CINXE.COM

<!doctype html> <html data-n-head-ssr lang="en" data-n-head="%7B%22lang%22:%7B%22ssr%22:%22en%22%7D%7D"> <head > <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_16-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_32-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <link data-n-head="ssr" rel="apple-touch-icon" type="image/png" sizes="180x180" href="https://brand.frontiersin.org/m/ed3f9ce840a03d7/favicon_180-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png"> <title>Frontiers | ChatGPT’s performance in German OB/GYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice</title><meta data-n-head="ssr" charset="utf-8"><meta data-n-head="ssr" name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="charset" charset="utf-8"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="mobile-web-app-capable" name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="apple-mobile-web-app-title" name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Frontiers | Articles"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="theme-color" name="theme-color" content="#0C4DED"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="description" property="description" name="description" content="BackgroundChat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes ..."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:title" property="og:title" name="title" content="Frontiers | ChatGPT’s performance in German OB/GYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:description" property="og:description" name="description" content="BackgroundChat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes ..."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="keywords" name="keywords" content="hat gelöscht:,thereby fostering inclusivity and accessibility medical education,ChatGPT,artificial intelligence,machine learning,Obstetrics and Gynecology,Students"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:site_name" property="og:site_name" name="site_name" content="Frontiers"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:image" property="og:image" name="image" content="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=1200&f=png/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:type" property="og:type" name="type" content="article"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="og:url" property="og:url" name="url" content="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="twitter:card" name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_volume" name="citation_volume" content="10"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_journal_title" name="citation_journal_title" content="Frontiers in Medicine"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_publisher" name="citation_publisher" content="Frontiers"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_journal_abbrev" name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Front. Med."><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_issn" name="citation_issn" content="2296-858X"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_doi" name="citation_doi" content="10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_firstpage" name="citation_firstpage" content="1296615"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_language" name="citation_language" content="English"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_title" name="citation_title" content="ChatGPT’s performance in German OB/GYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_keywords" name="citation_keywords" content="hat gelöscht:; thereby fostering inclusivity and accessibility medical education; ChatGPT; artificial intelligence; machine learning; Obstetrics and Gynecology; Students"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_abstract" name="citation_abstract" content="<sec id="sec1"><title>Background</title><p>Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes deep learning algorithms to process natural language and generate responses, which renders it suitable for conversational interfaces. ChatGPT’s potential to transform medical education and clinical practice is currently being explored, but its capabilities and limitations in this domain remain incompletely investigated. The present study aimed to assess ChatGPT’s performance in medical knowledge competency for problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN).</p></sec><sec id="sec2"><title>Methods</title><p>Two datasets were established for analysis: questions (1) from OB/GYN course exams at a German university hospital and (2) from the German medical state licensing exams. In order to assess ChatGPT’s performance, questions were entered into the chat interface, and responses were documented. A quantitative analysis compared ChatGPT’s accuracy with that of medical students for different levels of difficulty and types of questions. Additionally, a qualitative analysis assessed the quality of ChatGPT’s responses regarding ease of understanding, conciseness, accuracy, completeness, and relevance. Non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT were evaluated, and a density index of insights was established in order to quantify the tool’s ability to provide students with relevant and concise medical knowledge.</p></sec><sec id="sec3"><title>Results</title><p>ChatGPT demonstrated consistent and comparable performance across both datasets. It provided correct responses at a rate comparable with that of medical students, thereby indicating its ability to handle a diverse spectrum of questions ranging from general knowledge to complex clinical case presentations. The tool’s accuracy was partly affected by question difficulty in the medical state exam dataset. Our qualitative assessment revealed that ChatGPT provided mostly accurate, complete, and relevant answers. ChatGPT additionally provided many non-obvious insights, especially in correctly answered questions, which indicates its potential for enhancing autonomous medical learning.</p></sec><sec id="sec4"><title>Conclusion</title><p>ChatGPT has promise as a supplementary tool in medical education and clinical practice. Its ability to provide accurate and insightful responses showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. As AI technologies continue to evolve, ChatGPT and similar tools may contribute to more efficient and personalized learning experiences and assistance for health care providers.</p></sec>"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_pdf_url" name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/pdf"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_online_date" name="citation_online_date" content="2023/11/27"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_publication_date" name="citation_publication_date" content="2023/12/13"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_0" name="citation_author" content="Riedel, Maximilian"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_0" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_1" name="citation_author" content="Kaefinger, Katharina"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_1" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_2" name="citation_author" content="Stuehrenberg, Antonia"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_2" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_3" name="citation_author" content="Ritter, Viktoria"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_3" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_4" name="citation_author" content="Amann, Niklas"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_4" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Friedrich–Alexander-University Erlangen–Nuremberg (FAU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_5" name="citation_author" content="Graf, Anna"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_5" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_6" name="citation_author" content="Recker, Florian"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_6" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Bonn University Hospital, Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_7" name="citation_author" content="Klein, Evelyn"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_7" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_8" name="citation_author" content="Kiechle, Marion"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_8" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_9" name="citation_author" content="Riedel, Fabian"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_9" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_10" name="citation_author" content="Meyer, Bastian"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="citation_author_institution_10" name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany"><meta data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="dc.identifier" name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615"><link data-n-head="ssr" rel="manifest" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/manifest.c499fc0a.json" data-hid="manifest"><link data-n-head="ssr" rel="canonical" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full"><script data-n-head="ssr" data-hid="newrelic-browser-script" type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info = {"agent":"","beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"598a124f17","applicationID":"588603994","agentToken":null,"applicationTime":1.863344,"transactionName":"MQcDMkECCkNSW0YMWghNIgldDQFTRxd1IGFJTQ==","queueTime":0,"ttGuid":"97ae504eacea03ab"}; (window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={privacy:{cookies_enabled:true},ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]},distributed_tracing:{enabled:true}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={agentID:"594400880",accountID:"230385",trustKey:"230385",xpid:"VgUHUl5WGwYIXFdSBAgOUg==",licenseKey:"598a124f17",applicationID:"588603994"};;/*! For license information please see nr-loader-spa-1.283.2.min.js.LICENSE.txt */ (()=>{var e,t,r={8122:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{a:()=>i});var n=r(944);function i(e,t){try{if(!e||"object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.R)(3);if(!t||"object"!=typeof t)return(0,n.R)(4);const r=Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(t),Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(t)),o=0===Object.keys(r).length?e:r;for(let a in o)if(void 0!==e[a])try{if(null===e[a]){r[a]=null;continue}Array.isArray(e[a])&&Array.isArray(t[a])?r[a]=Array.from(new Set([...e[a],...t[a]])):"object"==typeof e[a]&&"object"==typeof t[a]?r[a]=i(e[a],t[a]):r[a]=e[a]}catch(e){(0,n.R)(1,e)}return r}catch(e){(0,n.R)(2,e)}}},2555:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Vp:()=>c,fn:()=>s,x1:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8122);const o={beacon:n.NT.beacon,errorBeacon:n.NT.errorBeacon,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,sa:void 0,queueTime:void 0,applicationTime:void 0,ttGuid:void 0,user:void 0,account:void 0,product:void 0,extra:void 0,jsAttributes:{},userAttributes:void 0,atts:void 0,transactionName:void 0,tNamePlain:void 0},a={};function s(e){try{const t=c(e);return!!t.licenseKey&&!!t.errorBeacon&&!!t.applicationID}catch(e){return!1}}function c(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("Info for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function u(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.a)(t,o);const r=(0,n.nY)(e);r&&(r.info=a[e])}},9417:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{D0:()=>h,gD:()=>g,xN:()=>p});var n=r(3333);const i=e=>{if(!e||"string"!=typeof e)return!1;try{document.createDocumentFragment().querySelector(e)}catch{return!1}return!0};var o=r(2614),a=r(944),s=r(384),c=r(8122);const u="[data-nr-mask]",d=()=>{const e={feature_flags:[],experimental:{marks:!1,measures:!1,resources:!1},mask_selector:"*",block_selector:"[data-nr-block]",mask_input_options:{color:!1,date:!1,"datetime-local":!1,email:!1,month:!1,number:!1,range:!1,search:!1,tel:!1,text:!1,time:!1,url:!1,week:!1,textarea:!1,select:!1,password:!0}};return{ajax:{deny_list:void 0,block_internal:!0,enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},distributed_tracing:{enabled:void 0,exclude_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_tracecontext_headers:void 0,allowed_origins:void 0},get feature_flags(){return e.feature_flags},set feature_flags(t){e.feature_flags=t},generic_events:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},harvest:{interval:30},jserrors:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},logging:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},metrics:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},obfuscate:void 0,page_action:{enabled:!0},page_view_event:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},page_view_timing:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},performance:{get capture_marks(){return e.feature_flags.includes(n.$v.MARKS)||e.experimental.marks},set capture_marks(t){e.experimental.marks=t},get capture_measures(){return e.feature_flags.includes(n.$v.MEASURES)||e.experimental.measures},set capture_measures(t){e.experimental.measures=t},capture_detail:!0,resources:{get enabled(){return e.feature_flags.includes(n.$v.RESOURCES)||e.experimental.resources},set enabled(t){e.experimental.resources=t},asset_types:[],first_party_domains:[],ignore_newrelic:!0}},privacy:{cookies_enabled:!0},proxy:{assets:void 0,beacon:void 0},session:{expiresMs:o.wk,inactiveMs:o.BB},session_replay:{autoStart:!0,enabled:!1,preload:!1,sampling_rate:10,error_sampling_rate:100,collect_fonts:!1,inline_images:!1,fix_stylesheets:!0,mask_all_inputs:!0,get mask_text_selector(){return e.mask_selector},set mask_text_selector(t){i(t)?e.mask_selector="".concat(t,",").concat(u):""===t||null===t?e.mask_selector=u:(0,a.R)(5,t)},get block_class(){return"nr-block"},get ignore_class(){return"nr-ignore"},get mask_text_class(){return"nr-mask"},get block_selector(){return e.block_selector},set block_selector(t){i(t)?e.block_selector+=",".concat(t):""!==t&&(0,a.R)(6,t)},get mask_input_options(){return e.mask_input_options},set mask_input_options(t){t&&"object"==typeof t?e.mask_input_options={...t,password:!0}:(0,a.R)(7,t)}},session_trace:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},soft_navigations:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},spa:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},ssl:void 0,user_actions:{enabled:!0,elementAttributes:["id","className","tagName","type"]}}},l={},f="All configuration objects require an agent identifier!";function h(e){if(!e)throw new Error(f);if(!l[e])throw new Error("Configuration for ".concat(e," was never set"));return l[e]}function p(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);l[e]=(0,c.a)(t,d());const r=(0,s.nY)(e);r&&(r.init=l[e])}function g(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);var r=h(e);if(r){for(var n=t.split("."),i=0;i<n.length-1;i++)if("object"!=typeof(r=r[n[i]]))return;r=r[n[n.length-1]]}return r}},5603:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{a:()=>c,o:()=>s});var n=r(384),i=r(8122);const o={accountID:void 0,trustKey:void 0,agentID:void 0,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,xpid:void 0},a={};function s(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All loader-config objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("LoaderConfig for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function c(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All loader-config objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.a)(t,o);const r=(0,n.nY)(e);r&&(r.loader_config=a[e])}},3371:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{V:()=>f,f:()=>l});var n=r(8122),i=r(384),o=r(6154),a=r(9324);let s=0;const c={buildEnv:a.F3,distMethod:a.Xs,version:a.xv,originTime:o.WN},u={customTransaction:void 0,disabled:!1,isolatedBacklog:!1,loaderType:void 0,maxBytes:3e4,onerror:void 0,ptid:void 0,releaseIds:{},appMetadata:{},session:void 0,denyList:void 0,timeKeeper:void 0,obfuscator:void 0,harvester:void 0},d={};function l(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");if(!d[e])throw new Error("Runtime for ".concat(e," was never set"));return d[e]}function f(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");d[e]={...(0,n.a)(t,u),...c},Object.hasOwnProperty.call(d[e],"harvestCount")||Object.defineProperty(d[e],"harvestCount",{get:()=>++s});const r=(0,i.nY)(e);r&&(r.runtime=d[e])}},9324:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{F3:()=>i,Xs:()=>o,Yq:()=>a,xv:()=>n});const n="1.283.2",i="PROD",o="CDN",a="^2.0.0-alpha.17"},6154:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{A4:()=>s,OF:()=>d,RI:()=>i,WN:()=>h,bv:()=>o,gm:()=>a,lR:()=>f,m:()=>u,mw:()=>c,sb:()=>l});var n=r(1863);const i="undefined"!=typeof window&&!!window.document,o="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator),a=i?window:"undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis),s="complete"===a?.document?.readyState,c=Boolean("hidden"===a?.document?.visibilityState),u=""+a?.location,d=/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(a.navigator?.userAgent),l=d&&"undefined"==typeof SharedWorker,f=(()=>{const e=a.navigator?.userAgent?.match(/Firefox[/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);return Array.isArray(e)&&e.length>=2?+e[1]:0})(),h=Date.now()-(0,n.t)()},7295:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Xv:()=>a,gX:()=>i,iW:()=>o});var n=[];function i(e){if(!e||o(e))return!1;if(0===n.length)return!0;for(var t=0;t<n.length;t++){var r=n[t];if("*"===r.hostname)return!1;if(s(r.hostname,e.hostname)&&c(r.pathname,e.pathname))return!1}return!0}function o(e){return void 0===e.hostname}function a(e){if(n=[],e&&e.length)for(var t=0;t<e.length;t++){let r=e[t];if(!r)continue;0===r.indexOf("http://")?r=r.substring(7):0===r.indexOf("https://")&&(r=r.substring(8));const i=r.indexOf("/");let o,a;i>0?(o=r.substring(0,i),a=r.substring(i)):(o=r,a="");let[s]=o.split(":");n.push({hostname:s,pathname:a})}}function s(e,t){return!(e.length>t.length)&&t.indexOf(e)===t.length-e.length}function c(e,t){return 0===e.indexOf("/")&&(e=e.substring(1)),0===t.indexOf("/")&&(t=t.substring(1)),""===e||e===t}},1687:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Ak:()=>c,Ze:()=>l,x3:()=>u});var n=r(7836),i=r(3606),o=r(860),a=r(2646);const s={};function c(e,t){const r={staged:!1,priority:o.P3[t]||0};d(e),s[e].get(t)||s[e].set(t,r)}function u(e,t){e&&s[e]&&(s[e].get(t)&&s[e].delete(t),h(e,t,!1),s[e].size&&f(e))}function d(e){if(!e)throw new Error("agentIdentifier required");s[e]||(s[e]=new Map)}function l(e="",t="feature",r=!1){if(d(e),!e||!s[e].get(t)||r)return h(e,t);s[e].get(t).staged=!0,f(e)}function f(e){const t=Array.from(s[e]);t.every((([e,t])=>t.staged))&&(t.sort(((e,t)=>e[1].priority-t[1].priority)),t.forEach((([t])=>{s[e].delete(t),h(e,t)})))}function h(e,t,r=!0){const o=e?n.ee.get(e):n.ee,s=i.i.handlers;if(!o.aborted&&o.backlog&&s){if(r){const e=o.backlog[t],r=s[t];if(r){for(let t=0;e&&t<e.length;++t)p(e[t],r);Object.entries(r).forEach((([e,t])=>{Object.values(t||{}).forEach((t=>{t[0]?.on&&t[0]?.context()instanceof a.y&&t[0].on(e,t[1])}))}))}}o.isolatedBacklog||delete s[t],o.backlog[t]=null,o.emit("drain-"+t,[])}}function p(e,t){var r=e[1];Object.values(t[r]||{}).forEach((t=>{var r=e[0];if(t[0]===r){var n=t[1],i=e[3],o=e[2];n.apply(i,o)}}))}},7836:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{P:()=>c,ee:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8990),o=r(3371),a=r(2646),s=r(5607);const c="nr@context:".concat(s.W),u=function e(t,r){var n={},s={},d={},l=!1;try{l=16===r.length&&(0,o.f)(r).isolatedBacklog}catch(e){}var f={on:p,addEventListener:p,removeEventListener:function(e,t){var r=n[e];if(!r)return;for(var i=0;i<r.length;i++)r[i]===t&&r.splice(i,1)},emit:function(e,r,n,i,o){!1!==o&&(o=!0);if(u.aborted&&!i)return;t&&o&&t.emit(e,r,n);for(var a=h(n),c=g(e),d=c.length,l=0;l<d;l++)c[l].apply(a,r);var p=v()[s[e]];p&&p.push([f,e,r,a]);return a},get:m,listeners:g,context:h,buffer:function(e,t){const r=v();if(t=t||"feature",f.aborted)return;Object.entries(e||{}).forEach((([e,n])=>{s[n]=t,t in r||(r[t]=[])}))},abort:function(){f._aborted=!0,Object.keys(f.backlog).forEach((e=>{delete f.backlog[e]}))},isBuffering:function(e){return!!v()[s[e]]},debugId:r,backlog:l?{}:t&&"object"==typeof t.backlog?t.backlog:{},isolatedBacklog:l};return Object.defineProperty(f,"aborted",{get:()=>{let e=f._aborted||!1;return e||(t&&(e=t.aborted),e)}}),f;function h(e){return e&&e instanceof a.y?e:e?(0,i.I)(e,c,(()=>new a.y(c))):new a.y(c)}function p(e,t){n[e]=g(e).concat(t)}function g(e){return n[e]||[]}function m(t){return d[t]=d[t]||e(f,t)}function v(){return f.backlog}}(void 0,"globalEE"),d=(0,n.Zm)();d.ee||(d.ee=u)},2646:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{y:()=>n});class n{constructor(e){this.contextId=e}}},9908:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{d:()=>n,p:()=>i});var n=r(7836).ee.get("handle");function i(e,t,r,i,o){o?(o.buffer([e],i),o.emit(e,t,r)):(n.buffer([e],i),n.emit(e,t,r))}},3606:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{i:()=>o});var n=r(9908);o.on=a;var i=o.handlers={};function o(e,t,r,o){a(o||n.d,i,e,t,r)}function a(e,t,r,i,o){o||(o="feature"),e||(e=n.d);var a=t[o]=t[o]||{};(a[r]=a[r]||[]).push([e,i])}},3878:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){return{capture:e,passive:!1,signal:t}}function i(e,t,r=!1,i){window.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}function o(e,t,r=!1,i){document.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}r.d(t,{DD:()=>o,jT:()=>n,sp:()=>i})},5607:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>n});const n=(0,r(9566).bz)()},9566:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{LA:()=>s,ZF:()=>c,bz:()=>a,el:()=>u});var n=r(6154);const i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx";function o(e,t){return e?15&e[t]:16*Math.random()|0}function a(){const e=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let t,r=0;return e&&e.getRandomValues&&(t=e.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(30))),i.split("").map((e=>"x"===e?o(t,r++).toString(16):"y"===e?(3&o()|8).toString(16):e)).join("")}function s(e){const t=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let r,i=0;t&&t.getRandomValues&&(r=t.