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing in ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance in ancient Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt#Old_Kingdom" title="Music of Egypt">Music of Egypt § Old Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png/220px-LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png/330px-LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png/440px-LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Lower-class occupations</figcaption></figure> <p>Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a> designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998401_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998401-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Ceramics</a> served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998403_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998403-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/220px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/330px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/440px-Musicians_and_dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7160" data-file-height="4899" /></a><figcaption>Egyptians celebrated feasts and festivals, accompanied by music and dance.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from <a href="/wiki/Animal_fat" title="Animal fat">animal fat</a> and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998405_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998405-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and <a href="/wiki/Beauty_and_Cosmetics_in_Ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Beauty and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt">cosmetics</a>. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998406–407_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998406–407-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lutes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyres</a> from Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sistrum" title="Sistrum">sistrum</a> was a rattle-like <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instrument</a> that was especially important in religious ceremonies. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg/220px-ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg/330px-ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg/440px-ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of Deir el-Medina</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. <a href="/wiki/Senet" title="Senet">Senet</a>, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was <a href="/wiki/Mehen_(game)" title="Mehen (game)">mehen</a>, which had a circular gaming board. "<a href="/wiki/Hounds_and_Jackals" class="mw-redirect" title="Hounds and Jackals">Hounds and Jackals</a>" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Theban_tombs" title="List of Theban tombs">Theban tomb</a> of the Egyptian pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> that dates to the <a href="/wiki/13th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="13th Dynasty">13th Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfe2018Seaburn2018_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfe2018Seaburn2018-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Juggling and <a href="/wiki/Ball_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Ball game">ball games</a> were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at <a href="/wiki/Beni_Hasan" title="Beni Hasan">Beni Hasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998126_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998126-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed <a href="/wiki/Hunting,_fishing_and_animals_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Hunting, fishing and animals in ancient Egypt">hunting, fishing</a>, and boating as well. </p><p>The excavation of the workers' village of <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Medina" title="Deir el-Medina">Deir el-Medina</a> has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes1973380_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1973380-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Ancient Egyptian cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption>Hunting game birds and plowing a field, tomb of <a href="/wiki/Nefermaat" title="Nefermaat">Nefermaat</a> and his wife <a href="/wiki/Itet" title="Itet">Itet</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2700 BC</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">cuisine of modern Egypt</a> retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998399–400_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998399–400-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian architecture</a></div> <p>The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Great Pyramids of Giza</a> and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large <a href="/wiki/Stone_structures" title="Stone structures">stone structures</a> with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach199094–97_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach199094–97-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Malkata" title="Malkata">Malkata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBadawy196850_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBadawy196850-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a>'s mortuary complex, include <a href="/wiki/Post_and_lintel" title="Post and lintel">post and lintel</a> supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the <a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">pylon</a>, the open <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyard</a>, and the enclosed <a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">hypostyle</a> hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETypes_of_temples_in_ancient_Egypt2003_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETypes_of_temples_in_ancient_Egypt2003-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</a>, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground <a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">burial chamber</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">step pyramid of Djoser</a> is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodson199123_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodson199123-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal <a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">pyramids of Nubia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodsonIkram2008218,_275–276_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodsonIkram2008218,_275–276-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 138.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 136.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Model of a household porch and garden, c. 1981–1975 BC"><img alt="Model of a household porch and garden, c. 1981–1975 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg/205px-Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg/307px-Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg/409px-Model_of_a_Porch_and_Garden_MET_DP350593.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3117" data-file-height="3883" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Model of a household porch and garden, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1981–1975 BC</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Temple of Dendur, completed by 10 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="The Temple of Dendur, completed by 10 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg/319px-The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg/479px-The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg/638px-The_Temple_of_Dendur_MET_DT563.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3811" data-file-height="3049" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a>, completed by 10 BC, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 277.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 275.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philae_temple_at_night.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The well preserved Temple of Isis from Philae is an example of Egyptian architecture and architectural sculpture."><img alt="The well preserved Temple of Isis from Philae is an example of Egyptian architecture and architectural sculpture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/413px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg" decoding="async" width="276" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/621px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/827px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2458" data-file-height="1517" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The well preserved Temple of Isis from <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> is an example of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Egyptian architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architectural_sculpture" title="Architectural sculpture">architectural sculpture</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Illustration of various types of capitals, by Karl Richard Lepsius"><img alt="Illustration of various types of capitals, by Karl Richard Lepsius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg/195px-Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg/294px-Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg/391px-Lepsius-Projekt_tw_1-2-108.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="2030" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Illustration of various types of capitals, by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Richard_Lepsius" title="Karl Richard Lepsius">Karl Richard Lepsius</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art of ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture in ancient Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes,_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg/220px-Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg/330px-Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg/440px-Menna_and_Family_Hunting_in_the_Marshes%2C_Tomb_of_Menna_MET_DT10878.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3811" data-file-height="2098" /></a><figcaption>Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400</span> BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200829_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200829-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200821_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200821-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200812_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200812-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_(6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg/220px-Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg/330px-Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg/440px-Calcite_Basin_Supporting_a_Boat_with_Shrine00_%286%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Wooden_tomb_model" title="Wooden tomb model">tomb models</a> as funerary goods</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with <a href="/wiki/Gum_arabic" title="Gum arabic">gum arabic</a> as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000105_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000105-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pharaohs used <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of <a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">funerary art</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">shabti</a> statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005122_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005122-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Middle Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Wooden_tomb_model" title="Wooden tomb model">wooden or clay models</a> depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200874_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200874-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a>-style frescoes were found in <a href="/wiki/Avaris" title="Avaris">Avaris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003216_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003216-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna Period</a>, where figures were radically altered to conform to <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a>'s revolutionary religious ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins2008149_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins2008149-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This style, known as <a href="/wiki/Amarna_art" title="Amarna art">Amarna art</a>, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins2008158_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins2008158-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; c. 1500 BC"><img alt="Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; c. 1500 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg/185px-Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg/278px-Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg/371px-Kneeling_portrait_statue_of_Amenemhat_holding_a_stele_with_an_inscription_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5018" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500 BC</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 201.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 199.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fresco which depicts Nebamun hunting birds; c. 1350 BC"><img alt="Fresco which depicts Nebamun hunting birds; c. 1350 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/299px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/450px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/599px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1874" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fresco which depicts <a href="/wiki/Nebamun" title="Nebamun">Nebamun</a> hunting birds; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1350 BC</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 159.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 157.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III; 1480–1425 BC"><img alt="Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III; 1480–1425 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg/236px-Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg/354px-Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg/472px-Portrait_head_of_pharaoh_Hatshepsut_or_Thutmose_III_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="3943" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Portrait head of pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a>; 1480–1425 BC</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 115.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 113.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC"><img alt="Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg/170px-Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg/255px-Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg/340px-Falcon_Box_with_Wrapped_Contents_MET_12.182.5a_b_EGDP023129.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2667" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_beliefs">Religious beliefs</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/300px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/450px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/600px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2446" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a> was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.</figcaption></figure> <p>Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Right of Kings">divine right of kings</a>. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pantheon" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pantheon">gods</a> who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">pantheon</a> changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">myths</a> and stories into a coherent system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005102_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005102-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedford2003106_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedford2003106-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painted relief of a seated man with green skin and tight garments, a man with the head of a jackal, and a man with the head of a falcon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg/220px-La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg/330px-La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>The gods <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anubis" title="Anubis">Anubis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a> in the tomb of Horemheb (<a href="/wiki/KV57" title="KV57">KV57</a>) in the Valley of the Kings</figcaption></figure> <p>Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005117_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005117-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracles</a> to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003313_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003313-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or <i>aspects</i>. In addition to the body, each person had a <i>šwt</i> (shadow), a <i>ba</i> (personality or soul), a <i>ka</i> (life-force), and a <i>name</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200079,_94–95_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200079,_94–95-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his <i>ka</i> and <i>ba</i> and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an <i>akh</i>, or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "<a href="/wiki/Maat#Afterlife" title="Maat">feather of truth</a>". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWasserman1994150–153_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasserman1994150–153-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by <a href="/wiki/Ammit" title="Ammit">Ammit</a> the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burial_customs">Burial customs</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Ancient Egyptian funerary practices</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg/220px-Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg/330px-Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg/440px-Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anubis" title="Anubis">Anubis</a>, the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummification</a>, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005122_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005122-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">internal organs</a>, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in <a href="/wiki/Canopic_jar" title="Canopic jar">canopic jars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIkramDodson199829_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIkramDodson199829-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called <a href="/wiki/Natron" title="Natron">natron</a>. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted <a href="/wiki/Cartonnage" title="Cartonnage">cartonnage</a> mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIkramDodson199840,_51,_138_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIkramDodson199840,_51,_138-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_texts" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary texts">Funerary texts</a> were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were <a href="/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">shabti</a> statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShabtis2001_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShabtis2001-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005124_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005124-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military of ancient Egypt</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Ancient Egyptian navy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Tut_charging_enemies,_18th_dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg/220px-King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg/330px-King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg/440px-King_Tut_charging_enemies%2C_18th_dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="2883" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun charging enemies on his <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>, 18th dynasty</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of <a href="/wiki/Buhen" title="Buhen">Buhen</a> on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a> and parts of the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003245_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003245-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesehtisoldiers.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mesehtisoldiers.JPG/220px-Mesehtisoldiers.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mesehtisoldiers.JPG/330px-Mesehtisoldiers.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mesehtisoldiers.JPG/440px-Mesehtisoldiers.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2075" data-file-height="1342" /></a><figcaption>Wooden figures of soldiers, from the tomb of nomarch <a href="/wiki/Mesehti" title="Mesehti">Mesehti</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">11th dynasty</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Typical military equipment included <a href="/wiki/Bow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (weapon)">bows and arrows</a>, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">animal skin</a> over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using <a href="/wiki/Chariotry_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Chariotry in ancient Egypt">chariots</a> that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the <a href="/wiki/Khopesh" title="Khopesh">khopesh</a> was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998366–367_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998366–367-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as <a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Seqenenre Tao II">Seqenenre Tao II</a> and his sons, did do so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199496_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199496-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2009_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2009-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003400_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003400-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology,_medicine_and_mathematics"><span id="Technology.2C_medicine_and_mathematics"></span>Technology, medicine and mathematics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egyptian technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/220px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/330px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg/440px-Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Glassmaking was a highly developed art.</figcaption></figure> <p>In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, as evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers papyri</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal system</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Faience_and_glass">Faience and glass</h3></div> <p>Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">faience</a>, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>, small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">lime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">soda</a>, and a colorant, typically copper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000177_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000177-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_blue" title="Egyptian blue">Egyptian blue</a>, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</a>) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000109_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000109-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000195_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000195-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding <a href="/wiki/Micromineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Micromineral">trace elements</a> to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000215_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000215-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Ancient Egyptian medicine</a></div> <p>The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and debilitating <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a> parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscesses</a> (though <a href="/wiki/Dental_caries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental caries">caries</a> were rare).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiler199594_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiler199594-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted <a href="/wiki/Periodontitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodontitis">periodontal disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiler199578–80_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiler199578–80-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiler199521_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiler199521-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adult <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/220px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/330px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/440px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="1954" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith surgical papyrus</a> describes anatomy and medical treatments, written in <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550 BC</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, remained famous long after their deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiler199539_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiler199539-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989243_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989243-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training of physicians took place at the <i>Per Ankh</i> or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Bubastis" title="Bubastis">Per-Bastet</a> during the New Kingdom and at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Saïs</a> in the Late period. <a href="/wiki/Medical_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical papyri">Medical papyri</a> show <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical knowledge</a> of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989244–246_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989244–246-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989250_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989250-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyme" title="Thyme">thyme</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" title="Atropa belladonna">belladona</a> were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPećanacJanjićKomarcevićPajić2013263–267_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPećanacJanjićKomarcevićPajić2013263–267-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set <a href="/wiki/Broken_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken bones">broken bones</a>, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiler199538_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiler199538-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maritime_technology">Maritime technology</h3></div> <p>Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a <a href="/wiki/Hull_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hull (ship)">ship hull</a> and had mastered advanced forms of <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a> as early as 3000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC. The <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a> reports that the oldest <a href="/wiki/Plank_(wood)" title="Plank (wood)">planked</a> <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a> known are the <a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos boats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A group of 14 discovered ships in <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuster2000_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuster2000-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> woven <a href="/wiki/Strap" title="Strap">straps</a> were found to have been used to lash the planks together,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">reeds</a> or <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grass</a> stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Pharaoh Khasekhemwy</a>, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuster2000_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuster2000-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with <a href="/wiki/Treenail" title="Treenail">treenails</a> to fasten them together, using <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a> for <a href="/wiki/Caulking" class="mw-redirect" title="Caulking">caulking</a> the seams. The "<a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a>", a 43.6-metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a> around 2500<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a <a href="/wiki/Solar_barque" title="Solar barque">solar barque</a>. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with <a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">mortise and tenon</a> joints.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg/220px-Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg/330px-Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg/440px-Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Seagoing ship of an expedition to Punt, from a relief of <a href="/wiki/Mortuary_temple_of_Hatshepsut" title="Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut's Mortuary temple</a>, Deir el-Bahari</figcaption></figure><p>Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a> (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a>. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWachsmann200919_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachsmann200919-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Timsah" title="Lake Timsah">Lake Timsah</a> to the Ballah Lakes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShea197731–38_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShea197731–38-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was dated to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShea197731–38_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShea197731–38-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known as <a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a>, unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such as <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>'s Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurry2011_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry2011-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of <a href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyle2013Lorenzi2013_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle2013Lorenzi2013-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Ancient Egyptian mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/330px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/440px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2678" data-file-height="1589" /></a><figcaption>Facsimile of the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senenmut%27s_Tomb" title="Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb">Astronomical chart in Senemut's tomb</a>, 18th dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstronomical_Ceiling2020_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstronomical_Ceiling2020-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada</a> period, and show a fully developed <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_numerals" title="Egyptian numerals">numeral system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEImhausen200711_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEImhausen200711-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Rhind_Mathematical_Papyrus" title="Rhind Mathematical Papyrus">Rhind Mathematical Papyrus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Mathematical_Papyrus" title="Moscow Mathematical Papyrus">Moscow Mathematical Papyrus</a> show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_multiplication" title="Ancient Egyptian multiplication">multiplication</a>, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_algebra" title="Egyptian algebra">algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_geometry" title="Egyptian geometry">geometry</a>, and could solve <a href="/wiki/Systems_of_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems of equations">systems of equations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990222_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990222-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="font-size: 88%; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid blue; margin: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center; clear: right; float: right; margin-right: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0.75em; background-color: var(--background-color-base); color:var( --color-base ); text-align: center"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D22.png?0b8f1" height="18" title="D22" alt="D22" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background: silver; color:black; border-bottom: 1px solid blue; padding: 0.5em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> <br />in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_notation" title="Mathematical notation">Mathematical notation</a> was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990217_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990217-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_fraction" title="Egyptian fraction">fractions</a> as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction <i>two-fifths</i> into the sum of <i>one-third</i> + <i>one-fifteenth</i>. Standard tables of values facilitated this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990218_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeEngelbach1990218-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_fraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulgar fraction">common fractions</a>, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardiner1957197_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardiner1957197-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a> as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the <a href="/wiki/Hypotenuse" title="Hypotenuse">hypotenuse</a> when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989241_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989241-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were able to estimate the area of a <a href="/wiki/Circle" title="Circle">circle</a> by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: </p> <dl><dd>Area ≈ [(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">8</span>⁄<span class="den">9</span></span>)<i>D</i>]<sup>2</sup> = (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">256</span>⁄<span class="den">81</span></span>)<i>r</i><sup>2</sup> ≈ 3.16<i>r</i><sup>2</sup>,</dd></dl> <p>a reasonable approximation of the formula <span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">π</a></b><i>r</i><sup>2</sup></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989241Imhausen200731_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989241Imhausen200731-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypostyle_hall,_Karnak_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/220px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/330px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg/440px-Hypostyle_hall%2C_Karnak_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>The halls of Karnak Temple are built with rows of large columns.