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(e)));const a=[];for(var s=0;s<e;s++)a.push(o(r,i++).toString(16));return a.join("")}function c(){return s(16)}function u(){return s(32)}},2614:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{BB:()=>a,H3:()=>n,g:()=>u,iL:()=>c,tS:()=>s,uh:()=>i,wk:()=>o});const n="NRBA",i="SESSION",o=144e5,a=18e5,s={STARTED:"session-started",PAUSE:"session-pause",RESET:"session-reset",RESUME:"session-resume",UPDATE:"session-update"},c={SAME_TAB:"same-tab",CROSS_TAB:"cross-tab"},u={OFF:0,FULL:1,ERROR:2}},1863:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(){return Math.floor(performance.now())}r.d(t,{t:()=>n})},7485:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{D:()=>i});var n=r(6154);function i(e){if(0===(e||"").indexOf("data:"))return{protocol:"data"};try{const t=new URL(e,location.href),r={port:t.port,hostname:t.hostname,pathname:t.pathname,search:t.search,protocol:t.protocol.slice(0,t.protocol.indexOf(":")),sameOrigin:t.protocol===n.gm?.location?.protocol&&t.host===n.gm?.location?.host};return r.port&&""!==r.port||("http:"===t.protocol&&(r.port="80"),"https:"===t.protocol&&(r.port="443")),r.pathname&&""!==r.pathname?r.pathname.startsWith("/")||(r.pathname="/".concat(r.pathname)):r.pathname="/",r}catch(e){return{}}}},944:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){"function"==typeof console.debug&&console.debug("New Relic Warning: https://github.com/newrelic/newrelic-browser-agent/blob/main/docs/warning-codes.md#".concat(e),t)}r.d(t,{R:()=>n})},5284:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{t:()=>c,B:()=>s});var n=r(7836),i=r(6154);const o="newrelic";const a=new Set,s={};function c(e,t){const r=n.ee.get(t);s[t]??={},e&&"object"==typeof e&&(a.has(t)||(r.emit("rumresp",[e]),s[t]=e,a.add(t),function(e={}){try{i.gm.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent(o,{detail:e}))}catch(e){}}({loaded:!0})))}},8990:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{I:()=>i});var n=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;function i(e,t,r){if(n.call(e,t))return e[t];var i=r();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,t,{value:i,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),i}catch(e){}return e[t]=i,i}},6389:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t=500,r={}){const n=r?.leading||!1;let i;return(...r)=>{n&&void 0===i&&(e.apply(this,r),i=setTimeout((()=>{i=clearTimeout(i)}),t)),n||(clearTimeout(i),i=setTimeout((()=>{e.apply(this,r)}),t))}}function i(e){let t=!1;return(...r)=>{t||(t=!0,e.apply(this,r))}}r.d(t,{J:()=>i,s:()=>n})},3304:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{A:()=>o});var n=r(7836);const i=()=>{const e=new WeakSet;return(t,r)=>{if("object"==typeof r&&null!==r){if(e.has(r))return;e.add(r)}return r}};function o(e){try{return JSON.stringify(e,i())??""}catch(e){try{n.ee.emit("internal-error",[e])}catch(e){}return""}}},5289:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{GG:()=>o,sB:()=>a});var n=r(3878);function i(){return"undefined"==typeof document||"complete"===document.readyState}function o(e,t){if(i())return e();(0,n.sp)("load",e,t)}function a(e){if(i())return e();(0,n.DD)("DOMContentLoaded",e)}},384:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{NT:()=>o,US:()=>d,Zm:()=>a,bQ:()=>c,dV:()=>s,nY:()=>u,pV:()=>l});var n=r(6154),i=r(1863);const o={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net"};function a(){return n.gm.NREUM||(n.gm.NREUM={}),void 0===n.gm.newrelic&&(n.gm.newrelic=n.gm.NREUM),n.gm.NREUM}function s(){let e=a();return e.o||(e.o={ST:n.gm.setTimeout,SI:n.gm.setImmediate,CT:n.gm.clearTimeout,XHR:n.gm.XMLHttpRequest,REQ:n.gm.Request,EV:n.gm.Event,PR:n.gm.Promise,MO:n.gm.MutationObserver,FETCH:n.gm.fetch,WS:n.gm.WebSocket}),e}function c(e,t){let r=a();r.initializedAgents??={},t.initializedAt={ms:(0,i.t)(),date:new Date},r.initializedAgents[e]=t}function u(e){let t=a();return t.initializedAgents?.[e]}function d(e,t){a()[e]=t}function l(){return function(){let e=a();const t=e.info||{};e.info={beacon:o.beacon,errorBeacon:o.errorBeacon,...t}}(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.init||{};e.init={...t}}(),s(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.loader_config||{};e.loader_config={...t}}(),a()}},2843:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{u:()=>i});var n=r(3878);function i(e,t=!1,r,i){(0,n.DD)("visibilitychange",(function(){if(t)return void("hidden"===document.visibilityState&&e());e(document.visibilityState)}),r,i)}},8139:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{u:()=>f});var n=r(7836),i=r(3434),o=r(8990),a=r(6154);const s={},c=a.gm.XMLHttpRequest,u="addEventListener",d="removeEventListener",l="nr@wrapped:".concat(n.P);function f(e){var t=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("events")}(e);if(s[t.debugId]++)return t;s[t.debugId]=1;var r=(0,i.YM)(t,!0);function f(e){r.inPlace(e,[u,d],"-",p)}function p(e,t){return e[1]}return"getPrototypeOf"in Object&&(a.RI&&h(document,f),c&&h(c.prototype,f),h(a.gm,f)),t.on(u+"-start",(function(e,t){var n=e[1];if(null!==n&&("function"==typeof n||"object"==typeof n)){var i=(0,o.I)(n,l,(function(){var e={object:function(){if("function"!=typeof n.handleEvent)return;return n.handleEvent.apply(n,arguments)},function:n}[typeof n];return e?r(e,"fn-",null,e.name||"anonymous"):n}));this.wrapped=e[1]=i}})),t.on(d+"-start",(function(e){e[1]=this.wrapped||e[1]})),t}function h(e,t,...r){let n=e;for(;"object"==typeof n&&!Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(n,u);)n=Object.getPrototypeOf(n);n&&t(n,...r)}},3434:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Jt:()=>o,YM:()=>c});var n=r(7836),i=r(5607);const o="nr@original:".concat(i.W);var a=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,s=!1;function c(e,t){return e||(e=n.ee),r.inPlace=function(e,t,n,i,o){n||(n="");const a="-"===n.charAt(0);for(let s=0;s<t.length;s++){const c=t[s],u=e[c];d(u)||(e[c]=r(u,a?c+n:n,i,c,o))}},r.flag=o,r;function r(t,r,n,s,c){return d(t)?t:(r||(r=""),nrWrapper[o]=t,function(e,t,r){if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.keys(e).forEach((function(r){Object.defineProperty(t,r,{get:function(){return e[r]},set:function(t){return e[r]=t,t}})})),t}catch(e){u([e],r)}for(var n in e)a.call(e,n)&&(t[n]=e[n])}(t,nrWrapper,e),nrWrapper);function nrWrapper(){var o,a,d,l;try{a=this,o=[...arguments],d="function"==typeof n?n(o,a):n||{}}catch(t){u([t,"",[o,a,s],d],e)}i(r+"start",[o,a,s],d,c);try{return l=t.apply(a,o)}catch(e){throw i(r+"err",[o,a,e],d,c),e}finally{i(r+"end",[o,a,l],d,c)}}}function i(r,n,i,o){if(!s||t){var a=s;s=!0;try{e.emit(r,n,i,t,o)}catch(t){u([t,r,n,i],e)}s=a}}}function u(e,t){t||(t=n.ee);try{t.emit("internal-error",e)}catch(e){}}function d(e){return!(e&&"function"==typeof e&&e.apply&&!e[o])}},9414:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{J:()=>c});var n=r(7836),i=r(2646),o=r(944),a=r(3434);const s=new Map;function c(e,t,r,c){if("object"!=typeof t||!t||"string"!=typeof r||!r||"function"!=typeof t[r])return(0,o.R)(29);const u=function(e){return(e||n.ee).get("logger")}(e),d=(0,a.YM)(u),l=new i.y(n.P);l.level=c.level,l.customAttributes=c.customAttributes;const f=t[r]?.[a.Jt]||t[r];return s.set(f,l),d.inPlace(t,[r],"wrap-logger-",(()=>s.get(f))),u}},9300:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.ajax},3333:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$v:()=>u,TZ:()=>n,Zp:()=>i,kd:()=>c,mq:()=>s,nf:()=>a,qN:()=>o});const n=r(860).K7.genericEvents,i=["auxclick","click","copy","keydown","paste","scrollend"],o=["focus","blur"],a=4,s=1e3,c=["PageAction","UserAction","BrowserPerformance"],u={MARKS:"experimental.marks",MEASURES:"experimental.measures",RESOURCES:"experimental.resources"}},6774:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.jserrors},993:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{A$:()=>o,ET:()=>a,TZ:()=>s,p_:()=>i});var n=r(860);const i={ERROR:"ERROR",WARN:"WARN",INFO:"INFO",DEBUG:"DEBUG",TRACE:"TRACE"},o={OFF:0,ERROR:1,WARN:2,INFO:3,DEBUG:4,TRACE:5},a="log",s=n.K7.logging},3785:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{R:()=>c,b:()=>u});var n=r(9908),i=r(1863),o=r(860),a=r(8154),s=r(993);function c(e,t,r={},c=s.p_.INFO){(0,n.p)(a.xV,["API/logging/".concat(c.toLowerCase(),"/called")],void 0,o.K7.metrics,e),(0,n.p)(s.ET,[(0,i.t)(),t,r,c],void 0,o.K7.logging,e)}function u(e){return"string"==typeof e&&Object.values(s.p_).some((t=>t===e.toUpperCase().trim()))}},8154:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{z_:()=>o,XG:()=>s,TZ:()=>n,rs:()=>i,xV:()=>a});r(6154),r(9566),r(384);const n=r(860).K7.metrics,i="sm",o="cm",a="storeSupportabilityMetrics",s="storeEventMetrics"},6630:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewEvent},782:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewTiming},6344:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{BB:()=>d,G4:()=>o,Qb:()=>l,TZ:()=>i,Ug:()=>a,_s:()=>s,bc:()=>u,yP:()=>c});var n=r(2614);const i=r(860).K7.sessionReplay,o={RECORD:"recordReplay",PAUSE:"pauseReplay",REPLAY_RUNNING:"replayRunning",ERROR_DURING_REPLAY:"errorDuringReplay"},a=.12,s={DomContentLoaded:0,Load:1,FullSnapshot:2,IncrementalSnapshot:3,Meta:4,Custom:5},c={[n.g.ERROR]:15e3,[n.g.FULL]:3e5,[n.g.OFF]:0},u={RESET:{message:"Session was reset",sm:"Reset"},IMPORT:{message:"Recorder failed to import",sm:"Import"},TOO_MANY:{message:"429: Too Many Requests",sm:"Too-Many"},TOO_BIG:{message:"Payload was too large",sm:"Too-Big"},CROSS_TAB:{message:"Session Entity was set to OFF on another tab",sm:"Cross-Tab"},ENTITLEMENTS:{message:"Session Replay is not allowed and will not be started",sm:"Entitlement"}},d=5e3,l={API:"api"}},5270:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Aw:()=>c,CT:()=>u,SR:()=>s});var n=r(384),i=r(9417),o=r(7767),a=r(6154);function s(e){return!!(0,n.dV)().o.MO&&(0,o.V)(e)&&!0===(0,i.gD)(e,"session_trace.enabled")}function c(e){return!0===(0,i.gD)(e,"session_replay.preload")&&s(e)}function u(e,t){const r=t.correctAbsoluteTimestamp(e);return{originalTimestamp:e,correctedTimestamp:r,timestampDiff:e-r,originTime:a.WN,correctedOriginTime:t.correctedOriginTime,originTimeDiff:Math.floor(a.WN-t.correctedOriginTime)}}},3738:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{He:()=>i,Kp:()=>s,Lc:()=>u,Rz:()=>d,TZ:()=>n,bD:()=>o,d3:()=>a,jx:()=>l,uP:()=>c});const n=r(860).K7.sessionTrace,i="bstResource",o="resource",a="-start",s="-end",c="fn"+a,u="fn"+s,d="pushState",l=1e3},3962:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{AM:()=>o,O2:()=>c,Qu:()=>u,TZ:()=>s,ih:()=>d,pP:()=>a,tC:()=>i});var n=r(860);const i=["click","keydown","submit","popstate"],o="api",a="initialPageLoad",s=n.K7.softNav,c={INITIAL_PAGE_LOAD:"",ROUTE_CHANGE:1,UNSPECIFIED:2},u={INTERACTION:1,AJAX:2,CUSTOM_END:3,CUSTOM_TRACER:4},d={IP:"in progress",FIN:"finished",CAN:"cancelled"}},7378:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$p:()=>x,BR:()=>b,Kp:()=>R,L3:()=>y,Lc:()=>c,NC:()=>o,SG:()=>d,TZ:()=>i,U6:()=>p,UT:()=>m,d3:()=>w,dT:()=>f,e5:()=>A,gx:()=>v,l9:()=>l,oW:()=>h,op:()=>g,rw:()=>u,tH:()=>T,uP:()=>s,wW:()=>E,xq:()=>a});var n=r(384);const i=r(860).K7.spa,o=["click","submit","keypress","keydown","keyup","change"],a=999,s="fn-start",c="fn-end",u="cb-start",d="api-ixn-",l="remaining",f="interaction",h="spaNode",p="jsonpNode",g="fetch-start",m="fetch-done",v="fetch-body-",b="jsonp-end",y=(0,n.dV)().o.ST,w="-start",R="-end",x="-body",E="cb"+R,A="jsTime",T="fetch"},4234:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>o});var n=r(7836),i=r(1687);class o{constructor(e,t){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.ee=n.ee.get(e),this.featureName=t,this.blocked=!1}deregisterDrain(){(0,i.x3)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName)}}},7767:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{V:()=>o});var n=r(9417),i=r(6154);const o=e=>i.RI&&!0===(0,n.gD)(e,"privacy.cookies_enabled")},8969:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{j:()=>O});var n=r(860),i=r(2555),o=r(3371),a=r(9908),s=r(7836),c=r(1687),u=r(5289),d=r(6154),l=r(944),f=r(8154),h=r(384),p=r(6344);const g=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease","recordCustomEvent","addPageAction","setCurrentRouteName","setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","interaction","noticeError","setUserId","setApplicationVersion","start",p.G4.RECORD,p.G4.PAUSE,"log","wrapLogger"],m=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease"];var v=r(1863),b=r(2614),y=r(993),w=r(3785),R=r(9414);function x(){const e=(0,h.pV)();g.forEach((t=>{e[t]=(...r)=>function(t,...r){let n=[];return Object.values(e.initializedAgents).forEach((e=>{e&&e.api?e.exposed&&e.api[t]&&n.push(e.api[t](...r)):(0,l.R)(38,t)})),n.length>1?n:n[0]}(t,...r)}))}const E={};var A=r(9417),T=r(5603),N=r(5284);const S=e=>{const t=e.startsWith("http");e+="/",r.p=t?e:"https://"+e};let _=!1;function O(e,t={},g,O){let{init:I,info:P,loader_config:j,runtime:C={},exposed:k=!0}=t;C.loaderType=g;const L=(0,h.pV)();P||(I=L.init,P=L.info,j=L.loader_config),(0,A.xN)(e.agentIdentifier,I||{}),(0,T.a)(e.agentIdentifier,j||{}),P.jsAttributes??={},d.bv&&(P.jsAttributes.isWorker=!0),(0,i.x1)(e.agentIdentifier,P);const H=(0,A.D0)(e.agentIdentifier),M=[P.beacon,P.errorBeacon];_||(H.proxy.assets&&(S(H.proxy.assets),M.push(H.proxy.assets)),H.proxy.beacon&&M.push(H.proxy.beacon),x(),(0,h.US)("activatedFeatures",N.B),e.runSoftNavOverSpa&&=!0===H.soft_navigations.enabled&&H.feature_flags.includes("soft_nav")),C.denyList=[...H.ajax.deny_list||[],...H.ajax.block_internal?M:[]],C.ptid=e.agentIdentifier,(0,o.V)(e.agentIdentifier,C),e.ee=s.ee.get(e.agentIdentifier),void 0===e.api&&(e.api=function(e,t,h=!1){t||(0,c.Ak)(e,"api");const g={};var x=s.ee.get(e),A=x.get("tracer");E[e]=b.g.OFF,x.on(p.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(t=>{E[e]=t}));var T="api-",N=T+"ixn-";function S(t,r,n,o){const a=(0,i.Vp)(e);return null===r?delete a.jsAttributes[t]:(0,i.x1)(e,{...a,jsAttributes:{...a.jsAttributes,[t]:r}}),I(T,n,!0,o||null===r?"session":void 0)(t,r)}function _(){}g.log=function(e,{customAttributes:t={},level:r=y.p_.INFO}={}){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/log/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),(0,w.R)(x,e,t,r)},g.wrapLogger=(e,t,{customAttributes:r={},level:i=y.p_.INFO}={})=>{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/wrapLogger/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),(0,R.J)(x,e,t,{customAttributes:r,level:i})},m.forEach((e=>{g[e]=I(T,e,!0,"api")})),g.addPageAction=I(T,"addPageAction",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),g.recordCustomEvent=I(T,"recordCustomEvent",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),g.setPageViewName=function(t,r){if("string"==typeof t)return"/"!==t.charAt(0)&&(t="/"+t),(0,o.f)(e).customTransaction=(r||"http://custom.transaction")+t,I(T,"setPageViewName",!0)()},g.setCustomAttribute=function(e,t,r=!1){if("string"==typeof e){if(["string","number","boolean"].includes(typeof t)||null===t)return S(e,t,"setCustomAttribute",r);(0,l.R)(40,typeof t)}else(0,l.R)(39,typeof e)},g.setUserId=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return S("enduser.id",e,"setUserId",!0);(0,l.R)(41,typeof e)},g.setApplicationVersion=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return S("application.version",e,"setApplicationVersion",!1);(0,l.R)(42,typeof e)},g.start=()=>{try{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/start/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),x.emit("manual-start-all")}catch(e){(0,l.R)(23,e)}},g[p.G4.RECORD]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/recordReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),(0,a.p)(p.G4.RECORD,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,x)},g[p.G4.PAUSE]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/pauseReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),(0,a.p)(p.G4.PAUSE,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,x)},g.interaction=function(e){return(new _).get("object"==typeof e?e:{})};const O=_.prototype={createTracer:function(e,t){var r={},i=this,o="function"==typeof t;return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/createTracer/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),h||(0,a.p)(N+"tracer",[(0,v.t)(),e,r],i,n.K7.spa,x),function(){if(A.emit((o?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[(0,v.t)(),i,o],r),o)try{return t.apply(this,arguments)}catch(e){const t="string"==typeof e?new Error(e):e;throw A.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,t],r),t}finally{A.emit("fn-end",[(0,v.t)()],r)}}}};function I(e,t,r,i){return function(){return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/"+t+"/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),i&&(0,a.p)(e+t,[r?(0,v.t)():performance.now(),...arguments],r?null:this,i,x),r?void 0:this}}function P(){r.e(478).then(r.bind(r,8778)).then((({setAPI:t})=>{t(e),(0,c.Ze)(e,"api")})).catch((e=>{(0,l.R)(27,e),x.abort()}))}return["actionText","setName","setAttribute","save","ignore","onEnd","getContext","end","get"].forEach((e=>{O[e]=I(N,e,void 0,h?n.K7.softNav:n.K7.spa)})),g.setCurrentRouteName=h?I(N,"routeName",void 0,n.K7.softNav):I(T,"routeName",!0,n.K7.spa),g.noticeError=function(t,r){"string"==typeof t&&(t=new Error(t)),(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/noticeError/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,x),(0,a.p)("err",[t,(0,v.t)(),!1,r,!!E[e]],void 0,n.K7.jserrors,x)},d.RI?(0,u.GG)((()=>P()),!0):P(),g}(e.agentIdentifier,O,e.runSoftNavOverSpa)),void 0===e.exposed&&(e.exposed=k),_=!0}},8374:(e,t,r)=>{r.nc=(()=>{try{return document?.currentScript?.nonce}catch(e){}return""})()},860:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$J:()=>u,K7:()=>s,P3:()=>c,XX:()=>i,qY:()=>n,v4:()=>a});const n="events",i="jserrors",o="browser/blobs",a="rum",s={ajax:"ajax",genericEvents:"generic_events",jserrors:i,logging:"logging",metrics:"metrics",pageAction:"page_action",pageViewEvent:"page_view_event",pageViewTiming:"page_view_timing",sessionReplay:"session_replay",sessionTrace:"session_trace",softNav:"soft_navigations",spa:"spa"},c={[s.pageViewEvent]:1,[s.pageViewTiming]:2,[s.metrics]:3,[s.jserrors]:4,[s.spa]:5,[s.ajax]:6,[s.sessionTrace]:7,[s.softNav]:8,[s.sessionReplay]:9,[s.logging]:10,[s.genericEvents]:11},u={[s.pageViewEvent]:a,[s.pageViewTiming]:n,[s.ajax]:n,[s.spa]:n,[s.softNav]:n,[s.metrics]:i,[s.jserrors]:i,[s.sessionTrace]:o,[s.sessionReplay]:o,[s.logging]:"browser/logs",[s.genericEvents]:"ins"}}},n={};function i(e){var t=n[e];if(void 0!==t)return t.exports;var o=n[e]={exports:{}};return r[e](o,o.exports,i),o.exports}i.m=r,i.d=(e,t)=>{for(var r in t)i.o(t,r)&&!i.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:t[r]})},i.f={},i.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(i.f).reduce(((t,r)=>(i.f[r](e,t),t)),[])),i.u=e=>({212:"nr-spa-compressor",249:"nr-spa-recorder",478:"nr-spa"}[e]+"-1.283.2.min.js"),i.o=(e,t)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,t),e={},t="NRBA-1.283.2.PROD:",i.l=(r,n,o,a)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(n);else{var s,c;if(void 0!==o)for(var u=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),d=0;d<u.length;d++){var l=u[d];if(l.getAttribute("src")==r||l.getAttribute("data-webpack")==t+o){s=l;break}}if(!s){c=!0;var f={478:"sha512-2oN05BjxuObKuOX8E0vq/zS51M+2HokmNPBRUrIC1fw3hpJqoI18/nckSFiqV11KxT7ag3C+FunKrR8n0PD9Ig==",249:"sha512-Zs5nIHr/khH6G8IhAEdnngg+P7y/IfmjU0PQmXABpCEtSTeKV22OYdaa9lENrW9uxI0lZ6O5e5dCnEMsTS0onA==",212:"sha512-LPKde7A1ZxIHzoSqWKxn5uWVhM9u76Vtmp9DMBf+Ry3mnn2jpsfyfigMYD5Yka2RG3NeIBqOwNYuPrWL39qn6w=="};(s=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",s.timeout=120,i.nc&&s.setAttribute("nonce",i.nc),s.setAttribute("data-webpack",t+o),s.src=r,0!==s.src.indexOf(window.location.origin+"/")&&(s.crossOrigin="anonymous"),f[a]&&(s.integrity=f[a])}e[r]=[n];var h=(t,n)=>{s.onerror=s.onload=null,clearTimeout(p);var i=e[r];if(delete e[r],s.parentNode&&s.parentNode.removeChild(s),i&&i.forEach((e=>e(n))),t)return t(n)},p=setTimeout(h.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:s}),12e4);s.onerror=h.bind(null,s.onerror),s.onload=h.bind(null,s.onload),c&&document.head.appendChild(s)}},i.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},i.p="https://js-agent.newrelic.com/",(()=>{var e={38:0,788:0};i.f.j=(t,r)=>{var n=i.o(e,t)?e[t]:void 0;if(0!==n)if(n)r.push(n[2]);else{var o=new Promise(((r,i)=>n=e[t]=[r,i]));r.push(n[2]=o);var a=i.p+i.u(t),s=new Error;i.l(a,(r=>{if(i.o(e,t)&&(0!==(n=e[t])&&(e[t]=void 0),n)){var o=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),a=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;s.message="Loading chunk "+t+" failed.\n("+o+": "+a+")",s.name="ChunkLoadError",s.type=o,s.request=a,n[1](s)}}),"chunk-"+t,t)}};var t=(t,r)=>{var n,o,[a,s,c]=r,u=0;if(a.some((t=>0!==e[t]))){for(n in s)i.o(s,n)&&(i.m[n]=s[n]);if(c)c(i)}for(t&&t(r);u<a.length;u++)o=a[u],i.o(e,o)&&e[o]&&e[o][0](),e[o]=0},r=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.283.2.PROD"]=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.283.2.PROD"]||[];r.forEach(t.bind(null,0)),r.push=t.bind(null,r.push.bind(r))})(),(()=>{"use strict";i(8374);var e=i(944),t=i(6344),r=i(9566);class n{agentIdentifier;constructor(){this.agentIdentifier=(0,r.LA)(16)}#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}addPageAction(e,t){return this.#e("addPageAction",e,t)}recordCustomEvent(e,t){return this.#e("recordCustomEvent",e,t)}setPageViewName(e,t){return this.#e("setPageViewName",e,t)}setCustomAttribute(e,t,r){return this.#e("setCustomAttribute",e,t,r)}noticeError(e,t){return this.#e("noticeError",e,t)}setUserId(e){return this.#e("setUserId",e)}setApplicationVersion(e){return this.#e("setApplicationVersion",e)}setErrorHandler(e){return this.#e("setErrorHandler",e)}addRelease(e,t){return this.#e("addRelease",e,t)}log(e,t){return this.#e("log",e,t)}}class o extends n{#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}start(){return this.#e("start")}finished(e){return this.#e("finished",e)}recordReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.RECORD)}pauseReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.PAUSE)}addToTrace(e){return this.#e("addToTrace",e)}setCurrentRouteName(e){return this.#e("setCurrentRouteName",e)}interaction(){return this.#e("interaction")}wrapLogger(e,t,r){return this.