</figcaption></figure> <p>Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowman2020_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2020-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Genetic history of Egypt</a></div> <p>According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a> royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The currently most advanced full genome analyses was made on three ancient specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period (New Kingdom to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period, spanning around 1300 years of Egyptian history. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modern <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> populations, especially ancient groups from the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG/220px-S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG/330px-S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG/440px-S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="1664" /></a><figcaption>The preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is a model of Egyptian architecture.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities to <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a> to the south of Egypt, in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 57</span>% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, also underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since the <a href="/wiki/Roman_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman period">Roman period</a>, with significance on the <a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African Slave Trade">African Slave Trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Christopher Ehret</a>, caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northern <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>. This latter view has been attributed to the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological anthropological</a> sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeita2022_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeita2022-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhret2023_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret2023-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023_206-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian Revival architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Egypt" title="Tourism in Egypt">Tourism in Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EgyptFrontispiece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/EgyptFrontispiece.jpg/220px-EgyptFrontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/EgyptFrontispiece.jpg/330px-EgyptFrontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/EgyptFrontispiece.jpg/440px-EgyptFrontispiece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">Frontispiece</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Description_de_l%27%C3%89gypte" title="Description de l'Égypte">Description de l'Égypte</a></i>, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829</figcaption></figure> <p>The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a> with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök199862–67,_299–314,_500–510,_516–527_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök199862–67,_299–314,_500–510,_516–527-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök199862–65_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök199862–65-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cult of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, for example, became popular in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti19988_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti19988-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans also imported <a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">building materials</a> from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti199810_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti199810-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Dhul-Nun_al-Misri" title="Dhul-Nun al-Misri">Dhul-Nun al-Misri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005112_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005112-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_in_the_Western_imagination" title="Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination">Egyptomania</a> across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as the <a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Providence" title="Eye of Providence">Eye of Providence</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States" title="Great Seal of the United States">Great Seal of the United States</a>. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti199813_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti199813-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> arranged the first studies in <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a> when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, which was published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Description_de_l%27%C3%89gypte" title="Description de l'Égypte">Description de l'Égypte</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti1998100_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti1998100-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Tourism_and_Antiquities_(Egypt)" title="Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)">Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities</a> has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohamed2022_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohamed2022-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Abu Haggag Mosque is integrated into the Luxor temple from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple."><img alt="The Abu Haggag Mosque is integrated into the Luxor temple from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg/338px-LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg/508px-LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg/676px-LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Abu_Haggag_Mosque" title="Abu Haggag Mosque">Abu Haggag Mosque</a> is integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Luxor_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxor temple">Luxor temple</a> from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 263.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 261.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners (1887), by Alexandre Cabanel[213]"><img alt="Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners (1887), by Alexandre Cabanel[213]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg/392px-Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg" decoding="async" width="262" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg/589px-Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg/784px-Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Testing_Poisons_on_Condemned_Prisoners" title="Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners">Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners</a></i> (1887), by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanel" title="Alexandre Cabanel">Alexandre Cabanel</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200336_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200336-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_(8838365561).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tourists at the pyramid complex of Khafre near the Great Sphinx of Giza"><img alt="Tourists at the pyramid complex of Khafre near the Great Sphinx of Giza" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg/300px-The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg/451px-The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg/600px-The_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khafre_%288838365561%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tourists at the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Khafre" title="Pyramid of Khafre">pyramid complex of Khafre</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx of Giza</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/28px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/42px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Periodization of ancient Egypt">Periods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">dynasties</a> of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">ancient Egypt</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-top:0;font-weight:normal;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">All years are <a href="/wiki/Before_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Christ">BC</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Pre-dynastic period</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"></td><td style="text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"> I</td><td style="text-align:right;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3150–2890</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty</a></td><td style="width:1.3em;text-align:center;"> II</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2890–2686</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> III</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2686–2613</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> IV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2613–2498</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> V</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2498–2345</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2345–2181</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> spurious</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> VIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2181–2160</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> IX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2160–2130</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> X</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2130–2040</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> Early <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2134–2061</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> Late <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2061–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1991–1803</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1803–1649</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1705–1690</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>)</td><td style="text-align:center;"> XV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1674–1535</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1660–1600</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1650–1600</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1580–1549</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XVIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1549–1292</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XIX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1292–1189</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1189–1077</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1069–945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 945–720</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 837–728</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 732–720</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Nubian</a>)</td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 732–653</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 672–525</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty<br />(1st Persian Period)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 525–404</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXVIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 404–398</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXIX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 398–380</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXX</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 380–343</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty<br />(2nd Persian Period)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXI</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 343–332</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Thirty-second Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 332–305</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thirty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-third Dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXIII</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 305–30</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">Thirty-fourth Dynasty<br />(Roman Pharaohs)</a></div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXIV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 30 BC – 313 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="nowrap" style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:58%;text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh#History" title="Roman pharaoh">Thirty-fifth Dynasty</a><br />(<i>speculated</i>)</div></td><td style="text-align:center;"> XXXV</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 379 AD – 641 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:none;padding-top:0;font-weight:normal;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">See also: <i><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharaohs" title="Template:Pharaohs">List of pharaohs by period and dynasty</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Periodization of ancient Egypt">Periodization of ancient Egypt</a></i></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_dynasties_sidebar" title="Template:Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_dynasties_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_dynasties_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index of ancient Egypt–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline of ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">List of ancient Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries#Ancient_Egypt" title="List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries">List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Ancient_Egypt" title="Archaeology of Ancient Egypt">Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archeological_Map_of_Egypt" title="Archeological Map of Egypt">Archeological Map of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_school_of_diffusionism" title="British school of diffusionism">British school of diffusionism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Depending on the definition, 332 BC with the end of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a>, 30 BC with the end of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">With the death of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. (<a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 146)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From <a href="#CITEREFKillebrewLehmann2013">Killebrew & Lehmann (2013)</a>, p. 2: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III."<div><ul><li>From <a href="#CITEREFDrews1993">Drews (1993)</a>, pp. 48–61: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation."</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Figures are given for <i>adult</i> life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy <i>at birth.</i> (<a href="#CITEREFFiler1995">Filer (1995)</a>, p. 25)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered (<a href="#CITEREFImhausen2007">Imhausen (2007)</a>, p. 13).