#e("wrapLogger",e,t,r)}}var a=i(860),s=i(9417);const c=Object.values(a.K7);function u(e){const t={};return c.forEach((r=>{t[r]=function(e,t){return!0===(0,s.gD)(t,"".concat(e,".enabled"))}(r,e)})),t}var d=i(8969);var l=i(1687),f=i(4234),h=i(5289),p=i(6154),g=i(5270),m=i(7767),v=i(6389);class b extends f.W{constructor(e,t,r=!0){super(e.agentIdentifier,t),this.auto=r,this.abortHandler=void 0,this.featAggregate=void 0,this.onAggregateImported=void 0,!1===e.init[this.featureName].autoStart&&(this.auto=!1),this.auto?(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,t):this.ee.on("manual-start-all",(0,v.J)((()=>{(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),this.auto=!0,this.importAggregator(e)})))}importAggregator(t,r={}){if(this.featAggregate||!this.auto)return;let n;this.onAggregateImported=new Promise((e=>{n=e}));const o=async()=>{let o;try{if((0,m.V)(this.agentIdentifier)){const{setupAgentSession:e}=await i.e(478).then(i.bind(i,6526));o=e(t)}}catch(t){(0,e.R)(20,t),this.ee.emit("internal-error",[t]),this.featureName===a.K7.sessionReplay&&this.abortHandler?.()}try{if(!this.#t(this.featureName,o))return(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),void n(!1);const{lazyFeatureLoader:e}=await i.e(478).then(i.bind(i,6103)),{Aggregate:a}=await e(this.featureName,"aggregate");this.featAggregate=new a(t,r),t.runtime.harvester.initializedAggregates.push(this.featAggregate),n(!0)}catch(t){(0,e.R)(34,t),this.abortHandler?.(),(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName,!0),n(!1),this.ee&&this.ee.abort()}};p.RI?(0,h.GG)((()=>o()),!0):o()}#t(e,t){switch(e){case a.K7.sessionReplay:return(0,g.SR)(this.agentIdentifier)&&!!t;case a.K7.sessionTrace:return!!t;default:return!0}}}var y=i(6630);class w extends b{static featureName=y.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,y.T,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}var R=i(384);var x=i(9908),E=i(2843),A=i(3878),T=i(782),N=i(1863);class S extends b{static featureName=T.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,T.T,t),p.RI&&((0,E.u)((()=>(0,x.p)("docHidden",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,T.T,this.ee)),!0),(0,A.sp)("pagehide",(()=>(0,x.p)("winPagehide",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,T.T,this.ee))),this.importAggregator(e))}}var _=i(8154);class O extends b{static featureName=_.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,_.TZ,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}var I=i(6774),P=i(3304);class j{constructor(e,t,r,n,i){this.name="UncaughtError",this.message="string"==typeof e?e:(0,P.A)(e),this.sourceURL=t,this.line=r,this.column=n,this.__newrelic=i}}function C(e){return H(e)?e:new j(void 0!==e?.message?e.message:e,e?.filename||e?.sourceURL,e?.lineno||e?.line,e?.colno||e?.col,e?.__newrelic)}function k(e){const t="Unhandled Promise Rejection";if(!e?.reason)return;if(H(e.reason))try{return e.reason.message=t+": "+e.reason.message,C(e.reason)}catch(t){return C(e.reason)}const r=C(e.reason);return r.message=t+": "+r?.message,r}function L(e){if(e.error instanceof SyntaxError&&!/:\d+$/.test(e.error.stack?.trim())){const t=new j(e.message,e.filename,e.lineno,e.colno,e.error.__newrelic);return t.name=SyntaxError.name,t}return H(e.error)?e.error:C(e)}function H(e){return e instanceof Error&&!!e.stack}class M extends b{static featureName=I.T;#r=!1;constructor(e,r=!0){super(e,I.T,r);try{this.removeOnAbort=new AbortController}catch(e){}this.ee.on("internal-error",((e,t)=>{this.abortHandler&&(0,x.p)("ierr",[C(e),(0,N.t)(),!0,{},this.#r,t],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)})),this.ee.on(t.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(e=>{this.#r=e})),p.gm.addEventListener("unhandledrejection",(e=>{this.abortHandler&&(0,x.p)("err",[k(e),(0,N.t)(),!1,{unhandledPromiseRejection:1},this.#r],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)}),(0,A.jT)(!1,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),p.gm.addEventListener("error",(e=>{this.abortHandler&&(0,x.p)("err",[L(e),(0,N.t)(),!1,{},this.#r],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)}),(0,A.jT)(!1,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),this.abortHandler=this.#n,this.importAggregator(e)}#n(){this.removeOnAbort?.abort(),this.abortHandler=void 0}}var D=i(8990);let K=1;const U="nr@id";function V(e){const t=typeof e;return!e||"object"!==t&&"function"!==t?-1:e===p.gm?0:(0,D.I)(e,U,(function(){return K++}))}function G(e){if("string"==typeof e&&e.length)return e.length;if("object"==typeof e){if("undefined"!=typeof ArrayBuffer&&e instanceof ArrayBuffer&&e.byteLength)return e.byteLength;if("undefined"!=typeof Blob&&e instanceof Blob&&e.size)return e.size;if(!("undefined"!=typeof FormData&&e instanceof FormData))try{return(0,P.A)(e).length}catch(e){return}}}var F=i(8139),B=i(7836),W=i(3434);const z={},q=["open","send"];function Z(t){var r=t||B.ee;const n=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("xhr")}(r);if(void 0===p.gm.XMLHttpRequest)return n;if(z[n.debugId]++)return n;z[n.debugId]=1,(0,F.u)(r);var i=(0,W.YM)(n),o=p.gm.XMLHttpRequest,a=p.gm.MutationObserver,s=p.gm.Promise,c=p.gm.setInterval,u="readystatechange",d=["onload","onerror","onabort","onloadstart","onloadend","onprogress","ontimeout"],l=[],f=p.gm.XMLHttpRequest=function(t){const r=new o(t),a=n.context(r);try{n.emit("new-xhr",[r],a),r.addEventListener(u,(s=a,function(){var e=this;e.readyState>3&&!s.resolved&&(s.resolved=!0,n.emit("xhr-resolved",[],e)),i.inPlace(e,d,"fn-",y)}),(0,A.jT)(!1))}catch(t){(0,e.R)(15,t);try{n.emit("internal-error",[t])}catch(e){}}var s;return r};function h(e,t){i.inPlace(t,["onreadystatechange"],"fn-",y)}if(function(e,t){for(var r in e)t[r]=e[r]}(o,f),f.prototype=o.prototype,i.inPlace(f.prototype,q,"-xhr-",y),n.on("send-xhr-start",(function(e,t){h(e,t),function(e){l.push(e),a&&(g?g.then(b):c?c(b):(m=-m,v.data=m))}(t)})),n.on("open-xhr-start",h),a){var g=s&&s.resolve();if(!c&&!s){var m=1,v=document.createTextNode(m);new a(b).observe(v,{characterData:!0})}}else r.on("fn-end",(function(e){e[0]&&e[0].type===u||b()}));function b(){for(var e=0;e<l.length;e++)h(0,l[e]);l.length&&(l=[])}function y(e,t){return t}return n}var Y="fetch-",J=Y+"body-",X=["arrayBuffer","blob","json","text","formData"],Q=p.gm.Request,ee=p.gm.Response,te="prototype";const re={};function ne(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("fetch")}(e);if(!(Q&&ee&&p.gm.fetch))return t;if(re[t.debugId]++)return t;function r(e,r,n){var i=e[r];"function"==typeof i&&(e[r]=function(){var e,r=[...arguments],o={};t.emit(n+"before-start",[r],o),o[B.P]&&o[B.P].dt&&(e=o[B.P].dt);var a=i.apply(this,r);return t.emit(n+"start",[r,e],a),a.then((function(e){return t.emit(n+"end",[null,e],a),e}),(function(e){throw t.emit(n+"end",[e],a),e}))})}return re[t.debugId]=1,X.forEach((e=>{r(Q[te],e,J),r(ee[te],e,J)})),r(p.gm,"fetch",Y),t.on(Y+"end",(function(e,r){var n=this;if(r){var i=r.headers.get("content-length");null!==i&&(n.rxSize=i),t.emit(Y+"done",[null,r],n)}else t.emit(Y+"done",[e],n)})),t}var ie=i(7485),oe=i(5603);class ae{constructor(e){this.agentIdentifier=e}generateTracePayload(e){if(!this.shouldGenerateTrace(e))return null;var t=(0,oe.o)(this.agentIdentifier);if(!t)return null;var n=(t.accountID||"").toString()||null,i=(t.agentID||"").toString()||null,o=(t.trustKey||"").toString()||null;if(!n||!i)return null;var a=(0,r.ZF)(),s=(0,r.el)(),c=Date.now(),u={spanId:a,traceId:s,timestamp:c};return(e.sameOrigin||this.isAllowedOrigin(e)&&this.useTraceContextHeadersForCors())&&(u.traceContextParentHeader=this.generateTraceContextParentHeader(a,s),u.traceContextStateHeader=this.generateTraceContextStateHeader(a,c,n,i,o)),(e.sameOrigin&&!this.excludeNewrelicHeader()||!e.sameOrigin&&this.isAllowedOrigin(e)&&this.useNewrelicHeaderForCors())&&(u.newrelicHeader=this.generateTraceHeader(a,s,c,n,i,o)),u}generateTraceContextParentHeader(e,t){return"00-"+t+"-"+e+"-01"}generateTraceContextStateHeader(e,t,r,n,i){return i+"@nr=0-1-"+r+"-"+n+"-"+e+"----"+t}generateTraceHeader(e,t,r,n,i,o){if(!("function"==typeof p.gm?.btoa))return null;var a={v:[0,1],d:{ty:"Browser",ac:n,ap:i,id:e,tr:t,ti:r}};return o&&n!==o&&(a.d.tk=o),btoa((0,P.A)(a))}shouldGenerateTrace(e){return this.isDtEnabled()&&this.isAllowedOrigin(e)}isAllowedOrigin(e){var t=!1,r={};if((0,s.gD)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing")&&(r=(0,s.D0)(this.agentIdentifier).distributed_tracing),e.sameOrigin)t=!0;else if(r.allowed_origins instanceof Array)for(var n=0;n<r.allowed_origins.length;n++){var i=(0,ie.D)(r.allowed_origins[n]);if(e.hostname===i.hostname&&e.protocol===i.protocol&&e.port===i.port){t=!0;break}}return t}isDtEnabled(){var e=(0,s.gD)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing");return!!e&&!!e.enabled}excludeNewrelicHeader(){var e=(0,s.gD)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing");return!!e&&!!e.exclude_newrelic_header}useNewrelicHeaderForCors(){var e=(0,s.gD)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing");return!!e&&!1!==e.cors_use_newrelic_header}useTraceContextHeadersForCors(){var e=(0,s.gD)(this.agentIdentifier,"distributed_tracing");return!!e&&!!e.cors_use_tracecontext_headers}}var se=i(9300),ce=i(7295),ue=["load","error","abort","timeout"],de=ue.length,le=(0,R.dV)().o.REQ,fe=(0,R.dV)().o.XHR;class he extends b{static featureName=se.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,se.T,t),this.dt=new ae(e.agentIdentifier),this.handler=(e,t,r,n)=>(0,x.p)(e,t,r,n,this.ee);try{const e={xmlhttprequest:"xhr",fetch:"fetch",beacon:"beacon"};p.gm?.performance?.getEntriesByType("resource").forEach((t=>{if(t.initiatorType in e&&0!==t.responseStatus){const r={status:t.responseStatus},n={rxSize:t.transferSize,duration:Math.floor(t.duration),cbTime:0};pe(r,t.name),this.handler("xhr",[r,n,t.startTime,t.responseEnd,e[t.initiatorType]],void 0,a.K7.ajax)}}))}catch(e){}ne(this.ee),Z(this.ee),function(e,t,r,n){function i(e){var t=this;t.totalCbs=0,t.called=0,t.cbTime=0,t.end=R,t.ended=!1,t.xhrGuids={},t.lastSize=null,t.loadCaptureCalled=!1,t.params=this.params||{},t.metrics=this.metrics||{},e.addEventListener("load",(function(r){E(t,e)}),(0,A.jT)(!1)),p.lR||e.addEventListener("progress",(function(e){t.lastSize=e.loaded}),(0,A.jT)(!1))}function o(e){this.params={method:e[0]},pe(this,e[1]),this.metrics={}}function s(t,r){e.loader_config.xpid&&this.sameOrigin&&r.setRequestHeader("X-NewRelic-ID",e.loader_config.xpid);var i=n.generateTracePayload(this.parsedOrigin);if(i){var o=!1;i.newrelicHeader&&(r.setRequestHeader("newrelic",i.newrelicHeader),o=!0),i.traceContextParentHeader&&(r.setRequestHeader("traceparent",i.traceContextParentHeader),i.traceContextStateHeader&&r.setRequestHeader("tracestate",i.traceContextStateHeader),o=!0),o&&(this.dt=i)}}function c(e,r){var n=this.metrics,i=e[0],o=this;if(n&&i){var a=G(i);a&&(n.txSize=a)}this.startTime=(0,N.t)(),this.body=i,this.listener=function(e){try{"abort"!==e.type||o.loadCaptureCalled||(o.params.aborted=!0),("load"!==e.type||o.called===o.totalCbs&&(o.onloadCalled||"function"!=typeof r.onload)&&"function"==typeof o.end)&&o.end(r)}catch(e){try{t.emit("internal-error",[e])}catch(e){}}};for(var s=0;s<de;s++)r.addEventListener(ue[s],this.listener,(0,A.jT)(!1))}function u(e,t,r){this.cbTime+=e,t?this.onloadCalled=!0:this.called+=1,this.called!==this.totalCbs||!this.onloadCalled&&"function"==typeof r.onload||"function"!=typeof this.end||this.end(r)}function d(e,t){var r=""+V(e)+!!t;this.xhrGuids&&!this.xhrGuids[r]&&(this.xhrGuids[r]=!0,this.totalCbs+=1)}function l(e,t){var r=""+V(e)+!!t;this.xhrGuids&&this.xhrGuids[r]&&(delete this.xhrGuids[r],this.totalCbs-=1)}function f(){this.endTime=(0,N.t)()}function h(e,r){r instanceof fe&&"load"===e[0]&&t.emit("xhr-load-added",[e[1],e[2]],r)}function g(e,r){r instanceof fe&&"load"===e[0]&&t.emit("xhr-load-removed",[e[1],e[2]],r)}function m(e,t,r){t instanceof fe&&("onload"===r&&(this.onload=!0),("load"===(e[0]&&e[0].type)||this.onload)&&(this.xhrCbStart=(0,N.t)()))}function v(e,r){this.xhrCbStart&&t.emit("xhr-cb-time",[(0,N.t)()-this.xhrCbStart,this.onload,r],r)}function b(e){var t,r=e[1]||{};if("string"==typeof e[0]?0===(t=e[0]).length&&p.RI&&(t=""+p.gm.location.href):e[0]&&e[0].url?t=e[0].url:p.gm?.URL&&e[0]&&e[0]instanceof URL?t=e[0].href:"function"==typeof e[0].toString&&(t=e[0].toString()),"string"==typeof t&&0!==t.length){t&&(this.parsedOrigin=(0,ie.D)(t),this.sameOrigin=this.parsedOrigin.sameOrigin);var i=n.generateTracePayload(this.parsedOrigin);if(i&&(i.newrelicHeader||i.traceContextParentHeader))if(e[0]&&e[0].headers)s(e[0].headers,i)&&(this.dt=i);else{var o={};for(var a in r)o[a]=r[a];o.headers=new Headers(r.headers||{}),s(o.headers,i)&&(this.dt=i),e.length>1?e[1]=o:e.push(o)}}function s(e,t){var r=!1;return t.newrelicHeader&&(e.set("newrelic",t.newrelicHeader),r=!0),t.traceContextParentHeader&&(e.set("traceparent",t.traceContextParentHeader),t.traceContextStateHeader&&e.set("tracestate",t.traceContextStateHeader),r=!0),r}}function y(e,t){this.params={},this.metrics={},this.startTime=(0,N.t)(),this.dt=t,e.length>=1&&(this.target=e[0]),e.length>=2&&(this.opts=e[1]);var r,n=this.opts||{},i=this.target;"string"==typeof i?r=i:"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof le?r=i.url:p.gm?.URL&&"object"==typeof i&&i instanceof URL&&(r=i.href),pe(this,r);var o=(""+(i&&i instanceof le&&i.method||n.method||"GET")).toUpperCase();this.params.method=o,this.body=n.body,this.txSize=G(n.body)||0}function w(e,t){if(this.endTime=(0,N.t)(),this.params||(this.params={}),(0,ce.iW)(this.params))return;let n;this.params.status=t?t.status:0,"string"==typeof this.rxSize&&this.rxSize.length>0&&(n=+this.rxSize);const i={txSize:this.txSize,rxSize:n,duration:(0,N.t)()-this.startTime};r("xhr",[this.params,i,this.startTime,this.endTime,"fetch"],this,a.K7.ajax)}function R(e){const t=this.params,n=this.metrics;if(!this.ended){this.ended=!0;for(let t=0;t<de;t++)e.removeEventListener(ue[t],this.listener,!1);t.aborted||(0,ce.iW)(t)||(n.duration=(0,N.t)()-this.startTime,this.loadCaptureCalled||4!==e.readyState?null==t.status&&(t.status=0):E(this,e),n.cbTime=this.cbTime,r("xhr",[t,n,this.startTime,this.endTime,"xhr"],this,a.K7.ajax))}}function E(e,r){e.params.status=r.status;var n=function(e,t){var r=e.responseType;return"json"===r&&null!==t?t:"arraybuffer"===r||"blob"===r||"json"===r?G(e.response):"text"===r||""===r||void 0===r?G(e.responseText):void 0}(r,e.lastSize);if(n&&(e.metrics.rxSize=n),e.sameOrigin){var i=r.getResponseHeader("X-NewRelic-App-Data");i&&((0,x.p)(_.rs,["Ajax/CrossApplicationTracing/Header/Seen"],void 0,a.K7.metrics,t),e.params.cat=i.split(", ").pop())}e.loadCaptureCalled=!0}t.on("new-xhr",i),t.on("open-xhr-start",o),t.on("open-xhr-end",s),t.on("send-xhr-start",c),t.on("xhr-cb-time",u),t.on("xhr-load-added",d),t.on("xhr-load-removed",l),t.on("xhr-resolved",f),t.on("addEventListener-end",h),t.on("removeEventListener-end",g),t.on("fn-end",v),t.on("fetch-before-start",b),t.on("fetch-start",y),t.on("fn-start",m),t.on("fetch-done",w)}(e,this.ee,this.handler,this.dt),this.importAggregator(e)}}function pe(e,t){var r=(0,ie.D)(t),n=e.params||e;n.hostname=r.hostname,n.port=r.port,n.protocol=r.protocol,n.host=r.hostname+":"+r.port,n.pathname=r.pathname,e.parsedOrigin=r,e.sameOrigin=r.sameOrigin}const ge={},me=["pushState","replaceState"];function ve(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("history")}(e);return!p.RI||ge[t.debugId]++||(ge[t.debugId]=1,(0,W.YM)(t).inPlace(window.history,me,"-")),t}var be=i(3738);const{He:ye,bD:we,d3:Re,Kp:xe,TZ:Ee,Lc:Ae,uP:Te,Rz:Ne}=be;class Se extends b{static featureName=Ee;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,Ee,t);if(!(0,m.V)(this.agentIdentifier))return void this.deregisterDrain();const r=this.ee;let n;ve(r),this.eventsEE=(0,F.u)(r),this.eventsEE.on(Te,(function(e,t){this.bstStart=(0,N.t)()})),this.eventsEE.on(Ae,(function(e,t){(0,x.p)("bst",[e[0],t,this.bstStart,(0,N.t)()],void 0,a.K7.sessionTrace,r)})),r.on(Ne+Re,(function(e){this.time=(0,N.t)(),this.startPath=location.pathname+location.hash})),r.on(Ne+xe,(function(e){(0,x.p)("bstHist",[location.pathname+location.hash,this.startPath,this.time],void 0,a.K7.sessionTrace,r)}));try{n=new PerformanceObserver((e=>{const t=e.getEntries();(0,x.p)(ye,[t],void 0,a.K7.sessionTrace,r)})),n.observe({type:we,buffered:!0})}catch(e){}this.importAggregator(e,{resourceObserver:n})}}var _e=i(2614);class Oe extends b{static featureName=t.TZ;#i;#o;constructor(e,r=!0){let n;super(e,t.TZ,r),this.replayRunning=!1,this.#o=e;try{n=JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem("".concat(_e.H3,"_").concat(_e.uh)))}catch(e){}(0,g.SR)(e.agentIdentifier)&&this.ee.on(t.G4.RECORD,(()=>this.#a())),this.#s(n)?(this.#i=n?.sessionReplayMode,this.#c()):this.importAggregator(e),this.ee.on("err",(e=>{this.replayRunning&&(this.errorNoticed=!0,(0,x.p)(t.G4.ERROR_DURING_REPLAY,[e],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee))})),this.ee.on(t.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(e=>{this.replayRunning=e}))}#s(e){return e&&(e.sessionReplayMode===_e.g.FULL||e.sessionReplayMode===_e.g.ERROR)||(0,g.Aw)(this.agentIdentifier)}#u=!1;async#c(e){if(!this.#u){this.#u=!0;try{const{Recorder:t}=await Promise.all([i.e(478),i.e(249)]).then(i.bind(i,8589));this.recorder??=new t({mode:this.#i,agentIdentifier:this.agentIdentifier,trigger:e,ee:this.ee,agentRef:this.#o}),this.recorder.startRecording(),this.abortHandler=this.recorder.stopRecording}catch(e){}this.importAggregator(this.#o,{recorder:this.recorder,errorNoticed:this.errorNoticed})}}#a(){this.featAggregate?this.featAggregate.mode!==_e.g.FULL&&this.featAggregate.initializeRecording(_e.g.FULL,!0):(this.#i=_e.g.FULL,this.#c(t.Qb.API),this.recorder&&this.recorder.parent.mode!==_e.g.FULL&&(this.recorder.parent.mode=_e.g.FULL,this.recorder.stopRecording(),this.recorder.startRecording(),this.abortHandler=this.recorder.stopRecording))}}var Ie=i(3962);class Pe extends b{static featureName=Ie.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){if(super(e,Ie.TZ,t),!p.RI||!(0,R.dV)().o.MO)return;const r=ve(this.ee);Ie.tC.forEach((e=>{(0,A.sp)(e,(e=>{a(e)}),!0)}));const n=()=>(0,x.p)("newURL",[(0,N.t)(),""+window.location],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee);r.on("pushState-end",n),r.on("replaceState-end",n);try{this.removeOnAbort=new AbortController}catch(e){}(0,A.sp)("popstate",(e=>(0,x.p)("newURL",[e.timeStamp,""+window.location],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)),!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal);let i=!1;const o=new((0,R.dV)().o.MO)(((e,t)=>{i||(i=!0,requestAnimationFrame((()=>{(0,x.p)("newDom",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee),i=!1})))})),a=(0,v.s)((e=>{(0,x.p)("newUIEvent",[e],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee),o.observe(document.body,{attributes:!0,childList:!0,subtree:!0,characterData:!0})}),100,{leading:!0});this.abortHandler=function(){this.removeOnAbort?.abort(),o.disconnect(),this.abortHandler=void 0},this.importAggregator(e,{domObserver:o})}}var je=i(7378);const Ce={},ke=["appendChild","insertBefore","replaceChild"];function Le(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("jsonp")}(e);if(!p.RI||Ce[t.debugId])return t;Ce[t.debugId]=!0;var r=(0,W.YM)(t),n=/[?&](?:callback|cb)=([^&#]+)/,i=/(.*)\.([^.]+)/,o=/^(\w+)(\.|$)(.*)$/;function a(e,t){if(!e)return t;const r=e.match(o),n=r[1];return a(r[3],t[n])}return r.inPlace(Node.prototype,ke,"dom-"),t.on("dom-start",(function(e){!function(e){if(!e||"string"!=typeof e.nodeName||"script"!==e.nodeName.toLowerCase())return;if("function"!=typeof e.addEventListener)return;var o=(s=e.src,c=s.match(n),c?c[1]:null);var s,c;if(!o)return;var u=function(e){var t=e.match(i);if(t&&t.length>=3)return{key:t[2],parent:a(t[1],window)};return{key:e,parent:window}}(o);if("function"!=typeof u.parent[u.key])return;var d={};function l(){t.emit("jsonp-end",[],d),e.removeEventListener("load",l,(0,A.jT)(!1)),e.removeEventListener("error",f,(0,A.jT)(!1))}function f(){t.emit("jsonp-error",[],d),t.emit("jsonp-end",[],d),e.removeEventListener("load",l,(0,A.jT)(!1)),e.removeEventListener("error",f,(0,A.jT)(!1))}r.inPlace(u.parent,[u.key],"cb-",d),e.addEventListener("load",l,(0,A.jT)(!1)),e.addEventListener("error",f,(0,A.jT)(!1)),t.emit("new-jsonp",[e.src],d)}(e[0])})),t}const He={};function Me(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("promise")}(e);if(He[t.debugId])return t;He[t.debugId]=!0;var r=t.context,n=(0,W.YM)(t),i=p.gm.Promise;return i&&function(){function e(r){var o=t.context(),a=n(r,"executor-",o,null,!1);const s=Reflect.construct(i,[a],e);return t.context(s).getCtx=function(){return o},s}p.gm.Promise=e,Object.defineProperty(e,"name",{value:"Promise"}),e.toString=function(){return i.toString()},Object.setPrototypeOf(e,i),["all","race"].forEach((function(r){const n=i[r];e[r]=function(e){let i=!1;[...e||[]].forEach((e=>{this.resolve(e).then(a("all"===r),a(!1))}));const o=n.apply(this,arguments);return o;function a(e){return function(){t.emit("propagate",[null,!i],o,!1,!1),i=i||!e}}}})),["resolve","reject"].forEach((function(r){const n=i[r];e[r]=function(e){const r=n.apply(this,arguments);return e!==r&&t.emit("propagate",[e,!0],r,!1,!1),r}})),e.prototype=i.prototype;const o=i.prototype.then;i.prototype.then=function(...e){var i=this,a=r(i);a.promise=i,e[0]=n(e[0],"cb-",a,null,!1),e[1]=n(e[1],"cb-",a,null,!1);const s=o.apply(this,e);return a.nextPromise=s,t.emit("propagate",[i,!0],s,!1,!1),s},i.prototype.then[W.Jt]=o,t.on("executor-start",(function(e){e[0]=n(e[0],"resolve-",this,null,!1),e[1]=n(e[1],"resolve-",this,null,!1)})),t.on("executor-err",(function(e,t,r){e[1](r)})),t.on("cb-end",(function(e,r,n){t.emit("propagate",[n,!0],this.nextPromise,!1,!1)})),t.on("propagate",(function(e,r,n){this.getCtx&&!r||(this.getCtx=function(){if(e instanceof Promise)var r=t.context(e);return r&&r.getCtx?r.getCtx():this})}))}(),t}const De={},Ke="setTimeout",Ue="setInterval",Ve="clearTimeout",Ge="-start",Fe=[Ke,"setImmediate",Ue,Ve,"clearImmediate"];function Be(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("timer")}(e);if(De[t.debugId]++)return t;De[t.debugId]=1;var r=(0,W.YM)(t);return r.inPlace(p.gm,Fe.slice(0,2),Ke+"-"),r.inPlace(p.gm,Fe.slice(2,3),Ue+"-"),r.inPlace(p.gm,Fe.slice(3),Ve+"-"),t.on(Ue+Ge,(function(e,t,n){e[0]=r(e[0],"fn-",null,n)})),t.on(Ke+Ge,(function(e,t,n){this.method=n,this.timerDuration=isNaN(e[1])?0:+e[1],e[0]=r(e[0],"fn-",this,n)})),t}const We={};function ze(e){const t=function(e){return(e||B.ee).get("mutation")}(e);if(!p.RI||We[t.debugId])return t;We[t.debugId]=!0;var r=(0,W.YM)(t),n=p.gm.MutationObserver;return n&&(window.MutationObserver=function(e){return this instanceof n?new n(r(e,"fn-")):n.apply(this,arguments)},MutationObserver.prototype=n.prototype),t}const{TZ:qe,d3:Ze,Kp:Ye,$p:Je,wW:Xe,e5:$e,tH:Qe,uP:et,rw:tt,Lc:rt}=je;class nt extends b{static featureName=qe;constructor(e,t=!0){if(super(e,qe,t),!p.RI)return;try{this.removeOnAbort=new AbortController}catch(e){}let r,n=0;const i=this.ee.get("tracer"),o=Le(this.ee),a=Me(this.ee),s=Be(this.ee),c=Z(this.ee),u=this.ee.get("events"),d=ne(this.ee),l=ve(this.ee),f=ze(this.ee);function h(e,t){l.emit("newURL",[""+window.location,t])}function g(){n++,r=window.location.hash,this[et]=(0,N.t)()}function m(){n--,window.location.hash!