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChronology2000-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChronology2000_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChronology2000">Chronology (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodsonHilton200446-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodsonHilton200446_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDodsonHilton2004">Dodson & Hilton (2004)</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton1994217-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton1994217_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames20058Manuelian19986–7-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames20058Manuelian19986–7_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2005">James (2005)</a>, p. 8; <a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2001-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2001_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWard2001">Ward 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIkram19925-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIkram19925_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIkram1992">Ikram (1992)</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1964220-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes1964220_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes1964">Hayes (1964)</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp198914-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp198914_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemp1989">Kemp (1989)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAstonHarrellShaw200046–47-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAstonHarrellShaw200046–47_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAstonHarrellShaw2000">Aston, Harrell & Shaw (2000)</a>, pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAston199423–26-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAston199423–26_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAston1994">Aston (1994)</a>, pp. 23–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtaç2014424–425-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtaç2014424–425_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAtaç2014">Ataç (2014)</a>, pp. 424–425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001">Chronology of the Naqada Period (2001)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200361-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200361_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200361Ataç2014424–425-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200361Ataç2014424–425_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFAtaç2014">Ataç (2014)</a>, pp. 424–425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonPeltenburg2000178–179-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonPeltenburg2000178–179_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonPeltenburg2000">Nicholson & Peltenburg (2000)</a>, pp. 178–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaience_in_different_Periods2000-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaience_in_different_Periods2000_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaience_in_different_Periods2000">Faience in different Periods (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20001_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen (2000)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton19946-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton19946_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200832-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200832_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobins2008">Robins (2008)</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199412–13-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199412–13_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200370-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200370_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001">Early Dynastic Egypt (2001)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200540-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200540_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2005">James (2005)</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003102-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003102_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003116–117-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003116–117_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, pp. 116–117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan2011-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHassan2011_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHassan2011">Hassan (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199469-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199469_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003120-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003120_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003146_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199429-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199429_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022">Guardian Figure 14.3.17 (2022)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrajetzki200741–54-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrajetzki200741–54_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrajetzki2007">Grajetzki 2007</a>, pp. 41–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003148-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003148_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199479-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199479_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton (1994)</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003158-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003158_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003179–182-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003179–182_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, pp. 179–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins200890-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins200890_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobins2008">Robins (2008)</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003188-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003188_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyholt1997310_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyholt1997">Ryholt (1997)</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003189-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003189_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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p. 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003418-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003418_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200562-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200562_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2005">James (2005)</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200563-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames200563_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2005">James (2005)</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003426-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003426_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003422_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 422.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003431-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003431_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 431.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick2001373-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick2001373_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChadwick2001">Chadwick (2001)</a>, p. 373.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMullen198463-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacMullen198463_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacMullen1984">MacMullen (1984)</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003445-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003445_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998358_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998363-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998363_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002">Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeskell200423-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeskell200423_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeskell2004">Meskell (2004)</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998372_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1984125-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1984125_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1984">Turner (1984)</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998383-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998383_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2005136-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2005136_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2005">James (2005)</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillard1978109-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillard1978109_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBillard1978">Billard (1978)</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003">Social classes in ancient Egypt (2003)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2002">Johnson (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavery2012-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavery2012_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSlavery2012">Slavery (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003472-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003472_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOakesGahlin2003">Oakes & Gahlin (2003)</a>, p. 472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDowell1999168-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDowell1999168_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDowell1999">McDowell (1999)</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998361-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998361_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000514-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000514_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 514.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000506-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000506_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000510-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000510_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 510.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000577,_630-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000577,_630_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, pp. 577, 630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989117_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrouhal1989">Strouhal (1989)</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998381_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000409-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000409_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeptnerSludskii199283–95-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeptnerSludskii199283–95_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeptnerSludskii1992">Heptner & Sludskii (1992)</a>, pp. 83–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003229-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOakesGahlin2003229_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOakesGahlin2003">Oakes & Gahlin (2003)</a>, p. 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreavesLittle1930123-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreavesLittle1930123_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreavesLittle1930">Greaves & Little (1930)</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas1962413-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas1962413_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLucas1962">Lucas (1962)</a>, p. 413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200028-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200028_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogan2011"Sulphur"-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogan2011"Sulphur"_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogan2011">Hogan (2011)</a>, "Sulphur".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheel198914-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheel198914_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScheel1989">Scheel (1989)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000166-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw2000166_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200051-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholsonShaw200051_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000">Nicholson & Shaw (2000)</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw200372-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw200372_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorat1992433–440-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorat1992433–440_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPorat1992">Porat (1992)</a>, pp. 433–440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008">de Miroschedji & Sadeq (2008)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorat1986109–129-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorat1986109–129_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPorat1986">Porat (1986)</a>, pp. 109–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000">Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2003322-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2003322_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2003">Shaw (2003)</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998145-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998145_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995b">Loprieno (1995b)</a>, p. 2137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004161-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004161_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno2004">Loprieno (2004)</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004162-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004162_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno2004">Loprieno (2004)</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137–2138-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2137–2138_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995b">Loprieno (1995b)</a>, pp. 2137–2138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVittman1991197–227-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVittman1991197–227_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVittman1991">Vittman (1991)</a>, pp. 197–227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a46-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a46_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995a">Loprieno (1995a)</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a74-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a74_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995a">Loprieno (1995a)</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004175-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004175_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno2004">Loprieno (2004)</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200067,_70,_109-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200067,_70,_109_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen (2000)</a>, pp. 67, 70, 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2147-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995b2147_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995b">Loprieno (1995b)</a>, p. 2147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004173-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004173_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno2004">Loprieno (2004)</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen200013-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen200013_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen (2000)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a10–26-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno1995a10–26_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995a">Loprieno (1995a)</a>, pp. 10–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20007-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20007_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen (2000)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004166-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno2004166_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno2004">Loprieno (2004)</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005164-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005164_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Daly2005">El-Daly (2005)</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20008-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen20008_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen (2000)</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989235-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrouhal1989235_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrouhal1989">Strouhal (1989)</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim197511-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim197511_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1975">Lichtheim (1975)</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim1975215-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim1975215_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1975">Lichtheim (1975)</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDayGordonWilliamson199523-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDayGordonWilliamson199523_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDayGordonWilliamson1995">Day, Gordon & Williamson (1995)</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtheim1980159-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtheim1980159_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim (1980)</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998401-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998401_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998403-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998403_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998405-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998405_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998406–407-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998406–407_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, pp. 406–407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003">Music in Ancient Egypt (2003)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfe2018Seaburn2018-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfe2018Seaburn2018_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetcalfe2018">Metcalfe (2018)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSeaburn2018">Seaburn (2018)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998126-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuelian1998126_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManuelian1998">Manuelian (1998)</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li 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<a href="#CITEREFImhausen2007">Imhausen (2007)</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2020-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowman2020_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowman2020">Bowman (2020)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023_206-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2023_206-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStiebingHelft2023">Stiebing & Helft (2023)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESirakSawchukPrendergast202220–22_207-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSirakSawchukPrendergast2022">Sirak, Sawchuk & Prendergast (2022)</a>, p. 20–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrendergastSawchukSirak202213_208-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrendergastSawchukSirak2022">Prendergast, Sawchuk & Sirak (2022)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021">Eltis et al. 