==r&&h(0,!0);var e=(0,N.t)();this[$e]=~~this[$e]+e-this[et],this[rt]=e}function v(e,t){e.on(t,(function(){this[t]=(0,N.t)()}))}this.ee.on(et,g),a.on(tt,g),o.on(tt,g),this.ee.on(rt,m),a.on(Xe,m),o.on(Xe,m),this.ee.on("fn-err",((...t)=>{t[2]?.__newrelic?.[e.agentIdentifier]||(0,x.p)("function-err",[...t],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)})),this.ee.buffer([et,rt,"xhr-resolved"],this.featureName),u.buffer([et],this.featureName),s.buffer(["setTimeout"+Ye,"clearTimeout"+Ze,et],this.featureName),c.buffer([et,"new-xhr","send-xhr"+Ze],this.featureName),d.buffer([Qe+Ze,Qe+"-done",Qe+Je+Ze,Qe+Je+Ye],this.featureName),l.buffer(["newURL"],this.featureName),f.buffer([et],this.featureName),a.buffer(["propagate",tt,Xe,"executor-err","resolve"+Ze],this.featureName),i.buffer([et,"no-"+et],this.featureName),o.buffer(["new-jsonp","cb-start","jsonp-error","jsonp-end"],this.featureName),v(d,Qe+Ze),v(d,Qe+"-done"),v(o,"new-jsonp"),v(o,"jsonp-end"),v(o,"cb-start"),l.on("pushState-end",h),l.on("replaceState-end",h),window.addEventListener("hashchange",h,(0,A.jT)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),window.addEventListener("load",h,(0,A.jT)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),window.addEventListener("popstate",(function(){h(0,n>1)}),(0,A.jT)(!0,this.removeOnAbort?.signal)),this.abortHandler=this.#n,this.importAggregator(e)}#n(){this.removeOnAbort?.abort(),this.abortHandler=void 0}}var it=i(3333);class ot extends b{static featureName=it.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,it.TZ,t);const r=[e.init.page_action.enabled,e.init.performance.capture_marks,e.init.performance.capture_measures,e.init.user_actions.enabled,e.init.performance.resources.enabled];if(p.RI&&(e.init.user_actions.enabled&&(it.Zp.forEach((e=>(0,A.sp)(e,(e=>(0,x.p)("ua",[e],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)),!0))),it.qN.forEach((e=>{const t=(0,v.s)((e=>{(0,x.p)("ua",[e],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)}),500,{leading:!0});(0,A.sp)(e,t)}))),e.init.performance.resources.enabled&&p.gm.PerformanceObserver?.supportedEntryTypes.includes("resource"))){new PerformanceObserver((e=>{e.getEntries().forEach((e=>{(0,x.p)("browserPerformance.resource",[e],void 0,this.featureName,this.ee)}))})).observe({type:"resource",buffered:!0})}r.some((e=>e))?this.importAggregator(e):this.deregisterDrain()}}var at=i(993),st=i(3785),ct=i(9414);class ut extends b{static featureName=at.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,at.TZ,t);const r=this.ee;(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"log",{level:"info"}),(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"error",{level:"error"}),(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"warn",{level:"warn"}),(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"info",{level:"info"}),(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"debug",{level:"debug"}),(0,ct.J)(r,p.gm.console,"trace",{level:"trace"}),this.ee.on("wrap-logger-end",(function([e]){const{level:t,customAttributes:n}=this;(0,st.R)(r,e,n,t)})),this.importAggregator(e)}}new class extends o{constructor(t){super(),p.gm?(this.features={},(0,R.bQ)(this.agentIdentifier,this),this.desiredFeatures=new Set(t.features||[]),this.desiredFeatures.add(w),this.runSoftNavOverSpa=[...this.desiredFeatures].some((e=>e.featureName===a.K7.softNav)),(0,d.j)(this,t,t.loaderType||"agent"),this.run()):(0,e.R)(21)}get config(){return{info:this.info,init:this.init,loader_config:this.loader_config,runtime:this.runtime}}run(){try{const t=u(this.agentIdentifier),r=[...this.desiredFeatures];r.sort(((e,t)=>a.P3[e.featureName]-a.P3[t.featureName])),r.forEach((r=>{if(!t[r.featureName]&&r.featureName!==a.K7.pageViewEvent)return;if(this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.spa)return;if(!this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.softNav)return;const n=function(e){switch(e){case a.K7.ajax:return[a.K7.jserrors];case a.K7.sessionTrace:return[a.K7.ajax,a.K7.pageViewEvent];case a.K7.sessionReplay:return[a.K7.sessionTrace];case a.K7.pageViewTiming:return[a.K7.pageViewEvent];default:return[]}}(r.featureName).filter((e=>!(e in this.features)));n.length>0&&(0,e.R)(36,{targetFeature:r.featureName,missingDependencies:n}),this.features[r.featureName]=new r(this)}))}catch(t){(0,e.R)(22,t);for(const e in this.features)this.features[e].abortHandler?.();const r=(0,R.Zm)();delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.api,delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.features,delete this.sharedAggregator;return r.ee.get(this.agentIdentifier).abort(),!1}}}({features:[he,w,S,Se,Oe,O,M,ot,ut,Pe,nt],loaderType:"spa"})})()})();</script><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/e397d1a.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/2abb6c5.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/66101cf.css" as="style"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/701e3a3.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/dac93f2.css" as="style"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/71728a1.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/a5e7651.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/e5cdfa1.css" as="style"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/f548f7f.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/868b092.css" as="style"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/e3c5a8f.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/97e04e3.css" as="style"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/0d6d8e5.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/ed7fc59.js" as="script"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/66101cf.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/dac93f2.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/e5cdfa1.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/868b092.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/article-pages/_nuxt/css/97e04e3.css"> <meta property="fb:admins" content="1841006843"> </head> <body > <button class="BypassBlock__firstEl"></button> <a href="#main-content" class="BypassBlock__wrapper"> <span class="BypassBlock__button">Skip to main content</span> </a>  <noscript> <iframe src="https://tag-manager.frontiersin.org/ns.html?id=GTM-M322FV2&gtm_auth=owVbWxfaJr21yQv1fe1cAQ&gtm_preview=env-1&gtm_cookies_win=x" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>  <div data-server-rendered="true" id="__nuxt"><div id="__layout"><div theme="purple" class="ArticleLayout"><nav class="Ibar"><div class="Ibar__main"><div class="Ibar__wrapper"><button aria-label="Open Menu" data-event="iBar-btn-openMenu" class="Ibar__burger"></button> <div class="Ibar__logo"><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/" aria-label="Frontiershome" data-event="iBar-a-home" class="Ibar__logo__link"><svg viewBox="0 0 2811 590" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="Ibar__logo__svg"><path d="M633.872 234.191h-42.674v-57.246h42.674c0-19.776 2.082-35.389 5.204-48.92 4.164-13.53 9.368-23.939 17.695-31.225 8.326-8.326 18.735-13.53 32.266-16.653 13.531-3.123 29.143-5.204 47.878-5.204h21.858c7.286 0 14.572 1.04 21.857 1.04v62.451c-8.326-1.041-16.653-2.082-23.939-2.082-10.408 0-17.694 1.041-23.939 4.164-6.245 3.122-9.368 10.408-9.368 22.898v13.531h53.083v57.246h-53.083v213.372h-89.512V234.191zM794.161 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.041c6.245-17.694 16.653-30.185 31.225-39.552 14.572-9.368 31.225-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.409c3.122 0 7.286 1.041 10.408 2.082v81.185c-6.245-2.082-11.449-3.122-16.653-4.163-5.204-1.041-11.449-1.041-16.654-1.041-11.449 0-20.816 2.082-29.143 5.204-8.327 3.123-15.613 8.327-20.817 14.572-5.204 6.245-10.408 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.123 8.326-4.163 15.612-4.163 23.939v133.228h-88.472V176.945h-1.041zM989.84 312.254c0-19.776 3.122-39.552 10.41-56.205 7.28-17.695 16.65-32.266 29.14-45.797 12.49-13.531 27.06-22.899 44.76-30.185 17.69-7.285 36.43-11.449 57.24-11.449 20.82 0 39.56 4.164 57.25 11.449 17.69 7.286 32.27 17.695 45.8 30.185 12.49 12.49 22.9 28.102 29.14 45.797 7.29 17.694 10.41 36.429 10.41 56.205 0 20.817-3.12 39.552-10.41 57.246-7.29 17.695-16.65 32.266-29.14 44.756-12.49 12.49-28.11 22.899-45.8 30.185-17.69 7.286-36.43 11.449-57.25 11.449-20.81 0-40.59-4.163-57.24-11.449-17.7-7.286-32.27-17.695-44.76-30.185-12.49-12.49-21.86-28.102-29.14-44.756-7.288-17.694-10.41-36.429-10.41-57.246zm88.47 0c0 8.327 1.04 17.694 3.12 26.021 2.09 9.368 5.21 16.653 9.37 23.939 4.16 7.286 9.37 13.531 16.65 17.695 7.29 4.163 15.62 7.285 26.03 7.285 10.4 0 18.73-2.081 26.02-7.285 7.28-4.164 12.49-10.409 16.65-17.695 4.16-7.286 7.29-15.612 9.37-23.939 2.08-9.368 3.12-17.694 3.12-26.021 0-8.327-1.04-17.694-3.12-26.021-2.08-9.368-5.21-16.653-9.37-23.939-4.16-7.286-9.37-13.531-16.65-17.695-7.29-5.204-15.62-7.285-26.02-7.285-10.41 0-18.74 2.081-26.03 7.285-7.28 5.205-12.49 10.409-16.65 17.695-4.16 7.286-7.28 15.612-9.37 23.939-2.08 9.368-3.12 17.694-3.12 26.021zM1306.25 176.945h86.39v37.47h1.04c4.17-7.286 9.37-13.531 15.62-18.735 6.24-5.204 13.53-10.408 20.81-14.572 7.29-4.163 15.62-7.286 23.94-9.367 8.33-2.082 16.66-3.123 24.98-3.123 22.9 0 40.6 4.164 53.09 11.449 13.53 7.286 22.89 16.654 29.14 27.062 6.24 10.409 10.41 21.858 12.49 34.348 2.08 12.49 2.08 22.898 2.08 33.307v172.779h-88.47V316.417v-27.061c0-9.368-1.04-16.654-4.16-23.94-3.13-7.286-7.29-12.49-13.53-16.653-6.25-4.164-15.62-6.245-27.07-6.245-8.32 0-15.61 2.081-21.85 5.204-6.25 3.122-11.45 7.286-14.58 13.531-4.16 5.204-6.24 11.449-8.32 18.735s-3.12 14.572-3.12 21.858v145.717h-88.48V176.945zM1780.88 234.19h-55.17v122.819c0 10.408 3.12 17.694 8.33 20.817 6.24 3.122 13.53 5.204 22.9 5.204 4.16 0 7.28 0 11.45-1.041h11.45v65.573c-8.33 0-15.62 1.041-23.94 2.082-8.33 1.04-16.66 1.041-23.94 1.041-18.74 0-34.35-2.082-46.84-5.205-12.49-3.122-21.86-8.326-29.14-15.612-7.29-7.286-12.49-16.654-14.58-29.144-3.12-12.49-4.16-27.062-4.16-45.797V234.19h-44.76v-57.246h44.76V94.717h88.47v82.227h55.17v57.246zM1902.66 143.639h-88.48V75.984h88.48v67.655zm-89.52 33.307h88.48v270.618h-88.48V176.946zM2024.43 334.111c1.04 18.735 6.25 33.307 16.66 44.756 10.4 11.449 24.98 16.653 43.71 16.653 10.41 0 20.82-2.081 30.19-7.286 9.36-5.204 16.65-12.49 20.81-22.898h83.27c-4.16 15.613-10.41 29.144-19.78 40.593-9.36 11.449-19.77 20.817-31.22 28.102-12.49 7.286-24.98 12.491-39.55 16.654-14.57 3.122-29.15 5.204-43.72 5.204-21.86 0-41.63-3.122-60.37-9.367-18.73-6.246-34.34-15.613-46.83-28.103-12.49-12.49-22.9-27.062-30.19-45.797-7.28-17.694-10.41-38.511-10.41-60.369 0-20.817 4.17-39.552 11.45-57.246 7.29-17.694 17.7-32.266 31.23-44.756 13.53-12.49 29.14-21.858 46.83-29.144 17.7-7.286 36.43-10.408 56.21-10.408 23.94 0 45.8 4.163 63.49 12.49 17.7 8.327 33.31 19.776 44.76 35.389 11.45 15.612 20.81 32.266 26.02 52.042 5.2 19.776 8.33 41.633 7.28 64.532h-199.84v-1.041zm110.33-49.961c-1.04-15.612-6.24-28.102-15.61-39.551-9.37-10.409-21.86-16.654-37.47-16.654s-28.1 5.204-38.51 15.613c-10.41 10.408-16.66 23.939-18.74 40.592h110.33zM2254.46 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.04c6.25-17.694 16.65-30.185 31.23-39.552 14.57-9.368 31.22-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.4c3.13 0 7.29 1.041 10.41 2.082v81.185c-6.24-2.082-11.45-3.122-16.65-4.163-5.21-1.041-11.45-1.041-16.65-1.041-11.45 0-20.82 2.082-29.15 5.204-8.32 3.123-15.61 8.327-20.81 14.572-6.25 6.245-10.41 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.13 8.326-4.17 15.612-4.17 23.939v133.228h-88.47V176.945h-1.04zM2534.45 359.091c0 7.286 1.04 12.49 4.16 17.694 3.12 5.204 6.24 9.368 10.41 12.49 4.16 3.123 9.36 5.204 14.57 7.286 6.24 2.082 11.45 2.082 17.69 2.082 4.17 0 8.33 0 13.53-2.082 5.21-1.041 9.37-3.123 13.53-5.204 4.17-2.082 7.29-5.204 10.41-9.368 3.13-4.163 4.17-8.327 4.17-13.531 0-5.204-2.09-9.367-5.21-12.49-3.12-3.122-7.28-6.245-11.45-8.327-4.16-2.081-9.36-4.163-14.57-5.204-5.2-1.041-9.37-2.081-13.53-3.122-13.53-3.123-28.1-6.245-42.67-9.368-14.58-3.122-28.11-7.286-40.6-12.49-12.49-6.245-22.9-13.531-30.18-23.939-8.33-10.409-11.45-23.94-11.45-42.675 0-16.653 4.16-30.184 11.45-40.592 8.33-10.409 17.69-18.736 30.18-24.981 12.49-6.245 26.02-10.408 40.6-13.53 14.57-3.123 28.1-4.164 41.63-4.164 14.57 0 29.14 1.041 43.71 4.164 14.58 2.081 27.07 7.285 39.56 13.53 12.49 6.245 21.85 15.613 29.14 27.062 7.29 11.45 11.45 26.021 12.49 43.716h-82.23c0-10.409-4.16-18.736-11.45-23.94-7.28-4.163-16.65-7.286-28.1-7.286-4.16 0-8.32 0-12.49 1.041-4.16 1.041-8.32 1.041-12.49 2.082-4.16 1.041-7.28 3.122-9.37 6.245-2.08 3.122-4.16 6.245-4.16 11.449 0 6.245 3.12 11.449 10.41 15.613 6.24 4.163 14.57 7.286 24.98 10.408 10.41 2.082 20.82 5.204 32.27 7.286 11.44 2.082 22.89 4.163 33.3 6.245 13.53 3.123 24.98 7.286 33.31 13.531 9.37 6.245 15.61 12.49 20.82 19.776 5.2 7.286 9.36 14.572 11.45 21.858 2.08 7.285 3.12 13.53 3.12 19.776 0 17.694-4.17 33.306-11.45 45.796-8.33 12.491-17.7 21.858-30.19 30.185-12.49 7.286-26.02 12.49-41.63 16.653-15.61 3.123-31.22 5.204-45.8 5.204-15.61 0-32.26-1.04-47.87-4.163-15.62-3.122-29.15-8.327-41.64-15.612a83.855 83.855 0 01-30.18-30.185c-8.33-12.49-12.49-28.102-12.49-46.838h84.31v-2.081z" fill="#FFFFFF" class="Ibar__logo__text"></path> <path d="M0 481.911V281.028l187.351-58.287v200.882L0 481.911z" fill="#8BC53F"></path> <path d="M187.351 423.623V222.741l126.983 87.431v200.882l-126.983-87.431z" fill="#EBD417"></path> <path d="M126.982 569.341L0 481.911l187.351-58.287 126.983 87.43-187.352 58.287z" fill="#034EA1"></path> <path d="M183.188 212.331l51.001-116.574 65.573 155.085-51.001 116.574-65.573-155.085z" fill="#712E74"></path> <path d="M248.761 367.415l51.001-116.574 171.739-28.102-49.96 115.533-172.78 29.143z" fill="#009FD1"></path> <path d="M299.762 250.842L234.189 95.757l171.739-28.103 65.573 155.085-171.739 28.103z" fill="#F6921E"></path> <path d="M187.352 222.741L59.328 198.802 44.757 71.819 172.78 95.76l14.572 126.982z" fill="#DA2128"></path> <path d="M172.78 95.758L44.757 71.818l70.777-70.776 128.023 23.94-70.777 70.776z" fill="#25BCBD"></path> <path d="M258.129 153.005l-70.777 69.736-14.571-126.982 70.777-70.778 14.571 128.024z" fill="#00844A"></path></svg></a></div> <a aria-label="Frontiers in Medicine" href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine" data-event="iBar-a-journalHome" class="Ibar__journalName"><div logoClass="Ibar__logo--mixed" class="Ibar__journalName__container"><div class="Ibar__journal__maskLogo" style="display:none;"><img src="" class="Ibar__journal__logo"></div> <div class="Ibar__journalName"><span>Frontiers in</span> <span> Medicine</span></div></div></a> <div parent-data-event="iBar" class="Ibar__dropdown Ibar__dropdown--aboutUs"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> About us </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> About us </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__about"><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Who we are</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/mission" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Mission and values</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/history" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">History</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/leadership" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Leadership</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/awards" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Awards</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Impact and progress</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/impact" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">Frontiers' impact</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://progressreport.frontiersin.org/?utm_source=fweb&utm_medium=frep&utm_campaign=pr20" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">Progress Report 2022</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/annual-reports" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">All annual reports</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Publishing model</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/how-we-publish" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">How we publish</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/open-access" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Open access</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/fee-policy" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Fee policy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/peer-review" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Peer review</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-integrity" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Research integrity</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-topics" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Research Topics</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Services</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://publishingpartnerships.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Societies</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/open-access-agreements/consortia" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">National consortia</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/open-access-agreements" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Institutional partnerships</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/collaborators" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Collaborators</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">More from Frontiers</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://forum.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Frontiers Forum</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersplanetprize.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Frontiers Planet Prize</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://pressoffice.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Press office</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.orgabout/sustainability" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Sustainability</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://careers.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Career opportunities</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/contact" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Contact us</a></li></ul></div></div></div> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals" data-event="iBar-a-allJournals" class="Ibar__link">All journals</a><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles" data-event="iBar-a-allArticles" class="Ibar__link">All articles</a> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/submission/submit?domainid=2&fieldid=39&specialtyid=0&entitytype=2&entityid=602" data-event="iBar-a-submit" class="Ibar__button Ibar__submit">Submit your research</a> <div class="Ibar__spacer"></div> <a href="/search" aria-label="Search" data-event="iBar-a-search" class="Ibar__icon Ibar__icon--search"><span>Search</span></a>    <div class="Ibar__userArea"></div></div></div> <div class="Ibar__menu Ibar__menu--journal"><div class="Ibar__menu__header"><div class="Ibar__logo"><div class="Ibar__logo"><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/" aria-label="Frontiershome" data-event="iBar-a-home" class="Ibar__logo__link"><svg viewBox="0 0 2811 590" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="Ibar__logo__svg"><path d="M633.872 234.191h-42.674v-57.246h42.674c0-19.776 2.082-35.389 5.204-48.92 4.164-13.53 9.368-23.939 17.695-31.225 8.326-8.326 18.735-13.53 32.266-16.653 13.531-3.123 29.143-5.204 47.878-5.204h21.858c7.286 0 14.572 1.04 21.857 1.04v62.451c-8.326-1.041-16.653-2.082-23.939-2.082-10.408 0-17.694 1.041-23.939 4.164-6.245 3.122-9.368 10.408-9.368 22.898v13.531h53.083v57.246h-53.083v213.372h-89.512V234.191zM794.161 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.041c6.245-17.694 16.653-30.185 31.225-39.552 14.572-9.368 31.225-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.409c3.122 0 7.286 1.041 10.408 2.082v81.185c-6.245-2.082-11.449-3.122-16.653-4.163-5.204-1.041-11.449-1.041-16.654-1.041-11.449 0-20.816 2.082-29.143 5.204-8.327 3.123-15.613 8.327-20.817 14.572-5.204 6.245-10.408 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.123 8.326-4.163 15.612-4.163 23.939v133.228h-88.472V176.945h-1.041zM989.84 312.254c0-19.776 3.122-39.552 10.41-56.205 7.28-17.695 16.65-32.266 29.14-45.797 12.49-13.531 27.06-22.899 44.76-30.185 17.69-7.285 36.43-11.449 57.24-11.449 20.82 0 39.56 4.164 57.25 11.449 17.69 7.286 32.27 17.695 45.8 30.185 12.49 12.49 22.9 28.102 29.14 45.797 7.29 17.694 10.41 36.429 10.41 56.205 0 20.817-3.12 39.552-10.41 57.246-7.29 17.695-16.65 32.266-29.14 44.756-12.49 12.49-28.11 22.899-45.8 30.185-17.69 7.286-36.43 11.449-57.25 11.449-20.81 0-40.59-4.163-57.24-11.449-17.7-7.286-32.27-17.695-44.76-30.185-12.49-12.49-21.86-28.102-29.14-44.756-7.288-17.694-10.41-36.429-10.41-57.246zm88.47 0c0 8.327 1.04 17.694 3.12 26.021 2.09 9.368 5.21 16.653 9.37 23.939 4.16 7.286 9.37 13.531 16.65 17.695 7.29 4.163 15.62 7.285 26.03 7.285 10.4 0 18.73-2.081 26.02-7.285 7.28-4.164 12.49-10.409 16.65-17.695 4.16-7.286 7.29-15.612 9.37-23.939 2.08-9.368 3.12-17.694 3.12-26.021 0-8.327-1.04-17.694-3.12-26.021-2.08-9.368-5.21-16.653-9.37-23.939-4.16-7.286-9.37-13.531-16.65-17.695-7.29-5.204-15.62-7.285-26.02-7.285-10.41 0-18.74 2.081-26.03 7.285-7.28 5.205-12.49 10.409-16.65 17.695-4.16 7.286-7.28 15.612-9.37 23.939-2.08 9.368-3.12 17.694-3.12 26.021zM1306.25 176.945h86.39v37.47h1.04c4.17-7.286 9.37-13.531 15.62-18.735 6.24-5.204 13.53-10.408 20.81-14.572 7.29-4.163 15.62-7.286 23.94-9.367 8.33-2.082 16.66-3.123 24.98-3.123 22.9 0 40.6 4.164 53.09 11.449 13.53 7.286 22.89 16.654 29.14 27.062 6.24 10.409 10.41 21.858 12.49 34.348 2.08 12.49 2.08 22.898 2.08 33.307v172.779h-88.47V316.417v-27.061c0-9.368-1.04-16.654-4.16-23.94-3.13-7.286-7.29-12.49-13.53-16.653-6.25-4.164-15.62-6.245-27.07-6.245-8.32 0-15.61 2.081-21.85 5.204-6.25 3.122-11.45 7.286-14.58 13.531-4.16 5.204-6.24 11.449-8.32 18.735s-3.12 14.572-3.12 21.858v145.717h-88.48V176.945zM1780.88 234.19h-55.17v122.819c0 10.408 3.12 17.694 8.33 20.817 6.24 3.122 13.53 5.204 22.9 5.204 4.16 0 7.28 0 11.45-1.041h11.45v65.573c-8.33 0-15.62 1.041-23.94 2.082-8.33 1.04-16.66 1.041-23.94 1.041-18.74 0-34.35-2.082-46.84-5.205-12.49-3.122-21.86-8.326-29.14-15.612-7.29-7.286-12.49-16.654-14.58-29.144-3.12-12.49-4.16-27.062-4.16-45.797V234.19h-44.76v-57.246h44.76V94.717h88.47v82.227h55.17v57.246zM1902.66 143.639h-88.48V75.984h88.48v67.655zm-89.52 33.307h88.48v270.618h-88.48V176.946zM2024.43 334.111c1.04 18.735 6.25 33.307 16.66 44.756 10.4 11.449 24.98 16.653 43.71 16.653 10.41 0 20.82-2.081 30.19-7.286 9.36-5.204 16.65-12.49 20.81-22.898h83.27c-4.16 15.613-10.41 29.144-19.78 40.593-9.36 11.449-19.77 20.817-31.22 28.102-12.49 7.286-24.98 12.491-39.55 16.654-14.57 3.122-29.15 5.204-43.72 5.204-21.86 0-41.63-3.122-60.37-9.367-18.73-6.246-34.34-15.613-46.83-28.103-12.49-12.49-22.9-27.062-30.19-45.797-7.28-17.694-10.41-38.511-10.41-60.369 0-20.817 4.17-39.552 11.45-57.246 7.29-17.694 17.7-32.266 31.23-44.756 13.53-12.49 29.14-21.858 46.83-29.144 17.7-7.286 36.43-10.408 56.21-10.408 23.94 0 45.8 4.163 63.49 12.49 17.7 8.327 33.31 19.776 44.76 35.389 11.45 15.612 20.81 32.266 26.02 52.042 5.2 19.776 8.33 41.633 7.28 64.532h-199.84v-1.041zm110.33-49.961c-1.04-15.612-6.24-28.102-15.61-39.551-9.37-10.409-21.86-16.654-37.47-16.654s-28.1 5.204-38.51 15.613c-10.41 10.408-16.66 23.939-18.74 40.592h110.33zM2254.46 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.04c6.25-17.694 16.65-30.185 31.23-39.552 14.57-9.368 31.22-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.4c3.13 0 7.29 1.041 10.41 2.082v81.185c-6.24-2.082-11.45-3.122-16.65-4.163-5.21-1.041-11.45-1.041-16.65-1.041-11.45 0-20.82 2.082-29.15 5.204-8.32 3.123-15.61 8.327-20.81 14.572-6.25 6.245-10.41 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.13 8.326-4.17 15.612-4.17 23.939v133.228h-88.47V176.945h-1.04zM2534.45 359.091c0 7.286 1.04 12.49 4.16 17.694 3.12 5.204 6.24 9.368 10.41 12.49 4.16 3.123 9.36 5.204 14.57 7.286 6.24 2.082 11.45 2.082 17.69 2.082 4.17 0 8.33 0 13.53-2.082 5.21-1.041 9.37-3.123 13.53-5.204 4.17-2.082 7.29-5.204 10.41-9.368 3.13-4.163 4.17-8.327 4.17-13.531 0-5.204-2.09-9.367-5.21-12.49-3.12-3.122-7.28-6.245-11.45-8.327-4.16-2.081-9.36-4.163-14.57-5.204-5.2-1.041-9.37-2.081-13.53-3.122-13.53-3.123-28.1-6.245-42.67-9.368-14.58-3.122-28.11-7.286-40.6-12.49-12.49-6.245-22.9-13.531-30.18-23.939-8.33-10.409-11.45-23.94-11.45-42.675 0-16.653 4.16-30.184 11.45-40.592 8.33-10.409 17.69-18.736 30.18-24.981 12.49-6.245 26.02-10.408 40.6-13.53 14.57-3.123 28.1-4.164 41.63-4.164 14.57 0 29.14 1.041 43.71 4.164 14.58 2.081 27.07 7.285 39.56 13.53 12.49 6.245 21.85 15.613 29.14 27.062 7.29 11.45 11.45 26.021 12.49 43.716h-82.23c0-10.409-4.16-18.736-11.45-23.94-7.28-4.163-16.65-7.286-28.1-7.286-4.16 0-8.32 0-12.49 1.041-4.16 1.041-8.32 1.041-12.49 2.082-4.16 1.041-7.28 3.122-9.37 6.245-2.08 3.122-4.16 6.245-4.16 11.449 0 6.245 3.12 11.449 10.41 15.613 6.24 4.163 14.57 7.286 24.98 10.408 10.41 2.082 20.82 5.204 32.27 7.286 11.44 2.082 22.89 4.163 33.3 6.245 13.53 3.123 24.98 7.286 33.31 13.531 9.37 6.245 15.61 12.49 20.82 19.776 5.2 7.286 9.36 14.572 11.45 21.858 2.08 7.285 3.12 13.53 3.12 19.776 0 17.694-4.17 33.306-11.45 45.796-8.33 12.491-17.7 21.858-30.19 30.185-12.49 7.286-26.02 12.49-41.63 16.653-15.61 3.123-31.22 5.204-45.8 5.204-15.61 0-32.26-1.04-47.87-4.163-15.62-3.122-29.15-8.327-41.64-15.612a83.855 83.855 0 01-30.18-30.185c-8.33-12.49-12.49-28.102-12.49-46.838h84.31v-2.081z" fill="#FFFFFF" class="Ibar__logo__text"></path> <path d="M0 481.911V281.028l187.351-58.287v200.882L0 481.911z" fill="#8BC53F"></path> <path d="M187.351 423.623V222.741l126.983 87.431v200.882l-126.983-87.431z" fill="#EBD417"></path> <path d="M126.982 569.341L0 481.911l187.351-58.287 126.983 87.43-187.352 58.287z" fill="#034EA1"></path> <path d="M183.188 212.331l51.001-116.574 65.573 155.085-51.001 116.574-65.573-155.085z" fill="#712E74"></path> <path d="M248.761 367.415l51.001-116.574 171.739-28.102-49.96 115.533-172.78 29.143z" fill="#009FD1"></path> <path d="M299.762 250.842L234.189 95.757l171.739-28.103 65.573 155.085-171.739 28.103z" fill="#F6921E"></path> <path d="M187.352 222.741L59.328 198.802 44.757 71.819 172.78 95.76l14.572 126.982z" fill="#DA2128"></path> <path d="M172.78 95.758L44.757 71.818l70.777-70.776 128.023 23.94-70.777 70.776z" fill="#25BCBD"></path> <path d="M258.129 153.005l-70.777 69.736-14.571-126.982 70.777-70.778 14.571 128.024z" fill="#00844A"></path></svg></a></div></div> <button aria-label="Close Menu" data-event="iBarMenu-btn-closeMenu" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__menu__wrapper"><div class="Ibar__menu__journal"><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine" data-event="iBarMenu-a-journalHome"><div class="Ibar__journalName__container"><div class="Ibar__journal__maskLogo" style="display:none;"><img src="" class="Ibar__journal__logo"></div> <div class="Ibar__journalName"><span>Frontiers in</span> <span> Medicine</span></div></div></a> <div parent-data-event="iBarMenu" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> Sections </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> Sections </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <ul class="Ibar__dropdown__sections"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/dermatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_797">Dermatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/family-medicine-and-primary-care" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_842">Family Medicine and Primary Care</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gastroenterology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_681">Gastroenterology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gene-and-cell-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1321">Gene and Cell Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/geriatric-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_790">Geriatric Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/healthcare-professions-education" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1969">Healthcare Professions Education</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hematology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_752">Hematology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hepatobiliary-diseases" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3648">Hepatobiliary Diseases</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/infectious-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3379">Infectious Diseases: Pathogenesis and Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/intensive-care-medicine-and-anesthesiology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1139">Intensive Care Medicine and Anesthesiology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nephrology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_768">Nephrology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nuclear-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_815">Nuclear Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/obstetrics-and-gynecology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_2526">Obstetrics and Gynecology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/ophthalmology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1635">Ophthalmology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pathology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_618">Pathology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/precision-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1307">Precision Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pulmonary-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_678">Pulmonary Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/regulatory-science" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1306">Regulatory Science</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/rheumatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_662">Rheumatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/translational-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1318">Translational Medicine</a></li></ul></div></div> <a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles" data-event="iBar-a-articles" class="Ibar__link">Articles</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/research-topics" data-event="iBar-a-researchTopics" class="Ibar__link">Research Topics</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/editors" data-event="iBar-a-editorialBoard" class="Ibar__link">Editorial board</a> <div parent-data-event="iBarMenu" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> About journal </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> About journal </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__about"><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Scope</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-editors" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Field chief editors</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-scope" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Mission & scope</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-facts" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Facts</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-submission" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Journal sections</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-open" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Open access statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#copyright-statement" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Copyright statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-quality" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Quality</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">For authors</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/why-submit" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Why submit?</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/article-types" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Article types</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/author-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Author guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/editor-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Editor guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/publishing-fees" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Publishing fees</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/submission-checklist" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Submission checklist</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/contact-editorial-office" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Contact editorial office</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <div parent-data-event="iBarMenu" class="Ibar__dropdown Ibar__dropdown--aboutUs"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> About us </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> About us </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__about"><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Who we are</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/mission" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Mission and values</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/history" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">History</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/leadership" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Leadership</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/awards" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_0-a_whoWeAre">Awards</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Impact and progress</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/impact" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">Frontiers' impact</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://progressreport.frontiersin.org/?utm_source=fweb&utm_medium=frep&utm_campaign=pr20" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">Progress Report 2022</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/annual-reports" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_1-a_impactAndProgress">All annual reports</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Publishing model</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/how-we-publish" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">How we publish</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/open-access" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Open access</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/fee-policy" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Fee policy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/peer-review" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Peer review</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-integrity" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Research integrity</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-topics" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_2-a_publishingModel">Research Topics</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Services</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://publishingpartnerships.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Societies</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/open-access-agreements/consortia" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">National consortia</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/open-access-agreements" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Institutional partnerships</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/collaborators" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_3-a_services">Collaborators</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">More from Frontiers</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://forum.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Frontiers Forum</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersplanetprize.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Frontiers Planet Prize</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://pressoffice.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Press office</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.orgabout/sustainability" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Sustainability</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://careers.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Career opportunities</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/contact" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutUs_4-a_moreFromFrontiers">Contact us</a></li></ul></div></div></div> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals" data-event="iBar-a-allJournals" class="Ibar__link">All journals</a><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles" data-event="iBar-a-allArticles" class="Ibar__link">All articles</a>    <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/submission/submit?domainid=2&fieldid=39&specialtyid=0&entitytype=2&entityid=602" data-event="iBarMenu-a-submit" class="Ibar__button Ibar__submit">Submit your research</a></div></div> <div class="Ibar__journal"><div class="Ibar__wrapper Ibar__wrapper--journal"><a aria-label="Frontiers in Medicine" href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-a-journalHome" class="Ibar__journalName"><div class="Ibar__journalName__container"><div class="Ibar__journal__maskLogo" style="display:none;"><img src="" class="Ibar__journal__logo"></div> <div class="Ibar__journalName"><span>Frontiers in</span> <span> Medicine</span></div></div></a> <div parent-data-event="iBarJournal" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> Sections </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> Sections </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <ul class="Ibar__dropdown__sections"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/dermatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_797">Dermatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/family-medicine-and-primary-care" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_842">Family Medicine and Primary Care</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gastroenterology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_681">Gastroenterology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gene-and-cell-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1321">Gene and Cell Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/geriatric-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_790">Geriatric Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/healthcare-professions-education" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1969">Healthcare Professions Education</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hematology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_752">Hematology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hepatobiliary-diseases" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3648">Hepatobiliary Diseases</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/infectious-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3379">Infectious Diseases: Pathogenesis and Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/intensive-care-medicine-and-anesthesiology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1139">Intensive Care Medicine and Anesthesiology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nephrology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_768">Nephrology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nuclear-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_815">Nuclear Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/obstetrics-and-gynecology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_2526">Obstetrics and Gynecology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/ophthalmology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1635">Ophthalmology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pathology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_618">Pathology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/precision-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1307">Precision Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pulmonary-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_678">Pulmonary Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/regulatory-science" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1306">Regulatory Science</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/rheumatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_662">Rheumatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/translational-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1318">Translational Medicine</a></li></ul></div></div> <a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles" data-event="iBar-a-articles" class="Ibar__link">Articles</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/research-topics" data-event="iBar-a-researchTopics" class="Ibar__link">Research Topics</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/editors" data-event="iBar-a-editorialBoard" class="Ibar__link">Editorial board</a> <div parent-data-event="iBarJournal" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> About journal </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> About journal </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__about"><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Scope</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-editors" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Field chief editors</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-scope" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Mission & scope</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-facts" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Facts</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-submission" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Journal sections</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-open" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Open access statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#copyright-statement" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Copyright statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-quality" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Quality</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">For authors</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/why-submit" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Why submit?