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href="#CITEREFTörök1998">Török (1998)</a>, pp. 62–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti19988-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti19988_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiliotti1998">Siliotti (1998)</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti199810-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti199810_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiliotti1998">Siliotti (1998)</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005112-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Daly2005112_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Daly2005">El-Daly (2005)</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti199813-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti199813_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiliotti1998">Siliotti (1998)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiliotti1998100-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiliotti1998100_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiliotti1998">Siliotti (1998)</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohamed2022-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohamed2022_219-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMohamed2022">Mohamed (2022)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200336-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson200336_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2003">Anderson (2003)</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAldred1988" class="citation book cs1">Aldred, Cyril (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/akhenatenkingofe0000aldr/"><i>Akhenaten, King of Egypt</i></a>. Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05048-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05048-4"><bdi>978-0-500-05048-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Akhenaten%2C+King+of+Egypt&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05048-4&rft.aulast=Aldred&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fakhenatenkingofe0000aldr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2000" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/middle-egyptian-an-introduction-to-the-language-and-culture-of-hieroglyphs-1999"><i>Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77483-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77483-3"><bdi>978-0-521-77483-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77483-3&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmiddle-egyptian-an-introduction-to-the-language-and-culture-of-hieroglyphs-1999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jaynie_Anderson" title="Jaynie Anderson">Anderson, Jaynie</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K_zR2mHWPmoC"><i>Tiepolo's Cleopatra</i></a>. Melbourne: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876832-44-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-876832-44-5"><bdi>978-1-876832-44-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191007111829/https://books.google.com/books?id=K_zR2mHWPmoC">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tiepolo%27s+Cleopatra&rft.place=Melbourne&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-876832-44-5&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Jaynie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK_zR2mHWPmoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAston1994" class="citation book cs1">Aston, Barbara G. (1994). <i>Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels: Materials and Forms</i>. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. Vol. 5. Heidelberger Orientverlag. pp. 23–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-927552-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-927552-12-8"><bdi>978-3-927552-12-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Stone+Vessels%3A+Materials+and+Forms&rft.series=Studien+zur+Arch%C3%A4ologie+und+Geschichte+Alt%C3%A4gyptens&rft.pages=23-26&rft.pub=Heidelberger+Orientverlag&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-927552-12-8&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Barbara+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstonHarrellShaw2000" class="citation book cs1">Aston, Barbara G.; Harrell, James A.; Shaw, Ian (2000). "Stone: Obsidian". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PP1"><i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45257-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stone%3A+Obsidian&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.pages=46-47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45257-1&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Barbara+G.&rft.au=Harrell%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVj7A9jJrZP0C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstronomical_Ceiling2020" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200517170349/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566">"Astronomical Ceiling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566">the original</a> on 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Astronomical+Ceiling&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F544566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtaç2014" class="citation book cs1">Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424">"Egyptian Connections with the Larger World: Ancient Near East"</a>. In Hartwig, Melinda K. (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art</i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 423–446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3350-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3350-3"><bdi>978-1-4443-3350-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egyptian+Connections+with+the+Larger+World%3A+Ancient+Near+East&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pages=423-446&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3350-3&rft.aulast=Ata%C3%A7&rft.aufirst=Mehmet-Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0NwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawy1968" class="citation book cs1">Badawy, Alexander (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Badawy1968"><i>A History of Egyptian Architecture</i></a>. Vol. III. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00057-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00057-5"><bdi>978-0-520-00057-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Egyptian+Architecture&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-520-00057-5&rft.aulast=Badawy&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBadawy1968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillard1978" class="citation book cs1">Billard, Jules B. (1978). <i>Ancient Egypt, Discovering Its Splendors</i>. National Geographic Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87044-220-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87044-220-9"><bdi>978-0-87044-220-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%2C+Discovering+Its+Splendors&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-87044-220-9&rft.aulast=Billard&rft.aufirst=Jules+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBleiberg2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bleiberg" title="Edward Bleiberg">Bleiberg, Edward</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artsandhumanitiesthroughtheerasvol.1ancientegypt_406_T/"><i>Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt 2675–332 B.C.E.</i></a> Vol. 1. Thomson/Gale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-5698-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-5698-0"><bdi>978-0-7876-5698-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arts+and+Humanities+Through+the+Eras%3A+Ancient+Egypt+2675%E2%80%93332+B.C.E.&rft.pub=Thomson%2FGale&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-5698-0&rft.aulast=Bleiberg&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartsandhumanitiesthroughtheerasvol.1ancientegypt_406_T%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonnet2006" class="citation book cs1">Bonnet, Charles (2006). <i>The Nubian Pharaohs</i>. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3"><bdi>978-977-416-010-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142-154&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-977-416-010-3&rft.aulast=Bonnet&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman2020" class="citation web cs1">Bowman, Alan K. (22 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt">"Ancient Egypt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-2-part-2/page/606/">"Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/I._E._S._Edwards" title="I. E. S. Edwards">I.E.S. Edwards</a> (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II, Part 2. History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 B.C</i> (third ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 606. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08691-2"><bdi>978-0-521-08691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egypt+from+the+Death+of+Ramesses+III+to+the+End+of+the+Twenty-First+Dynasty&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Volume+II%2C+Part+2.+History+of+the+Middle+East+and+the+Aegean+Region%2C+c.+1380%E2%80%931000+B.C&rft.pages=606&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08691-2&rft.aulast=Cerny&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-2-part-2%2Fpage%2F606%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Chadwick_(theologian)" title="Henry Chadwick (theologian)">Chadwick, Henry</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Book_2239/page/373/"><i>The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152995-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152995-5"><bdi>978-0-19-152995-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+Ancient+Society%3A+From+Galilee+to+Gregory+the+Great&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-152995-5&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBook_2239%2Fpage%2F373%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChronology2000" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html">"Chronology"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080316015559/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Chronology&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fchronology%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html#naqadaI">"Chronology of the Naqada Period"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080328182409/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Chronology+of+the+Naqada+Period&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fnaqadan%2Fchronology.html%23naqadaI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeEngelbach1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Somers_Clarke" title="Somers Clarke">Clarke, Somers</a>; <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Engelbach" title="Reginald Engelbach">Engelbach, Reginald</a> (1990) [1930]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie6DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture</i></a> (Unabridged reprint of <i>Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft</i> originally published by Oxford University Press ed.). 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London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05074-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05074-3&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofphara00clay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurry2011" class="citation news cs1">Curry, Andrew (5 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovermagazine.com/2011/jun/02-egypts-lost-fleet-its-been-found">"Egypt's Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in a Desolate Cave"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Discover_(magazine)" title="Discover (magazine)">Discover</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discover&rft.atitle=Egypt%27s+Ancient+Fleet%3A+Lost+for+Thousands+of+Years%2C+Discovered+in+a+Desolate+Cave&rft.date=2011-09-05&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovermagazine.com%2F2011%2Fjun%2F02-egypts-lost-fleet-its-been-found&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaience_in_different_Periods2000" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html">"Faience in different Periods"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080330041500/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Faience+in+different+Periods&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ffaience%2Fperiods.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD’AtanasioRisiRavasiniMontinaro2023" class="citation journal cs1">D’Atanasio, Eugenia; Risi, Flavia; Ravasini, Francesco; Montinaro, Francesco; Hajiesmaeil, Mogge; Bonucci, Biancamaria; Pistacchia, Letizia; Amoako-Sakyi, Daniel; Bonito, Maria; Onidi, Sara; Colombo, Giulia; Semino, Ornella; Destro Bisol, Giovanni; Anagnostou, Paolo; Metspalu, Mait (18 December 2023). "The genomic echoes of the last Green Sahara on the Fulani and Sahelian people". <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>33</b> (24): 5495–5504.e4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023CBio...33E5495D">2023CBio...33E5495D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2023.10.075">10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.075</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822">0960-9822</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37995693">37995693</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:265356320">265356320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=The+genomic+echoes+of+the+last+Green+Sahara+on+the+Fulani+and+Sahelian+people&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=5495-5504.e4&rft.date=2023-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A265356320%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023CBio...33E5495D&rft.issn=0960-9822&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2023.10.075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37995693&rft.aulast=D%E2%80%99Atanasio&rft.aufirst=Eugenia&rft.au=Risi%2C+Flavia&rft.au=Ravasini%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Montinaro%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Hajiesmaeil%2C+Mogge&rft.au=Bonucci%2C+Biancamaria&rft.au=Pistacchia%2C+Letizia&rft.au=Amoako-Sakyi%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Bonito%2C+Maria&rft.au=Onidi%2C+Sara&rft.au=Colombo%2C+Giulia&rft.au=Semino%2C+Ornella&rft.au=Destro+Bisol%2C+Giovanni&rft.au=Anagnostou%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Metspalu%2C+Mait&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayGordonWilliamson1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Day_(biblical_scholar)" title="John Day (biblical scholar)">Day, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Gordon" title="Robert P. Gordon">Gordon, Robert P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hugh_G._M._Williamson" title="Hugh G. M. Williamson">Williamson, H.G.M.</a>, eds. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bHJYcVlrcfcC&pg=PA23"><i>Wisdom in Ancient Israel</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62489-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62489-3"><bdi>978-0-521-62489-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wisdom+in+Ancient+Israel&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62489-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbHJYcVlrcfcC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodson1991" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smWCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Egyptian Rock-cut Tombs</i></a>. Shire. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0128-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0128-3"><bdi>978-0-7478-0128-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Rock-cut+Tombs&rft.pub=Shire&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0128-3&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Aidan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsmWCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodsonHilton2004" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P7CpQgAACAAJ&pg=PP1"><i>The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05128-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05128-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05128-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Royal+Families+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05128-3&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Aidan&rft.au=Hilton%2C+Dyan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP7CpQgAACAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodsonIkram2008" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan; Ikram, Salima (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9-0CGwAACAAJ&pg=PP1"><i>The Tomb in Ancient Egypt: Royal and Private Sepulchres from the Early Dynastic Period to the Romans</i></a>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05139-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05139-9"><bdi>978-0-500-05139-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tomb+in+Ancient+Egypt%3A+Royal+and+Private+Sepulchres+from+the+Early+Dynastic+Period+to+the+Romans&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05139-9&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Aidan&rft.au=Ikram%2C+Salima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9-0CGwAACAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrews1993" class="citation book cs1">Drews, Robert (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bFpK6aXEWN8C&pg=PA48"><i>The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C.