</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/article-types" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Article types</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/author-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Author guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/editor-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Editor guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/publishing-fees" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Publishing fees</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/submission-checklist" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Submission checklist</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/contact-editorial-office" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Contact editorial office</a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="Ibar__spacer"></div></div></div> <div class="Ibar__journal Ibar__journal--mix"><div class="Ibar__wrapper Ibar__wrapper--journal"><div class="Ibar__logo"><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/" aria-label="Frontiershome" data-event="iBar-a-home" class="Ibar__logo__link"><svg viewBox="0 0 2811 590" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="Ibar__logo__svg"><path d="M633.872 234.191h-42.674v-57.246h42.674c0-19.776 2.082-35.389 5.204-48.92 4.164-13.53 9.368-23.939 17.695-31.225 8.326-8.326 18.735-13.53 32.266-16.653 13.531-3.123 29.143-5.204 47.878-5.204h21.858c7.286 0 14.572 1.04 21.857 1.04v62.451c-8.326-1.041-16.653-2.082-23.939-2.082-10.408 0-17.694 1.041-23.939 4.164-6.245 3.122-9.368 10.408-9.368 22.898v13.531h53.083v57.246h-53.083v213.372h-89.512V234.191zM794.161 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.041c6.245-17.694 16.653-30.185 31.225-39.552 14.572-9.368 31.225-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.409c3.122 0 7.286 1.041 10.408 2.082v81.185c-6.245-2.082-11.449-3.122-16.653-4.163-5.204-1.041-11.449-1.041-16.654-1.041-11.449 0-20.816 2.082-29.143 5.204-8.327 3.123-15.613 8.327-20.817 14.572-5.204 6.245-10.408 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.123 8.326-4.163 15.612-4.163 23.939v133.228h-88.472V176.945h-1.041zM989.84 312.254c0-19.776 3.122-39.552 10.41-56.205 7.28-17.695 16.65-32.266 29.14-45.797 12.49-13.531 27.06-22.899 44.76-30.185 17.69-7.285 36.43-11.449 57.24-11.449 20.82 0 39.56 4.164 57.25 11.449 17.69 7.286 32.27 17.695 45.8 30.185 12.49 12.49 22.9 28.102 29.14 45.797 7.29 17.694 10.41 36.429 10.41 56.205 0 20.817-3.12 39.552-10.41 57.246-7.29 17.695-16.65 32.266-29.14 44.756-12.49 12.49-28.11 22.899-45.8 30.185-17.69 7.286-36.43 11.449-57.25 11.449-20.81 0-40.59-4.163-57.24-11.449-17.7-7.286-32.27-17.695-44.76-30.185-12.49-12.49-21.86-28.102-29.14-44.756-7.288-17.694-10.41-36.429-10.41-57.246zm88.47 0c0 8.327 1.04 17.694 3.12 26.021 2.09 9.368 5.21 16.653 9.37 23.939 4.16 7.286 9.37 13.531 16.65 17.695 7.29 4.163 15.62 7.285 26.03 7.285 10.4 0 18.73-2.081 26.02-7.285 7.28-4.164 12.49-10.409 16.65-17.695 4.16-7.286 7.29-15.612 9.37-23.939 2.08-9.368 3.12-17.694 3.12-26.021 0-8.327-1.04-17.694-3.12-26.021-2.08-9.368-5.21-16.653-9.37-23.939-4.16-7.286-9.37-13.531-16.65-17.695-7.29-5.204-15.62-7.285-26.02-7.285-10.41 0-18.74 2.081-26.03 7.285-7.28 5.205-12.49 10.409-16.65 17.695-4.16 7.286-7.28 15.612-9.37 23.939-2.08 9.368-3.12 17.694-3.12 26.021zM1306.25 176.945h86.39v37.47h1.04c4.17-7.286 9.37-13.531 15.62-18.735 6.24-5.204 13.53-10.408 20.81-14.572 7.29-4.163 15.62-7.286 23.94-9.367 8.33-2.082 16.66-3.123 24.98-3.123 22.9 0 40.6 4.164 53.09 11.449 13.53 7.286 22.89 16.654 29.14 27.062 6.24 10.409 10.41 21.858 12.49 34.348 2.08 12.49 2.08 22.898 2.08 33.307v172.779h-88.47V316.417v-27.061c0-9.368-1.04-16.654-4.16-23.94-3.13-7.286-7.29-12.49-13.53-16.653-6.25-4.164-15.62-6.245-27.07-6.245-8.32 0-15.61 2.081-21.85 5.204-6.25 3.122-11.45 7.286-14.58 13.531-4.16 5.204-6.24 11.449-8.32 18.735s-3.12 14.572-3.12 21.858v145.717h-88.48V176.945zM1780.88 234.19h-55.17v122.819c0 10.408 3.12 17.694 8.33 20.817 6.24 3.122 13.53 5.204 22.9 5.204 4.16 0 7.28 0 11.45-1.041h11.45v65.573c-8.33 0-15.62 1.041-23.94 2.082-8.33 1.04-16.66 1.041-23.94 1.041-18.74 0-34.35-2.082-46.84-5.205-12.49-3.122-21.86-8.326-29.14-15.612-7.29-7.286-12.49-16.654-14.58-29.144-3.12-12.49-4.16-27.062-4.16-45.797V234.19h-44.76v-57.246h44.76V94.717h88.47v82.227h55.17v57.246zM1902.66 143.639h-88.48V75.984h88.48v67.655zm-89.52 33.307h88.48v270.618h-88.48V176.946zM2024.43 334.111c1.04 18.735 6.25 33.307 16.66 44.756 10.4 11.449 24.98 16.653 43.71 16.653 10.41 0 20.82-2.081 30.19-7.286 9.36-5.204 16.65-12.49 20.81-22.898h83.27c-4.16 15.613-10.41 29.144-19.78 40.593-9.36 11.449-19.77 20.817-31.22 28.102-12.49 7.286-24.98 12.491-39.55 16.654-14.57 3.122-29.15 5.204-43.72 5.204-21.86 0-41.63-3.122-60.37-9.367-18.73-6.246-34.34-15.613-46.83-28.103-12.49-12.49-22.9-27.062-30.19-45.797-7.28-17.694-10.41-38.511-10.41-60.369 0-20.817 4.17-39.552 11.45-57.246 7.29-17.694 17.7-32.266 31.23-44.756 13.53-12.49 29.14-21.858 46.83-29.144 17.7-7.286 36.43-10.408 56.21-10.408 23.94 0 45.8 4.163 63.49 12.49 17.7 8.327 33.31 19.776 44.76 35.389 11.45 15.612 20.81 32.266 26.02 52.042 5.2 19.776 8.33 41.633 7.28 64.532h-199.84v-1.041zm110.33-49.961c-1.04-15.612-6.24-28.102-15.61-39.551-9.37-10.409-21.86-16.654-37.47-16.654s-28.1 5.204-38.51 15.613c-10.41 10.408-16.66 23.939-18.74 40.592h110.33zM2254.46 176.945h86.39v47.879h1.04c6.25-17.694 16.65-30.185 31.23-39.552 14.57-9.368 31.22-13.531 49.96-13.531h10.4c3.13 0 7.29 1.041 10.41 2.082v81.185c-6.24-2.082-11.45-3.122-16.65-4.163-5.21-1.041-11.45-1.041-16.65-1.041-11.45 0-20.82 2.082-29.15 5.204-8.32 3.123-15.61 8.327-20.81 14.572-6.25 6.245-10.41 12.49-12.49 20.817-3.13 8.326-4.17 15.612-4.17 23.939v133.228h-88.47V176.945h-1.04zM2534.45 359.091c0 7.286 1.04 12.49 4.16 17.694 3.12 5.204 6.24 9.368 10.41 12.49 4.16 3.123 9.36 5.204 14.57 7.286 6.24 2.082 11.45 2.082 17.69 2.082 4.17 0 8.33 0 13.53-2.082 5.21-1.041 9.37-3.123 13.53-5.204 4.17-2.082 7.29-5.204 10.41-9.368 3.13-4.163 4.17-8.327 4.17-13.531 0-5.204-2.09-9.367-5.21-12.49-3.12-3.122-7.28-6.245-11.45-8.327-4.16-2.081-9.36-4.163-14.57-5.204-5.2-1.041-9.37-2.081-13.53-3.122-13.53-3.123-28.1-6.245-42.67-9.368-14.58-3.122-28.11-7.286-40.6-12.49-12.49-6.245-22.9-13.531-30.18-23.939-8.33-10.409-11.45-23.94-11.45-42.675 0-16.653 4.16-30.184 11.45-40.592 8.33-10.409 17.69-18.736 30.18-24.981 12.49-6.245 26.02-10.408 40.6-13.53 14.57-3.123 28.1-4.164 41.63-4.164 14.57 0 29.14 1.041 43.71 4.164 14.58 2.081 27.07 7.285 39.56 13.53 12.49 6.245 21.85 15.613 29.14 27.062 7.29 11.45 11.45 26.021 12.49 43.716h-82.23c0-10.409-4.16-18.736-11.45-23.94-7.28-4.163-16.65-7.286-28.1-7.286-4.16 0-8.32 0-12.49 1.041-4.16 1.041-8.32 1.041-12.49 2.082-4.16 1.041-7.28 3.122-9.37 6.245-2.08 3.122-4.16 6.245-4.16 11.449 0 6.245 3.12 11.449 10.41 15.613 6.24 4.163 14.57 7.286 24.98 10.408 10.41 2.082 20.82 5.204 32.27 7.286 11.44 2.082 22.89 4.163 33.3 6.245 13.53 3.123 24.98 7.286 33.31 13.531 9.37 6.245 15.61 12.49 20.82 19.776 5.2 7.286 9.36 14.572 11.45 21.858 2.08 7.285 3.12 13.53 3.12 19.776 0 17.694-4.17 33.306-11.45 45.796-8.33 12.491-17.7 21.858-30.19 30.185-12.49 7.286-26.02 12.49-41.63 16.653-15.61 3.123-31.22 5.204-45.8 5.204-15.61 0-32.26-1.04-47.87-4.163-15.62-3.122-29.15-8.327-41.64-15.612a83.855 83.855 0 01-30.18-30.185c-8.33-12.49-12.49-28.102-12.49-46.838h84.31v-2.081z" fill="#FFFFFF" class="Ibar__logo__text"></path> <path d="M0 481.911V281.028l187.351-58.287v200.882L0 481.911z" fill="#8BC53F"></path> <path d="M187.351 423.623V222.741l126.983 87.431v200.882l-126.983-87.431z" fill="#EBD417"></path> <path d="M126.982 569.341L0 481.911l187.351-58.287 126.983 87.43-187.352 58.287z" fill="#034EA1"></path> <path d="M183.188 212.331l51.001-116.574 65.573 155.085-51.001 116.574-65.573-155.085z" fill="#712E74"></path> <path d="M248.761 367.415l51.001-116.574 171.739-28.102-49.96 115.533-172.78 29.143z" fill="#009FD1"></path> <path d="M299.762 250.842L234.189 95.757l171.739-28.103 65.573 155.085-171.739 28.103z" fill="#F6921E"></path> <path d="M187.352 222.741L59.328 198.802 44.757 71.819 172.78 95.76l14.572 126.982z" fill="#DA2128"></path> <path d="M172.78 95.758L44.757 71.818l70.777-70.776 128.023 23.94-70.777 70.776z" fill="#25BCBD"></path> <path d="M258.129 153.005l-70.777 69.736-14.571-126.982 70.777-70.778 14.571 128.024z" fill="#00844A"></path></svg></a></div> <a aria-label="Frontiers in Medicine" href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-a-journalHome" class="Ibar__journalName"><div logoClass="Ibar__logo--mixed" class="Ibar__journalName__container"><div class="Ibar__journal__maskLogo" style="display:none;"><img src="" class="Ibar__journal__logo"></div> <div class="Ibar__journalName"><span>Frontiers in</span> <span> Medicine</span></div></div></a> <div class="Ibar__spacer"></div> <div parent-data-event="iBarJournal" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> Sections </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> Sections </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <ul class="Ibar__dropdown__sections"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/dermatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_797">Dermatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/family-medicine-and-primary-care" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_842">Family Medicine and Primary Care</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gastroenterology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_681">Gastroenterology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/gene-and-cell-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1321">Gene and Cell Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/geriatric-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_790">Geriatric Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/healthcare-professions-education" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1969">Healthcare Professions Education</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hematology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_752">Hematology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/hepatobiliary-diseases" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3648">Hepatobiliary Diseases</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/infectious-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_3379">Infectious Diseases: Pathogenesis and Therapy</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/intensive-care-medicine-and-anesthesiology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1139">Intensive Care Medicine and Anesthesiology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nephrology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_768">Nephrology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/nuclear-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_815">Nuclear Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/obstetrics-and-gynecology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_2526">Obstetrics and Gynecology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/ophthalmology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1635">Ophthalmology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pathology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_618">Pathology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/precision-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1307">Precision Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/pulmonary-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_678">Pulmonary Medicine</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/regulatory-science" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1306">Regulatory Science</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/rheumatology" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_662">Rheumatology</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__sections__item"><a href="/journals/medicine/sections/translational-medicine" data-event="iBarJournal-sections-a_id_1318">Translational Medicine</a></li></ul></div></div> <a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles" data-event="iBar-a-articles" class="Ibar__link">Articles</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/research-topics" data-event="iBar-a-researchTopics" class="Ibar__link">Research Topics</a><a href="//www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/editors" data-event="iBar-a-editorialBoard" class="Ibar__link">Editorial board</a> <div parent-data-event="iBarJournal" class="Ibar__dropdown"><button class="Ibar__dropdown__trigger"> About journal </button> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu"><div class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header"><button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__dropdown__menu__header__title"> About journal </button> <button aria-label="Close Dropdown" class="Ibar__close"></button></div> <div class="Ibar__dropdown__about"><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">Scope</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-editors" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Field chief editors</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-scope" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Mission & scope</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-facts" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Facts</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-submission" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Journal sections</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-open" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Open access statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#copyright-statement" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Copyright statement</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/about#about-quality" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_0-a_scope">Quality</a></li></ul><ul class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block"><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__title">For authors</li> <li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/why-submit" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Why submit?</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/article-types" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Article types</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/author-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Author guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/editor-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Editor guidelines</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/publishing-fees" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Publishing fees</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/submission-checklist" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Submission checklist</a></li><li class="Ibar__dropdown__about__block__item"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/for-authors/contact-editorial-office" target="_self" data-event="iBar-aboutJournal_1-a_forAuthors">Contact editorial office</a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="Ibar__spacer"></div> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/submission/submit?domainid=2&fieldid=39&specialtyid=0&entitytype=2&entityid=602" data-event="iBarJournal-a-submit" class="Ibar__button Ibar__submit"><span>Submit</span> <span> your research</span></a> <a href="/search" aria-label="Search" data-event="iBar-a-search" class="Ibar__icon Ibar__icon--search"><span>Search</span></a>    <div class="Ibar__userArea"></div></div></div></nav> <div class="ArticlePage"><div><div class="Layout Layout--withAside Layout--withIbarMix ArticleDetails"> <main class="Layout__main"> <div class="ArticleDetails__main"><div class="ArticleLayoutHeader"><div class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info"><p class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__title"> ORIGINAL RESEARCH article </p> <p class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__journalDate"><span>Front. Med.</span> <span>, 13 December 2023</span></p> <p class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__journalDate"> Sec. Obstetrics and Gynecology </p> <p class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__doiVolume"><span> Volume 10 - 2023 | </span> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615" class="ArticleLayoutHeader__info__doi"> https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615 </a></p> </div>  <p class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT"><span class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT__label">This article is part of the Research Topic</span> <span class="ArticleLayoutHeader__isPartOfRT__title">Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology</span> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="View all 18 articles" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/51868/education-in-obstetrics-and-gynecology/articles" target="_self" data-event="customLink-link-a_viewAll18Articles" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--medium Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>View all 18 articles</span></a></span></p></div> <div class="ArticleDetails__main__content"><div class="ArticleDetails__main__content__main ArticleDetails__main__content__main--fullArticle"><div class="JournalAbstract"><div class="JournalAbstract__titleWrapper"><h1>ChatGPT’s performance in German OB/GYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice</h1> </div> </div> <div class="JournalFullText"><div class="JournalAbstract"> <a id="h1" name="h1"></a> <div class="authors"><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/2470056" class="user-id-2470056"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/2470056/74" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';" alt="Maximilian Riedel
">Maximilian Riedel</a><sup>1</sup><sup>*</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/2577566" class="user-id-2577566"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/2577566/74" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';" alt="Katharina Kaefinger">Katharina Kaefinger</a><sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Antonia Stuehrenberg" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Antonia Stuehrenberg<sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Viktoria Ritter" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Viktoria Ritter<sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Niklas Amann" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Niklas Amann<sup>2</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Anna Graf" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Anna Graf<sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Florian Recker" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Florian Recker<sup>3</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Evelyn Klein" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Evelyn Klein<sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Marion Kiechle" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Marion Kiechle<sup>1</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Fabian Riedel" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Fabian Riedel<sup>4</sup></span><span class="author-wrapper notranslate"><img class="pr5" src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg" alt="Bastian Meyer" onerror="this.onerror=null;this.src='https://loop.frontiersin.org/cdn/images/profile/default_32.jpg';">Bastian Meyer<sup>1</sup></span></div> <ul class="notes"> <li><span><sup>1</sup></span>Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Munich, Germany</li> <li><span><sup>2</sup></span>Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Friedrich–Alexander-University Erlangen–Nuremberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany</li> <li><span><sup>3</sup></span>Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Bonn University Hospital, Bonn, Germany</li> <li><span><sup>4</sup></span>Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany</li> </ul> <p class="mb15"><b>Background:</b> Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes deep learning algorithms to process natural language and generate responses, which renders it suitable for conversational interfaces. ChatGPT’s potential to transform medical education and clinical practice is currently being explored, but its capabilities and limitations in this domain remain incompletely investigated. The present study aimed to assess ChatGPT’s performance in medical knowledge competency for problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN).</p> <p class="mb15"><b>Methods:</b> Two datasets were established for analysis: questions (1) from OB/GYN course exams at a German university hospital and (2) from the German medical state licensing exams. In order to assess ChatGPT’s performance, questions were entered into the chat interface, and responses were documented. A quantitative analysis compared ChatGPT’s accuracy with that of medical students for different levels of difficulty and types of questions. Additionally, a qualitative analysis assessed the quality of ChatGPT’s responses regarding ease of understanding, conciseness, accuracy, completeness, and relevance. Non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT were evaluated, and a density index of insights was established in order to quantify the tool’s ability to provide students with relevant and concise medical knowledge.</p> <p class="mb15"><b>Results:</b> ChatGPT demonstrated consistent and comparable performance across both datasets. It provided correct responses at a rate comparable with that of medical students, thereby indicating its ability to handle a diverse spectrum of questions ranging from general knowledge to complex clinical case presentations. The tool’s accuracy was partly affected by question difficulty in the medical state exam dataset. Our qualitative assessment revealed that ChatGPT provided mostly accurate, complete, and relevant answers. ChatGPT additionally provided many non-obvious insights, especially in correctly answered questions, which indicates its potential for enhancing autonomous medical learning.</p> <p class="mb0"><b>Conclusion:</b> ChatGPT has promise as a supplementary tool in medical education and clinical practice. Its ability to provide accurate and insightful responses showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. As AI technologies continue to evolve, ChatGPT and similar tools may contribute to more efficient and personalized learning experiences and assistance for health care providers.