</i></a> Princeton University Press. pp. 48–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02591-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02591-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02591-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Bronze+Age%3A+Changes+in+Warfare+and+the+Catastrophe+Ca.+1200+B.C.&rft.pages=48-61&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02591-9&rft.aulast=Drews&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbFpK6aXEWN8C%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531225453/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html">"Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html">the original</a> on 31 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Egyptian+pottery+of+the+beginning+of+the+First+Dynasty%2C+found+in+South+Palestine&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fforeignrelations%2F1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Daly2005" class="citation book cs1">El-Daly, Okasha (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GmuTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-42976-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-42976-2"><bdi>978-1-315-42976-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptology%3A+The+Missing+Millennium%3A+Ancient+Egypt+in+Medieval+Arabic+Writings&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-315-42976-2&rft.aulast=El-Daly&rft.aufirst=Okasha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGmuTDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021" class="citation book cs1">Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith R.; Engerman, Stanley L.; Perry, Craig; Cartledge, Paul; Richardson, David; Drescher, Seymour (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DskwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150"><i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84067-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84067-5"><bdi>978-0-521-84067-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery%3A+Volume+2%2C+AD+500%E2%80%93AD+1420&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84067-5&rft.aulast=Eltis&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Keith+R.&rft.au=Engerman%2C+Stanley+L.&rft.au=Perry%2C+Craig&rft.au=Cartledge%2C+Paul&rft.au=Richardson%2C+David&rft.au=Drescher%2C+Seymour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDskwEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). <i>Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</i>. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-48102-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-615-48102-9"><bdi>978-0-615-48102-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-615-48102-9&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiler1995" class="citation book cs1">Filer, Joyce (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/disease00file"><i>Disease</i></a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-72498-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-72498-3"><bdi>978-0-292-72498-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disease&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-292-72498-3&rft.aulast=Filer&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdisease00file&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFregel2021" class="citation journal cs1">Fregel, Rosa (17 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/9789004500228/BP000019.xml">"Paleogenomics of the Neolithic Transition in North Africa"</a>. <i>Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity</i>. Brill: 213–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004500228_009">10.1163/9789004500228_009</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50022-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50022-8"><bdi>978-90-04-50022-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Published on behalf of the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, by Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900416-35-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-900416-35-4"><bdi>978-0-900416-35-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Grammar%3A+Being+an+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.pub=Published+on+behalf+of+the+Griffith+Institute%2C+Ashmolean+Museum%2C+Oxford%2C+by+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-900416-35-4&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Sir+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrajetzki2007" class="citation journal cs1">Grajetzki, W. (2007). 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"Gold Resources of Egypt". <i>Compte Rendu of the XV Session, South Africa, 1929</i>. By International Geological Congress. Pretoria: Wallach. p. 123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gold+Resources+of+Egypt&rft.btitle=Compte+Rendu+of+the+XV+Session%2C+South+Africa%2C+1929&rft.place=Pretoria&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Wallach&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Greaves&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rft.au=Little%2C+O.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864">"Guardian Figure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08230-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08230-3"><bdi>978-0-521-08230-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egypt%3A+Internal+affairs+from+Tuthmosis+I+to+the+death+of+Amenophis+III&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Volume+II+part+I%3A+History+of+the+Middle+East+and+the+Aegean+Region+c.+1800%E2%80%931380&rft.pages=380&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08230-3&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFF5-7JVj4jYC%26pg%3DPA380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeptnerSludskii1992" class="citation book cs1">Heptner, V.G.; Sludskii, A.A. (1992) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov221992gept/page/83">"Lion"</a>. <i>Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)</i>. 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(12 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4055572">"Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa"</a>. <i>PLOS Genetics</i>. <b>10</b> (6): e1004393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1004393">10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-7404">1553-7404</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4055572">4055572</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24921250">24921250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Genetics&rft.atitle=Early+Back-to-Africa+Migration+into+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e1004393&rft.date=2014-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4055572%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1553-7404&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24921250&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1004393&rft.aulast=Hodgson&rft.aufirst=Jason+A.&rft.au=Mulligan%2C+Connie+J.&rft.au=Al-Meeri%2C+Ali&rft.au=Raaum%2C+Ryan+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4055572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogan2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hogan, C.Michael (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Sulfur">"Sulfur"</a>. In A. Jorgensen; C.J. Cleveland (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Earth</i>. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028080550/https://www.eoearth.org/article/Sulfur?topic=49557">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sulfur&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Earth&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=National+Council+for+Science+and+the+Environment&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hogan&rft.aufirst=C.Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feditors.eol.org%2Feoearth%2Fwiki%2FSulfur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkram1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Salima_Ikram" title="Salima Ikram">Ikram, Salima</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Am88Yc8gRkC&pg=PA5"><i>Choice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt</i></a>. University of Cambridge. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-745-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-745-9"><bdi>978-90-6831-745-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choice+Cuts%3A+Meat+Production+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-90-6831-745-9&rft.aulast=Ikram&rft.aufirst=Salima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1Am88Yc8gRkC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkramDodson1998" class="citation book cs1">Ikram, Salima; Dodson, Aidan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mummyinancienteg00ikra/page/29/mode/1up"><i>The Mummy in Ancient Egypt : equipping the dead for eternity</i></a>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05088-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05088-0"><bdi>978-0-500-05088-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mummy+in+Ancient+Egypt+%3A+equipping+the+dead+for+eternity&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05088-0&rft.aulast=Ikram&rft.aufirst=Salima&rft.au=Dodson%2C+Aidan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmummyinancienteg00ikra%2Fpage%2F29%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret2023" class="citation book cs1">Ehret, Christopher (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PG1"><i>Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 82–90, 97, 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24409-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24409-9"><bdi>978-0-691-24409-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Africa%3A+A+Global+History%2C+to+300+CE&rft.pages=82-90%2C+97%2C+167&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-691-24409-9&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ5KjEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPG1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImhausen2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annette_Imhausen" title="Annette Imhausen">Imhausen, Annette</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ullzl036UEC&pg=PA7">"Egyptian Mathematics"</a>. In Victor J. Katz (ed.). <i>The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11485-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egyptian+Mathematics&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Egypt%2C+Mesopotamia%2C+China%2C+India%2C+and+Islam%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11485-9&rft.aulast=Imhausen&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ullzl036UEC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._G._H._James" title="T. G. H. 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University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03137-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03137-5"><bdi>978-0-472-03137-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Museum+Concise+Introduction+to+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-472-03137-5&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=T.G.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritishmuseumcon00jame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2002" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Janet_H._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Janet H. Johnson">Johnson, Janet H.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/">"Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt"</a>. <i>Fathom Archive</i>. University of Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fathom+Archive&rft.atitle=Women%27s+Legal+Rights+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Janet+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffathom.lib.uchicago.edu%2F1%2F777777190170%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeita2022" class="citation book cs1">Keita, Shomarka (2022). <i>Ancient Egyptian 'Origins and "Identity"'. In Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches</i>. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 111–122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0367434632" title="Special:BookSources/978-0367434632"><bdi>978-0367434632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+%27Origins+and+%22Identity%22%27.+In+Ancient+Egyptian+society+%3A+challenging+assumptions%2C+exploring+approaches&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pages=111-122&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0367434632&rft.aulast=Keita&rft.aufirst=Shomarka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Kemp_(Egyptologist)" title="Barry Kemp (Egyptologist)">Kemp, Barry J.</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415063463"><i>Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization</i></a></span>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06346-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06346-3"><bdi>978-0-415-06346-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+Anatomy+of+a+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06346-3&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780415063463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKillebrewLehmann2013" class="citation book cs1">Killebrew, Ann E.; Lehmann, Gunnar, eds. 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Society of Biblical Literature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-721-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-721-8"><bdi>978-1-58983-721-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philistines+and+Other+Sea+Peoples+in+Text+and+Archaeology&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-721-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgBCl2IQfNioC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Lichtheim" title="Miriam Lichtheim">Lichtheim, Miriam</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bqG3NtbDdzQC&pg=PP1"><i>Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02899-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02899-9"><bdi>978-0-520-02899-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+The+Old+and+Middle+Kingdoms&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02899-9&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbqG3NtbDdzQC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim1980" class="citation book cs1">Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NhdV8Z9oVkgC&pg=PP1"><i>Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04020-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04020-5"><bdi>978-0-520-04020-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+A+Book+of+Readings&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04020-5&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNhdV8Z9oVkgC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Loprieno" title="Antonio Loprieno">Loprieno, Antonio</a> (1995a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr"><i>Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44849-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44849-9"><bdi>978-0-521-44849-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44849-9&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientegyptianl0000lopr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995b" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). "Ancient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages". In Jack M. Sasson (ed.). <i>Civilizations of the ancient Near East</i>. Vol. 4. Scribner. pp. 2137–2150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19723-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19723-4"><bdi>978-0-684-19723-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+and+other+Afroasiatic+Languages&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=2137-2150&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-19723-4&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno2004" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (2004). "Ancient Egyptian and Coptic". In Roger D. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+and+Coptic&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.pages=160-192&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56256-0&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorenzi2013" class="citation web cs1">Lorenzi, Rossella (12 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.seeker.com/most-ancient-port-hieroglyphic-papyri-found-1767404864.html">"Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Seeker.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Seeker.com">Seeker.com</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seeker.com&rft.atitle=Most+Ancient+Port%2C+Hieroglyphic+Papyri+Found&rft.date=2013-04-12&rft.aulast=Lorenzi&rft.aufirst=Rossella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.seeker.com%2Fmost-ancient-port-hieroglyphic-papyri-found-1767404864.