</p> <div class="clear"></div> </div> <div class="JournalFullText"> <a id="h2" name="h2"></a> <h2>Introduction</h2> <p class="mb15">Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool that was first released by OpenAI on 30 November 2022. Its web-browser-based conversational interface was built atop the large language model Generative Pretrained Transformer 3 (GPT-3), which had first been released in 2020 (<a href="#ref1">1</a>). Reinforcement learning techniques were further utilized to train the model on a dataset of 570 gigabytes of text, which allowed ChatGPT to establish probabilistic relationships between words and to perform natural language processing and generation tasks (<a href="#ref2">2</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">The theoretical foundation for the development of ChatGPT was grounded on the idea that language can be learned using patterns and rules found in large text corpora (<a href="#ref3">3</a>). ChatGPT generates its responses using deep learning algorithms that are trained on vast sets of text data, which enables the model to understand the structure, syntax, and semantics of natural language (<a href="#ref4">4</a>, <a href="#ref5">5</a>). ChatGPT analyzes the input text and generates a response based on the patterns and rules it has learned during the training process (<a href="#ref3">3</a>). The model selects the most probable answer from a large set of potential responses and ranks these responses according to their likelihood of being coherent with and appropriate for the input text so as to mimic human language and provide relevant information or assistance. Prior to ChatGPT, large language models had predominantly been confined to the artificial intelligence (AI) research community. However, such models were not widely adopted by the general public due to their technical complexity and lack of accessibility. However, ChatGPT was different because it introduced a conversational interface that enabled users to interact with the AI in a more human-like manner (<a href="#ref6">6</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">The inclusion of ChatGPT or other AI applications in medical education and clinical practice may have the potential to transform the way in which students – as well doctors and patients – acquire knowledge in biomedical sciences (<a href="#ref7">7</a>, <a href="#ref8">8</a>). In theory, by leveraging their vast knowledge base and real-time information processing capabilities, AI applications can offer personalized learning experiences to medical students. They can adapt to individual learning styles, providing tailored resources and interactive simulations to enhance understanding. Additionally, AI applications could provide instant feedback on students’ performance, identifying areas of weakness and suggesting targeted improvement strategies. This continuous, adaptive learning approach promises to significantly improve the quality and effectiveness of medical education. This development is still at an early stage, and potential applications and benefits remain rather hypothetical due both to the short time for which they have been available and to the lack of impactful studies on the topic. At this early stage of implementation of AI in medical education and clinical practice, our objective was to gain insights into both the capabilities and limitations of ChatGPT in this regard. One significant challenge is the lack of nuanced understanding and contextual judgment that AI applications currently have, which is crucial in medical training. AI systems might struggle to replicate the complex decision-making processes and ethical considerations inherent in clinical practice. Furthermore, issues around data privacy and security are paramount in medical education, where sensitive health information is involved.</p> <p class="mb0">We sought to assess the tool’s ability to demonstrate medical knowledge and to evaluate its performance in the context of problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN). In order to achieve this goal, we investigated ChatGPT’s performance by analyzing two datasets: first, the OB/GYN course examinations at the Technical University (TU) Munich, and second, the German medical state licensing exam, with a focus on OB/GYN-related questions. We conducted a quantitative and qualitative analysis and compared the results obtained by ChatGPT with those obtained by the students. We hypothesized that at this early stage of its development, ChatGPT should be capable both of processing medical questions and problems well and of providing a high-quality informative output for medical education. Therefore, we aimed to address and discuss three core questions in our study: (i) How well does ChatGPT perform on standardized written OB/GYN exam questions? (ii) Can ChatGPT potentially be applied as a teaching and learning tool in medical education? (iii) What are the potential applications and limitations of ChatGPT for future use in medical education and clinical practice?</p> <a id="h3" name="h3"></a> <h2>Materials and methods</h2> <h3>Data acquisition and processing</h3> <p class="mb15">We established two datasets for analyzing and assessing ChatGPT’s ability to understand medical topics and issues in OB/GYN. The first dataset was obtained from the exams in the OB/GYN course during the clinical stage of medical studies at the University Hospital of the Technical University Munich. The corresponding exams were held on 6 February 2023 (with 154 participants), 22 July 2022 (with 125 participants), 7 February 2022 (with 185 participants), 14 July 2021 (with 149 participants), and 1 February 2021 (with 173 participants). The exams are mandatory for passing the OB/GYN course and are usually held in the eighth semester. They test theoretical knowledge across the entire spectrum of OB/GYN that is taught in lectures and small-group seminars during the semester. Topics include general gynecology, prenatal and perinatal medicine, gynecologic oncology, endocrinology, and reproductive medicine. Multiple-choice questions are provided with five answer options each, only one of which is correct. The exams test both the knowledge and understanding of clinical concepts through clinical case presentations. The answer sheets were evaluated anonymously for our study, and the mean rate of correct answers was calculated for each question individually.</p> <p class="mb15">The data of the OB/GYN-related state exam questions were obtained from the online teaching and learning software AMBOSS®. This commercial learning platform is particularly well-regarded for its integrated learning system, which includes detailed medical articles, an extensive question bank for exam preparation, and interactive case studies to enhance clinical understanding. One of the standout features of AMBOSS® is its cross-linked articles, which allow users to easily navigate between related topics, making it an efficient tool for both studying and quick reference in clinical practice (<a href="#ref9">9</a>). The state exam (“Zweiter Abschnitt der Ärztlichen Prüfung”) typically consists of just over 300 multiple-choice questions with five answer options each, only one of which is correct. The individual specialties and topic areas are represented differently based on their general clinical relevance. OB/GYN-related questions account for approximately 5% of all questions on the state exam. The questions consist partly of general-knowledge questions as well as of questions in the form of clinical case presentations. The questions are compiled anew biannually for the state exam by the Institute for Medical and Pharmaceutical Exam Questions (IMPP). The exams are uniform across Germany and are conducted over three consecutive days. Students can answer the multiple-choice questions from the state exams of recent years through the online platform AMBOSS®, where they can receive annotated explanations and links to teaching content for each answer option. AMBOSS® also offers the option to indicate the relative difficulty of a question on a scale of 1–5 for personal self-assessment and provides the mean rate of correct answers for each question on the exam. For our dataset, we used the latest 104 questions available on AMBOSS® at the time of data acquisition, and we limited the questions to those related to the field of OB/GYN from the state exams from autumn 2022, spring 2022, autumn 2021, and spring 2021.</p> <p class="mb15">We standardized our input formats for both datasets in ChatGPT in line with Gilson et al. (<a href="#ref10">10</a>). This standardization was crucial as it is widely recognized that the phrasing of a prompt can significantly influence the AI’s response or output. Consequently, we excluded questions that contained images because ChatGPT only accepted textual inputs. Additionally, we removed questions with answers presented in table format. The questions were formatted by presenting the question first, followed by the possible multiple-choice answers, each on a new line with a clear numeration of the answer options. A new chat in ChatGPT was opened for each question.</p> <p class="mb0">After establishing the two datasets as described above, we investigated ChatGPT’s ability to correctly answer the exam questions. To do so, we entered the corresponding questions with their five answer options into the chat interface of ChatGPT between 10 and 28 February 2023 during several input sessions (not counted). The response time by ChatGPT is immediate as it requires only seconds to process the question and create a cohesive response without the need for corrections. Questions and answers were obtained in the German language. Access was granted through free registration and login via the website <a href="https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt">https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt</a>. The most recent version of ChatGPT-3 was used at the time of data analysis, and the tool’s response was documented immediately for each individual question. Version 3 of ChatGPT was the first publicly available version capable of comprehensively answering users’ questions formulated in a free and open-ended manner. At the time of data collection for the present study, the most recent text corpora on which ChatGPT had been trained stemmed from September 2021. Therefore, more recent or innovative medical findings after that date may not have been incorporated into the AI’s knowledge base that could have a negative effect on the quality of output. After data acquisition, data analysis followed as described below.</p> <h3>Data analysis</h3> <p class="mb15">In order to compare the accuracy of ChatGPT with that of the students from both datasets, we evaluated each answer manually and only considered a response to be correct if it clearly matched one of the five options. During this stage of data analysis, we disregarded any explanations or justifications of the correct answer as well as comments on the incorrect choices. Furthermore, we classified the level of difficulty for each question based on whether it had been answered correctly by more or fewer than the mean number of students, which was 83% of students for the OB/GYN course and 73% of students for the state exam questions. Thus, we established a simple, yet objective dichotomous characterization of a level of difficulty for each question for further statistical analysis. We then examined whether ChatGPT exhibited any significant differences in its rate of correct responses for the group of easy or difficult questions. Furthermore, we examined whether there was a correlation between the numerical difficulty score (from 1 = “very easy” to 5 = “very difficult”) that had been assigned by AMBOSS® for each question on the one hand and ChatGPT’s performance on the other hand.</p> <p class="mb0">In order to further investigate ChatGPT’s ability to process information and provide useful medical information, the multiple-choice questions from both the OB/GYN course and the state exam were assigned to the following two groups:</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">1. General knowledge questions; for example: <i>“Which statement about cervical cancer is correct?”</i></p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">2. Clinical case presentation; for example: <i>“A 40-year-old gravida I / para 0 presents to the labor ward on the weekend at 34 + 4 weeks of gestation with complaints of having felt unwell for two days. She reports increasing lower limb edema, nausea, and vomiting since yesterday evening, intermittent visual disturbances and tinnitus since a few hours ago, and right upper quadrant abdominal discomfort. Which diagnostic measure is NOT helpful in this situation?”</i></p> <p class="mb15">We evaluated ChatGPT’s responses to each question based on five variables that are indicative of data quality. For our analysis, we orientated ourselves around the conceptual framework created by Richard Wang and Diane Strong (<a href="#ref11">11</a>). Their work, often cited in the field of information systems, identifies several key dimensions of data quality, which are critical for ensuring that the information being used or analyzed is reliable, accurate, and useful. By using these categories derived from Wang and Strong’s framework, our evaluation of ChatGPT’s responses not only adheres to established principles of data quality but also provides a structured and thorough method for assessing the effectiveness and reliability of AI-generated information.</p> <p class="mb0">We chose five categories to characterize the answers given by ChatGPT:</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">1. <i>Ease of understanding</i>: Was the answer clearly and precisely formulated in a way that was easy to understand?</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">2. <i>Concise representation</i>: Was the answer clearly structured and divided into sections that facilitated readability?</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">3. <i>Accuracy</i>: Did the facts mentioned in the answer correspond to the current scientific literature? Were the statements logical and understandable?</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">4. <i>Completeness</i>: Was the answer complete, and were all aspects of the question adequately addressed? Was important information omitted, or were there unnecessary details?</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">5. <i>Relevance</i>: Was the answer directly related to the question asked, or was there any ambiguity in the answer?</p> <p class="mb15">Three medical experts in the field of OB/GYN with long clinical experience individually assessed each answer independently with regard to the five items above using a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = “completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”). Mean values from their responses were used for further statistical analysis to ensure consistency of the data.</p> <p class="mb0">Subsequently, for every question that had received an incorrect response, we categorized the reason for the error into one of the three options listed below. The authors responsible for conducting the qualitative analysis of the responses (i.e., MR, BM, and FR) collaborated on the analysis and resolved any ambiguous labels.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">1. <i>Incorrect external information.</i></p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">2. For the question, ChatGPT used incorrect external information that could not be directly derived from the content of the question.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">3. <i>Failure to consider information within the question.</i></p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">4. ChatGPT did not consider information mentioned in the question when generating the answer.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">5. <i>Incorrect linkage of external knowledge with information within the question.</i></p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">6. ChatGPT considered the information in the question but combined it incorrectly with correct external knowledge.</p> <p class="mb0">ChatGPT’s responses to every question in both datasets were further analyzed for the presence and quantity of “non-obvious insights” as described and applied by Kung et al. (<a href="#ref12">12</a>). In the authors’ recent publication, an insight was defined by a section of the answer that was characterized by the following four items:</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">1. <i>Non-definitional</i>: Did not simply define a term in the input question.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">2. <i>Unique</i>: A single insight may have been used to eliminate several answer choices.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;">3. <i>Non-obvious</i>: Required deduction or knowledge external to the question.</p> <p style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;">4. <i>Valid</i>: Clinically or numerically accurate; preserved directionality.</p> <p class="mb0">Using Kung et al. as an example, we then established an index (“density of insights”) by normalizing the number of insights to the word count for each response generated by ChatGPT (number of insights/word count *100). The significance of the “density of insights” index in our case lies in its ability to quantify the richness and depth of information provided by ChatGPT. In medical contexts, where every word can carry significant weight and the efficiency of communication is crucial, this index helps in assessing whether ChatGPT is providing dense and meaningful content that goes beyond superficial explanations. By focusing on non-obvious insights—those elements of a response that are not immediately apparent, require deeper knowledge or deductive reasoning, and are clinically or numerically accurate—the index ensures that the evaluated content is not only informative but also relevant and applicable in a real-world setting.</p> <h3>Statistical analysis</h3> <p class="mb0">The data were evaluated descriptively using Excel (Microsoft®) or Prism (Version 9, GraphPad®). Unpaired chi-square tests were used to determine whether the question difficulty or the type of question (i.e., general knowledge vs. clinical case) had significantly affected ChatGPT’s performance in either dataset. These tests are ideal for comparing categorical variables and are appropriate for assessing whether there are significant differences in the distribution of correct and incorrect answers across these categories. The McNemar statistical test was used to assess whether the availability of multiple-choice answer options had an impact on the accuracy of ChatGPT in answering the questions. The test is used for paired nominal data. Comparing the performance of the same entity (ChatGPT) under two scenarios (with and without multiple-choice options), this test is suitable for evaluating whether these conditions lead to a statistically significant difference in performance. Unpaired <i>t</i>-tests were used to compare the word count between correct and incorrect answers generated by ChatGPT, the expert assessment of ChatGPT’s responses via Likert scale ratings and to analyze the density of insight. These tests are used to compare the means of two independent groups. All <i>p</i>-values < 0.05 were defined as statistically significant. Tables and figures were generated in Word (Microsoft®) and Prism (Version 9, GraphPad®).</p> <a id="h4" name="h4"></a> <h2>Results</h2> <h3>ChatGPT delivered comparable and consistent results</h3> <p class="mb15">The dataset of questions from the OB/GYN course included a total of 160 questions, each of which contained five multiple-choice answer options. On average, the medical students in our survey answered 83.1% (95% CI = 80.0–86.2%) of these questions correctly. Average student results for questions (<i>n</i> = 35) from spring semester 2022 were unavailable. In the same dataset, ChatGPT provided correct answers 85.6% (<i>n</i> = 137) of the time. In order to test the consistency of ChatGPT’s answers, we conducted a second individual validation round. In this second round, ChatGPT achieved similarly good results for the dataset, with 88.7% (<i>n</i> = 142) of answers being correct. Overall, ChatGPT provided consistent results for 91.6% (<i>n</i> = 145) of the questions in the validation round compared with in the first round of testing.</p> <p class="mb0">The dataset of the medical sate exam included a total of 104 questions. Students answered 73.4% (95% CI = 69.0–77.8%) of these questions correctly. Four questions had to be removed because they included images that ChatGPT could not process. Moreover, two questions were removed because ChatGPT could not commit to one single answer option. Of the remaining 98 questions, ChatGPT answered a total of 70.4% (<i>n</i> = 69) correctly.</p> <h3>ChatGPT maintained its performance without the need for multiple-choice answers</h3> <p class="mb0">In order to further explore how the answer choices in the exam questions influence the way ChatGPT forms answers and solutions to clinical case presentations, ChatGPT had to solve the questions again, but this time without the five provided multiple-choice answers for each question. Of a total of 46 clinical case presentation questions from the OB/GYN course dataset, five negative questions (“which answer is incorrect?”) had to be excluded because the answers given by ChatGPT could not be assessed without the multiple-choice answer options. ChatGPT’s performance tended to be slightly worse (80.5%; <i>n</i> = 33 out of 41) without the multiple-choice answer options in comparison with its performance when the answer choices were provided for the whole group of clinical case presentations (84.8%; <i>n</i> = 39 out of 46). However, this difference was not statistically significant (<i>p</i>-value = 0.13).</p> <h3>The difficulty of the questions interfered with ChatGPT’s performance in the OB/GYN course, but not in the state exam questions</h3> <p class="mb0">We aimed to investigate whether the accuracy of ChatGPT’s answers depended on the difficulty level of the clinical questions. Initially, we categorized questions as <i>easy</i> or <i>difficult</i> based on their rate of correct answers, which had to be either above or below the mean of correct answers achieved by the medical students across all questions in the datasets (83% for the OB/GYN course dataset and 73% for the state exam dataset). We found that ChatGPT’s performance in the OB/GYN course dataset did not significantly depend on the level of difficulty of the question (<i>p</i>-value = 0.1). However, in the medical state exam dataset, ChatGPT’s performance on questions that had been defined as <i>easy</i> was significantly better (<i>p</i>-value <0.01) (<a href="#tab1">Table 1</a>). Furthermore, we assigned a numerical difficulty score (ranging from 1 = “very easy” to 5 = “very difficult”) to each question in the medical state exam dataset and correlated it with ChatGPT’s performance. We observed a decline in the rate of correct answers from <i>n</i> = 27 (27.6%) for Level 1 difficulty to <i>n</i> = 1 (1.0%) for Level 5 difficulty. Correspondingly, there was a rise in the rate of incorrect answers from <i>n</i> = 2 (2.0%) for Level 1 difficulty to <i>n</i> = 8 (8.2%) for Level 5 difficulty (<i>p</i>-value <0.001) (<a href="#tab2">Table 2</a>).