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas1962" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Alfred (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianm0000aluc"><i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries</i></a> (4th ed.). London: Edward Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85417-046-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85417-046-0"><bdi>978-1-85417-046-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Industries&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-1-85417-046-0&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientegyptianm0000aluc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMullen1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacMullen" title="Ramsay MacMullen">MacMullen, Ramsay</a> (1984). <i>Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400)</i>. Yale University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03642-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03642-8"><bdi>978-0-300-03642-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianizing+the+Roman+Empire%3A+%28A.D.+100%E2%80%93400%29&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03642-8&rft.aulast=MacMullen&rft.aufirst=Ramsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManuelian1998" class="citation book cs1">Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). Regine Schulz; Matthias Seidel (eds.). <i>Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs</i>. Cologne: Könemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89508-913-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89508-913-8"><bdi>978-3-89508-913-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%3A+The+World+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=Cologne&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-89508-913-8&rft.aulast=Manuelian&rft.aufirst=Peter+Der&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell1999" class="citation book cs1">McDowell, A. G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmNSO5-LUcwC&pg=PP1"><i>Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924753-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924753-0"><bdi>978-0-19-924753-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Village+Life+in+Ancient+Egypt%3A+Laundry+Lists+and+Love+Songs&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924753-0&rft.aulast=McDowell&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQmNSO5-LUcwC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeskell2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Meskell" title="Lynn Meskell">Meskell, Lynn</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YLISEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present</i></a>. Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85973-867-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85973-867-2"><bdi>978-1-85973-867-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Object+Worlds+in+Ancient+Egypt%3A+Material+Biographies+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85973-867-2&rft.aulast=Meskell&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYLISEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfe2018" class="citation web cs1">Metcalfe, Tom (10 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/64266-ancient-board-games.html">"16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games"</a>. <i>Live Science</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=16+of+the+Most+Interesting+Ancient+Board+and+Dice+Games&rft.date=2018-12-10&rft.aulast=Metcalfe&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F64266-ancient-board-games.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">de Miroschedji, Pierre; Sadeq, Moain (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/book/the-new-encyclopedia-of-archaeological-excavations-in-the-holy-land/sakan-tell-es/">"Sakan, Tell es-"</a>. <i>The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land</i>. Vol. 5: Supplementary Volume. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Exploration_Society" title="Israel Exploration Society">Israel Exploration Society</a>/<a href="/wiki/Biblical_Archaeology_Society" title="Biblical Archaeology Society">Biblical Archaeology Society</a> (BAS)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06697-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06697-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06697-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa&rft.place=California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06697-7&rft.aulast=Mokhtar&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html">"Music in Ancient Egypt"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080328000007/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Music+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ffurniture%2Fmusic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PP1"><i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45257-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45257-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVj7A9jJrZP0C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsonPeltenburg2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Paul T.; Peltenburg, Edgar (2000). "Egyptian faience". 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 177–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45257-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egyptian+faience&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.pages=177-194&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45257-1&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rft.au=Peltenburg%2C+Edgar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVj7A9jJrZP0C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrendergastSawchukSirak2022" class="citation journal cs1">Prendergast, Mary E.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Sirak, Kendra A. 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Berkley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-425-19096-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-425-19096-8"><bdi>978-0-425-19096-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Essential+Guide+to+Egyptian+Mythology&rft.pub=Berkley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-425-19096-8&rft.aulast=Redford&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordessentialg0000unse_m7s6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2008" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofancientegyp0000robi"><i>The Art of Ancient Egypt</i></a> (revised ed.). 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(18 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/acrefore-9780190854584-e-484%5B1%5D.pdf">"Ancient Human DNA and African Population History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190854584.013.484">10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.484</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-085458-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-085458-4"><bdi>978-0-19-085458-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Ancient+Human+DNA+and+African+Population+History&rft.date=2022-05-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190854584.013.484&rft.isbn=978-0-19-085458-4&rft.aulast=Sirak&rft.aufirst=Kendra+A.&rft.au=Sawchuk%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Prendergast%2C+Mary+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Fsites%2Freich.hms.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Finline-files%2Facrefore-9780190854584-e-484%255B1%255D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html">"Social classes in ancient Egypt"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071213192904/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Social+classes+in+ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fsocial%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoglundThompsonPrendergastMittnik2017" class="citation journal cs1">Skoglund, Pontus; Thompson, Jessica C.; Prendergast, Mary E.; Mittnik, Alissa; Sirak, Kendra; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Salie, Tasneem; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Peltzer, Alexander; Heinze, Anja; Olalde, Iñigo; Ferry, Matthew; Harney, Eadaoin; Michel, Megan (September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5679310">"Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>171</b> (1): 59–71.e21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2017.08.049">10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674">0092-8674</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5679310">5679310</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28938123">28938123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+Prehistoric+African+Population+Structure&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-71.e21&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5679310%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0092-8674&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28938123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2017.08.049&rft.aulast=Skoglund&rft.aufirst=Pontus&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Jessica+C.&rft.au=Prendergast%2C+Mary+E.&rft.au=Mittnik%2C+Alissa&rft.au=Sirak%2C+Kendra&rft.au=Hajdinjak%2C+Mateja&rft.au=Salie%2C+Tasneem&rft.au=Rohland%2C+Nadin&rft.au=Mallick%2C+Swapan&rft.au=Peltzer%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Heinze%2C+Anja&rft.au=Olalde%2C+I%C3%B1igo&rft.au=Ferry%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Harney%2C+Eadaoin&rft.au=Michel%2C+Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5679310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiebingHelft2023" class="citation book cs1">Stiebing, William H. Jr; Helft, Susan N. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AUm7EAAAQBAJ&pg=1"><i>Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 209–212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-88066-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-88066-3"><bdi>978-1-000-88066-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=209-212&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-000-88066-3&rft.aulast=Stiebing&rft.aufirst=William+H.+Jr&rft.au=Helft%2C+Susan+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAUm7EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrouhal1989" class="citation book cs1">Strouhal, Eugen (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofancientegy0000stro"><i>Life in Ancient Egypt</i></a>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2475-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-2475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2475-9&rft.aulast=Strouhal&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofancientegy0000stro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTörök1998" class="citation book cs1">Török, László (1998). <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10448-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10448-8"><bdi>978-90-04-10448-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+of+Kush%3A+Handbook+of+the+Napatan-Meroitic+Civilization&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10448-8&rft.aulast=T%C3%B6r%C3%B6k&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyldesley2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Tyldesley" title="Joyce Tyldesley">Tyldesley, Joyce</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ramessesegyptsgr0000tyld"><i>Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh</i></a>. Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 76–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-194978-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-194978-9"><bdi>978-0-14-194978-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramesses%3A+Egypt%27s+Greatest+Pharaoh&rft.pages=76-77&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-14-194978-9&rft.aulast=Tyldesley&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Framessesegyptsgr0000tyld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTypes_of_temples_in_ancient_Egypt2003" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html">"Types of temples in ancient Egypt"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080319233620/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Types+of+temples+in+ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Ftemple%2Ftypestime.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVittman1991" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vittman, Günther (1991). "Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch" [the Coptic language in Egyptian Arabic]. <i>Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i> (in German). <b>81</b>: 197–227. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23865622">23865622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wiener+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+die+Kunde+des+Morgenlandes&rft.atitle=Zum+koptischen+Sprachgut+im+%C3%84gyptisch-Arabisch&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=197-227&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23865622%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vittman&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachsmann2009" class="citation book cs1">Wachsmann, Shelley (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=apna4pv7Ks8C&pg=PP1"><i>Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant</i></a>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60344-080-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60344-080-6"><bdi>978-1-60344-080-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seagoing+Ships+%26+Seamanship+in+the+Bronze+Age+Levant&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60344-080-6&rft.aulast=Wachsmann&rft.aufirst=Shelley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dapna4pv7Ks8C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1984" class="citation book cs1">Turner, E.G. (1984) [1928]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lnIpo8KBbP4C&pg=PA125">"Ptolemaic Egypt"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">Walbank, F. W.</a>; Astin, A. E.; Fredericksen, M. W.; Ogilvie, R.M. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume VII, Part 1, The Hellenic World</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23445-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23445-0"><bdi>978-0-521-23445-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ptolemaic+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+Volume+VII%2C+Part+1%2C+The+Hellenic+World&rft.pages=125&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23445-0&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=E.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlnIpo8KBbP4C%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html">"Early Dynastic Egypt"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080304143847/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Early+Dynastic+Egypt&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Farchaicegypt%2Finfo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/metal/coins.html">"Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies"</a>. <i>Digital Egypt for Universities</i>. University College London. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Egypt+for+Universities&rft.atitle=Egypt%3A+Coins+of+the+Ptolemies&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmuseums-static%2Fdigitalegypt%2Fmetal%2Fcoins.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, Cheryl (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html">"World's Oldest Planked Boats"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)" title="Archaeology (magazine)">Archaeology</a></i>. <b>54</b> (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=World%27s+Oldest+Planked+Boats&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2001-05&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Cheryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2F0105%2Fabstracts%2Fabydos3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserman1994" class="citation book cs1">Wasserman, James, ed. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/egyptianbookofde0000unse/mode/2up"><i>The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day</i></a>. Translated by Raymond Faulkner. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8118-0767-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8118-0767-8"><bdi>978-0-8118-0767-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Egyptian+Book+of+the+Dead%3A+The+Book+of+Going+Forth+by+Day&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Chronicle+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8118-0767-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fegyptianbookofde0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBainesMálek2000" class="citation book cs1">Baines, John; Málek, Jaromír (2000). <i>Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt</i>. Checkmark Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4036-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4036-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-4036-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Atlas+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Checkmark+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4036-0&rft.aulast=Baines&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=M%C3%A1lek%2C+Jarom%C3%ADr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_A._Bard" title="Kathryn A. Bard">Bard, Kathryn A.</a>, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EncyclopediaOfTheArchaeologyOfAncientEgypt"><i>Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-66525-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-66525-9"><bdi>978-1-134-66525-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-134-66525-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEncyclopediaOfTheArchaeologyOfAncientEgypt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimal1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Grimal" title="Nicolas Grimal">Grimal, Nicolas</a> (1994) [1988]. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19396-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19396-8"><bdi>978-0-631-19396-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19396-8&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelckOtto1972–1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Helck" title="Wolfgang Helck">Helck, Wolfgang</a>; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972–1992). <i><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikon_der_%C3%84gyptologie" class="extiw" title="de:Lexikon der Ägyptologie">Lexikon der Ägyptologie</a></i>. O. Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01441-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01441-0"><bdi>978-3-447-01441-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexikon+der+%C3%84gyptologie&rft.pub=O.+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1972%2F1992&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01441-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehner1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lehner" title="Mark Lehner">Lehner, Mark</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completepyramids00lehn"><i>The Complete Pyramids</i></a>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2"><bdi>978-0-500-05084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Pyramids&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05084-2&rft.aulast=Lehner&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletepyramids00lehn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory-Greenough2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (December 2002). "The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Egyptian_Archaeology" title="Journal of Egyptian Archaeology">Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</a></i>. <b>88</b> (1): 67–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3822337">10.2307/3822337</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822337">3822337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Geographical%2C+Spatial%2C+and+Temporal+Distribution+of+Predynastic+and+First+Dynasty+Basalt+Vessels&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-93&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3822337&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3822337%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mallory-Greenough&rft.aufirst=Leanne+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMidant-Reynes2000" class="citation book cs1">Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000). <i>The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21787-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21787-9"><bdi>978-0-631-21787-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+Egypt%3A+From+the+First+Egyptians+to+the+First+Pharaohs&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21787-9&rft.aulast=Midant-Reynes&rft.aufirst=Beatrix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedford2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_B._Redford" title="Donald B. Redford">Redford, Donald B.</a>, ed. (2001). <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Encyclopedia_of_Ancient_Egypt" title="Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt">The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt</a></i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510234-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510234-5"><bdi>978-0-19-510234-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510234-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuenemannPeltzerWelteVan_Pelt2017" class="citation journal cs1">Schuenemann, Verena J.; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix; et al. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5459999">"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>8</b>: 15694. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCo...815694S">2017NatCo...815694S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms15694">10.1038/ncomms15694</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5459999">5459999</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28556824">28556824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+mummy+genomes+suggest+an+increase+of+Sub-Saharan+African+ancestry+in+post-Roman+periods&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=15694&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5459999%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28556824&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms15694&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatCo...815694S&rft.aulast=Schuenemann&rft.aufirst=Verena+J.&rft.au=Peltzer%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Welte%2C+Beatrix&rft.au=Van+Pelt%2C+W.+Paul&rft.au=Molak%2C+Martyna&rft.au=Wang%2C+Chuan-Chao&rft.au=Furtw%C3%A4ngler%2C+Anja&rft.au=Urban%2C+Christian&rft.au=Reiter%2C+Ella&rft.au=Nieselt%2C+Kay&rft.au=Te%C3%9Fmann%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Francken%2C+Michael&rft.au=Harvati%2C+Katerina&rft.au=Haak%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Schiffels%2C+Stephan&rft.au=Krause%2C+Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5459999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, R.H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completetempleso00wilk"><i>The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05100-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05100-9"><bdi>978-0-500-05100-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Temples+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05100-9&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletetempleso00wilk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Wilkinson" title="Richard H. Wilkinson">Wilkinson, R.H.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0"><i>The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt</i></a>. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05120-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05120-7"><bdi>978-0-500-05120-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Gods+and+Goddesses+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05120-7&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletegodsgodd00wilk_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZakrzewski2007" class="citation journal cs1">Zakrzewski, Sonia (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf">"Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a></i>. <b>132</b> (4): 501–509. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.20569">10.1002/ajpa.20569</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17295300">17295300</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Population+continuity+or+population+change%3A+Formation+of+the+ancient+Egyptian+state&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=501-509&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.20569&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17295300&rft.aulast=Zakrzewski&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F12075%2F1%2F2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Ancient Egypt</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" 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data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="q:Ancient Egypt">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Ancient Egypt">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History/Egypt" class="extiw" title="b:Ancient History/Egypt">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Ancient Egypt">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="voy:Ancient Egypt">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Egypt/2_Ancient_Egypt">"Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egypt%2F2+Ancient+Egypt&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/">BBC History: Egyptians</a> – provides a reliable general overview and further links</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC">Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989</a></li> <li><i>Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080602082144/https://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/Napoleon-on-the-Nile/Joseph--1874.htm">Art History</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/">Digital Egypt for Universities.</a> Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/">Priests of Ancient Egypt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220322033044/http://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/">Archived</a> 22 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uee.ucla.edu/">UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/women_01.shtml">Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women</a> by Dr Joann Fletcher</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210524151020/http://www.civilization.org.uk/egypt/">"Full-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world"</a>. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Full-length+account+of+Ancient+Egypt+as+part+of+history+of+the+world&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilization.org.uk%2Fegypt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Egypt_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt/Main_topics" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt/Main topics">Main topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" 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title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11768#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11768#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11768#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/106146462599127770328">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4068430-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562072">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="starověký Egypt"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge146585&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810664105905606">Poland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/981503">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egypt&oldid=1258241101">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egypt&oldid=1258241101</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bronze_Age_civilizations" title="Category:Bronze Age civilizations">Bronze 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[\"CITEREFChronology2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChronology_of_the_Naqada_Period2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkeEngelbach1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClayton1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurry2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDayGordonWilliamson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodsonHilton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodsonIkram2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrews1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD’AtanasioRisiRavasiniMontinaro2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEarly_Dynastic_Egypt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgypt:_Coins_of_the_Ptolemies2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgyptian_pottery_of_the_beginning_of_the_First_Dynasty,_found_in_South_Palestine2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhret2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Daly2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltisBradleyEngermanPerry2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmberling2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaience_in_different_Periods2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiler1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFregel2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardiner1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrajetzki2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreavesLittle1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimal1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuardian_Figure_14.3.172022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelckOtto1972–1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeptnerSludskii1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodgsonMulliganAl-MeeriRaaum2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHogan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIkram1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIkramDodson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImhausen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeita2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKillebrewLehmann2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLichtheim1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLichtheim1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoprieno1995a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoprieno1995b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoprieno2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorenzi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMullen1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory-Greenough2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManuelian1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDowell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeskell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalfe2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMidant-Reynes2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohamed2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMokhtar1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusic_in_Ancient_Egypt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsonPeltenburg2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsonShaw2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorCline2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakesGahlin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPećanacJanjićKomarcevićPajić2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorat1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorat1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrendergastSawchukSirak2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedford2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedford2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobins2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyholt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheel1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuenemannPeltzerWelteVan_Pelt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuster2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeaburn2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShabtis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShea1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiliotti1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSirakSawchukPrendergast2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkoglundThompsonPrendergastMittnik2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlavery2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSocial_classes_in_ancient_Egypt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiebingHelft2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrouhal1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyldesley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTypes_of_temples_in_ancient_Egypt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTörök1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVittman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWachsmann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWasserman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkinson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkinson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZakrzewski2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_MiroschedjiSadeq2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Egypt graphical timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Egypt topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient seafaring\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blist\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 18,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 75,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 21,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 7,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 2,\n [\"Frac\"] = 5,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 13,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 5,\n [\"Hiero\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 26,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 37,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 7,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnmp\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 233,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 2,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","24.4"],["?","320","19.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","9.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","4.9"],["type","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","3.7"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","2.4"],["[others]","300","18.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-phcpv","timestamp":"20241123151349","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ancient Egypt","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_Egypt","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11768","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11768","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-05-13T09:43:48Z","dateModified":"2024-11-18T22:25:00Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/17\/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg","headline":"Egyptian civilization from the 31st century BC to the 1st century BC"}</script> </body> </html>