</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 1</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" name="table1" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="tab1" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a> <p><b>Table 1</b>. ChatGPT’s performance on questions from the OB/GYN course and the state exam. </p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine mb15"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 2</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" name="table2" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="tab2" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a> <p><b>Table 2</b>. ChatGPT’s performance on the state exam questions. </p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <h3>ChatGPT answered simple knowledge and patient case questions equally well</h3> <p class="mb0">For both datasets, we separated questions into one of the following groups: general knowledge questions or clinical case studies. We tested whether the type of question (i.e., knowledge vs. clinical case) altered ChatGPT’s performance. For both the OB/Gyn course (<i>p</i>-value = 0.84) and the state exam questions (<i>p</i>-value = 0.42), we did not find significant differences between the two types of questions (<a href="#tab3">Table 3</a>).</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 3</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" name="table3" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="tab3" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a> <p><b>Table 3</b>. Correct and incorrect answers by ChatGPT for each type of question (general knowledge or clinical case presentation). </p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <h3>ChatGPT delivered high-quality answers, especially for questions that were answered correctly</h3> <p class="mb15">In our qualitative analysis of the reasons for ChatGPT’s incorrect answers in the dataset of the OB/GYN course, the main reason was found to be “incorrect internal knowledge” (<i>n</i> = 20; 76.9%), followed by “incorrect connection of internal knowledge with external information in the question” (<i>n</i> = 4; 15.4%) and “no consideration of the external information provided in the question” (<i>n</i> = 2; 7.7%).</p> <p class="mb0">For further qualitative analysis, three medical experts from the field of OB/GYN assessed ChatGPT’s answers using a five-point Likert scale (from 1 = “completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”). The experts found a positive assessment for both correct and incorrect answers with regard to the qualities of “ease of understanding” (mean Likert scale = 4.8 for correct answers and 4.6 for incorrect answers) and “concise representation” (mean Likert scale = 4.2 for correct answers and 3.9 for incorrect answers). By contrast, the qualities of “accuracy,” “completeness,” and “relevance” were found to have been significantly better assessed (<i>p</i>-value <0.0001) for the correct answers compared with for the incorrect answers (<a href="#tab4">Table 4</a>).</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">TABLE 4</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" name="table4" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="tab4" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a> <p><b>Table 4</b>. Mean Likert scale (“1” = completely disagree; “5” = completely agree), with standard deviation (SD) for correctly and incorrectly answered questions by ChatGPT and the mean assessment by three medical experts depicted for each question. </p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <h3>ChatGPT provided a high density of non-obvious insights</h3> <p class="mb0">After assessing the quality and consistency of ChatGPT, we continued to evaluate the tool’s potential capacity to enhance autonomous medical learning in the field of OB/GYN. ChatGPT provided answers with a significantly larger mean word count (<i>p</i>-value <0.0001) of 93 words for the state exam questions compared with 63 words for the OB/GYN course questions (<a href="#fig1">Figure 1A</a>). We further analyzed the quantity of non-obvious insights provided by ChatGPT. More than 85% of both the correctly and incorrectly answered OB/GYN course questions provided at least one non-obvious insight. With regard to the state exam question, however, the incorrect answers, in particular, demonstrated a decrease in the number of questions with at least one significant insight (<a href="#fig1">Figure 1B</a>). In order to better assess non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT, we established a density index by normalizing the number of insights to the word count for each response generated by ChatGPT. Thus, we aimed to quantify ChatGPT’s ability to provide knowledge in OB/GYN in a correct, concise, and relevant manner for medical education. In so doing, we noticed that the density of the insight index was significantly higher for questions that had been answered correctly compared with for those that had been answered incorrectly for both the state exam (<i>p</i>-value <0.0001) and the OB/GYN course question (<i>p</i>-value <0.0045) (<a href="#fig1">Figure 1C</a>).</p> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <div class="Imageheaders">FIGURE 1</div> <div class="FigureDesc"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" name="figure1" target="_blank"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=480&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=370&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=290&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=410&f=webp/https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" media=""><source type="image/jpg" srcset="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" media=""> <img src="https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/1296615/fmed-10-1296615-HTML/image_m/fmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg" alt="www.frontiersin.org" id="fig1" loading="lazy"> </picture> </a> <p><b>Figure 1</b>. <b>(A)</b> Bar diagram depicting the mean word count, with standard deviation for ChatGPT’s answers to the state exam and OB/GYN course questions. <b>(B)</b> Bar diagram depicting the percentage with at least a non-obvious insight for questions from the state exam and the OB/GYN course, differentiated by questions answered incorrectly or correctly by ChatGPT. <b>(C)</b> Scatter plot depicting the “density of insights” (number of insights/word count *100) of the responses by ChatGPT for the correctly or incorrectly answered questions from the state exam or the OB/GYN course. Each dot represents one answer by ChatGPT; the horizontal line represents mean. Unpaired <i>t</i>-test was used to calculate <i>p</i>-values. All <i>p</i>-values are shown as full digits.</p></div> <div class="clear"></div> <div class="DottedLine"></div> <a id="h5" name="h5"></a> <h2>Discussion</h2> <p class="mb15">ChatGPT has gained significant attention from the public and media alike since its release in late 2022 (<a href="#ref13">13</a>–<a href="#ref15">15</a>). The tool surpassed 100 million users in January 2023, making it the fastest-growing consumer application to date (<a href="#ref16">16</a>). ChatGPT has been recognized both for its potential to revolutionize the way in which we interact with machines and for its ability to pave the way for the transformation of entire industries, such as media, marketing, and computer science (<a href="#ref17">17</a>). Some have even argued that ChatGPT may represent the beginning of a new industrial age in which AI and its applications will have a similar impact on economies and societies as the Internet had at the beginning of the 1990s (<a href="#ref18">18</a>). The fact that this new technology could also expand to other fields – such as medical education and clinical practice – is therefore not only possible, but also rather likely (<a href="#ref19">19</a>, <a href="#ref20">20</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">Our study yielded novel findings that highlight the proficiency of ChatGPT to perform intricate tasks related to handling complex medical and clinical information in the field of OB/GYN. ChatGPT provided consistent answers and explanations to medial problems and did not require help in finding correct solutions to medical problems in multiple-choice answer options. Remarkably, ChatGPT demonstrated comparable results with those achieved by medical students in the setting of a real exam after extensive studying and exam preparation. Indeed, referring to the usual exam passing score of 60%, ChatGPT was capable of passing both our OB/GYN course examination (83.1%) and the OB/GYN share of the German medical licensing examination (73.4%). It is important to note that we refrained from providing any prompts or training to the AI during the experiment, and we systematically cleared the AI session before inputting each question variant in order to avoid a chain-of-thought bias (<a href="#ref12">12</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">Our results from the OB/GYN-related exams are in line with or slightly better than ChatGPT’s performance in recent publications with regard to questions from the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) (<a href="#ref10">10</a>, <a href="#ref12">12</a>). Interestingly, ChatGPT demonstrated particularly good results on questions from the OB/GYN course in our study. We hypothesize that the characteristics of the exam questions were crucial for obtaining such a result. In comparison with the state exam question, the OB/GYN course questions were significantly shorter (mean word count = 23 vs. 102 words), and the quality of the questions was different. The OB/GYN course questions were rather direct and required generally factual knowledge (e.g., “What is NOT a risk factor for the development of ovarian cancer?”), whereas the state exam questions addressed more complex medical questions (e.g., “A 64-year-old woman presents at a gynecological practice with vaginal bleeding that has been ongoing for 14 days. The patient weighs 90 kg and is 150 cm tall. She has been suffering from type 2 diabetes mellitus for 5 years, which is being treated with antidiabetic medication. The patient reports having consistently high blood pressure but is not following an antihypertensive therapy prescription. The suspected diagnosis of an early-stage malignancy (FIGO stage IA) has been confirmed. Which of the therapeutic options listed below is indicated next?”). The questions from the state exam seem to have been more challenging for both the medical students and ChatGPT. This higher level of difficulty of the state exam questions could be explained by the fact that they require both more complex processing and the weighing of multiple pieces of clinical information as compared with the OB/GYN course questions. This finding corresponds to the main reason that we identified for the incorrect answers given by ChatGPT: The primary cause was attributed to the processing of “incorrect internal knowledge,” which accounted for 76.9% of the errors, while a significantly smaller percentage (7.7%) of the errors were attributed to “not considering the external information provided in the question.” ChatGPT’s insufficiencies could have been caused by an inadequately trained model, for example, due to the underrepresentation of clinically relevant and distinctive medical knowledge. Additionally, the human factor may have contributed to this finding because insufficient or invalid human judgment during the initial reinforcement stages could have affected the model’s performance (<a href="#ref12">12</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">Our analysis underlines the positive aspects of ChatGPT and its potential “real-world” application in medical education and clinical practice. With its use of machine-learning techniques, ChatGPT demonstrated high adaptability and accuracy in resolving medical problems. By implementing this approach, ChatGPT is able to thoroughly assess the context of a query and generate tailored responses that are customized to individual users (<a href="#ref21">21</a>). Moreover, the introduction of a conversational interface in ChatGPT enhances its usability, and the ability to ask follow-up questions enables users to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the concepts addressed in their queries, thereby enabling the tool to do more than merely output answers. However, it is important to acknowledge that the answers provided by ChatGPT are limited to the data on which the tool was trained and rely on patterns learned from vast amounts of text data. As a consequence, ChatGPT’s responses may not always be up-to-date or entirely accurate for all scenarios (<a href="#ref21">21</a>). In a recent publication, Weng et al. stated that ChatGPT had failed Taiwan’s Family Medicine Board Exam (<a href="#ref22">22</a>). The authors hypothesized that possible factors that had contributed to these results included the challenging nature of the specialist exam in family medicine and the limited availability of comprehensive traditional Chinese-language resources for processing medical problems. Despite these challenges, the authors argued that ChatGPT had demonstrated satisfactory performance in handling negatively phrased questions, mutually exclusive questions, and case-scenario questions, thereby suggesting its potential as a valuable learning and exam-preparation tool (<a href="#ref22">22</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">The results of our study indicate that ChatGPT is at the forefront of advancements in the area of machine learning tools and that it displays significant improvements and capabilities in answering medical issues because open-domain-question answering models have faced considerable challenges in solving medical problems until recently. For instance, Jin et al. achieved an accuracy rate of 36.7% on a dataset of 12,723 questions derived from Chinese medical licensing exams in 2020 (<a href="#ref23">23</a>). Similarly, Ha et al. reported only 29% accuracy on 454 USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 questions in 2019 (<a href="#ref24">24</a>). Improved results were seen in the biomedical question answering (QA) dataset collected from PubMed abstracts from 2019 (PubMedQA). This model attained an accuracy rate of 68.1% and was designed to answer only yes-or-no questions by using information sourced from the corpus of PubMed-available abstracts (<a href="#ref25">25</a>). Interestingly, ChatGPT outperformed PubMedGPT, a language model with a similar neural structure but that had been trained solely on biomedical literature and that had achieved an accuracy rate of only 50.3% (<a href="#ref26">26</a>). As argued by Kung et al., this difference in performance may be attributed to PubMedGPT’s domain-specific training, from which it might have absorbed ambiguous information from ongoing academic discourse, thereby leading to less conclusive responses (<a href="#ref12">12</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">The landscape of medical problem-solving tools is diverse, and comparing ChatGPT’s capabilities to other commercially available solutions is vital for a comprehensive understanding of its position. Traditional Medical Decision Support Systems (MDSS) like UpToDate (<a href="#ref27">27</a>) and ClinicalKey (<a href="#ref28">28</a>), which rely on curated, evidence-based content, offer structured and highly processed medical information. While these systems are renowned for their accuracy and reliability, they lack the conversational interface and adaptability of AI-driven tools like ChatGPT. On the other hand, emerging AI-driven solutions, such as IBM Watson for Health (<a href="#ref29">29</a>), offer more dynamic interactions and the ability to process natural language queries, but they may still face challenges in areas like context understanding and the latest data incorporation. Unlike these systems, ChatGPT brings a unique blend of conversational ease and a vast database of information, though it may currently not match the specialized, up-to-date medical knowledge of dedicated MDSS.</p> <p class="mb15">Despite its great potential, the integration of AI tools like ChatGPT in medicine necessitates careful consideration of several ethical concerns (<a href="#ref30">30</a>). Firstly, in medical decision-making, the risk of over-reliance on AI could compromise the essential human element in healthcare, particularly in nuanced fields like OB/GYN. While AI can augment the decision-making process, it cannot replace the critical judgment and empathetic understanding inherent to medical professionals. Secondly, the accuracy and currency of data in AI systems are pivotal, especially in fast-evolving fields like medicine. AI’s reliance on historical data may lead to outdated or incomplete medical advice, underscoring the need for continual updates and human oversight. Thirdly, data privacy and security are paramount in handling sensitive medical information. AI systems must ensure robust protection against data breaches and adhere to stringent privacy regulations.</p> <p class="mb15">The COVID-19 pandemic has shed a light on the lack of digitalization in medical education and training both in Germany and worldwide. New initiatives have focused on moving away from the conventional lecture-based teaching model and instead prioritize self-directed learning methods that cater to the individual needs that students have (<a href="#ref31">31</a>). Additionally, these endeavors incorporate the use of innovative (online) technologies for enhancing overall educational success (<a href="#ref32">32</a>, <a href="#ref33">33</a>). The experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic have given rise to various experimental teaching concepts. For instance, in a sub-Saharan African setting, instant messaging platforms such as WhatsApp® have been utilized for distance teaching (<a href="#ref34">34</a>). Furthermore, one German university hospital introduced realistic e-learning cases within a symptom-based curriculum for internal medicine (<a href="#ref35">35</a>). Another approach involved the implementation of virtual “serious gaming” as an alternative to intensive small-group teaching (<a href="#ref36">36</a>). In spite of their innovative ideas, however, none of these concepts is likely to be implemented on a broader scale in medical education. This situation highlights an advantage that ChatGPT and similar AI-based applications have because they are freely available over the Internet, which makes them easily accessible for practical use in students’ everyday learning.</p> <p class="mb15">As an interactive learning aid, AI can provide an accessible platform for reviewing and dissecting complex clinical cases and patient scenarios that medical students might not yet encounter in their training (<a href="#ref37">37</a>). Simulated conversations and diagnostic exercises are another area where AI can play a pivotal role. Through these simulations, students can practice their diagnostic skills, receive immediate feedback, and learn to navigate patient interactions effectively. These simulations can also be tailored to mimic a wide range of clinical situations, from common ailments to rare diseases, providing a safe and controlled environment for students to work on their clinical reasoning and decision-making skills. Moreover, AI can be integrated into various educational formats, such as virtual classrooms, online courses, and mobile applications, offering flexibility and convenience for students. It also provides an opportunity for continuous learning outside of traditional classroom settings, making medical education more accessible and adaptable to individual learning preferences (<a href="#ref31">31</a>).</p> <p class="mb15">ChatGPT shows special potential as a surrogate for small-group learning (<a href="#ref10">10</a>), which has been proven to be a highly effective teaching approach (<a href="#ref36">36</a>, <a href="#ref38">38</a>). Small-group learning is characterized by three distinct elements: namely active participation, clear and specific tasks, and facilitated reflection by the participants (<a href="#ref39">39</a>, <a href="#ref40">40</a>). ChatGPT can demonstrate all three of these essential characteristics of small-group learning, thereby making it a viable alternative for small-group education. One of the significant advantages of using ChatGPT in this role is its accessibility and availability. Small-group learning can be challenging to organize due to scheduling conflicts or limited resources, but ChatGPT offers an on-demand and self-paced learning experience. Learners can interact with the AI model at their convenience, thereby enabling flexibility in their learning journey. In our own study from 2022 that investigated the learning experiences of medical students at our faculty during the COVID-19 pandemic, the aspects of time and spatial flexibility were particularly praised and valued by our students (<a href="#ref41">41</a>). Furthermore, ChatGPT can cater to individual learning needs. In small-group settings, the pace and content of discussions might be influenced by the dynamics of the group, thereby leaving some students with unaddressed questions or uncertainties (<a href="#ref42">42</a>). ChatGPT, on the other hand, can provide personalized responses to individual queries, thus ensuring that each student’s specific knowledge gaps are filled. Another advantage of ChatGPT lies in its potential for a more inclusive learning environment. In some small-group settings, students might feel hesitant to participate actively due to various factors, such as shyness or language barriers. As an AI interface, ChatGPT eliminates such barriers and provides a non-judgmental and non-intimidating platform with which learners can engage and ask questions freely. However, it is also important to acknowledge the limitations of ChatGPT as a surrogate for small-group learning. Indeed, ChatGPT lacks the interactivity and dynamic discussions of small-group settings. Learning in small groups allows for collaborative problem-solving, peer-to-peer feedback, and the exchange of diverse perspectives. These interactive elements foster critical thinking and deeper understanding, which ChatGPT cannot fully replicate. There is also a potential risk of undermining critical thinking and problem-solving skills among students. The ease of accessing information from AI could lead to a dependency that detracts from deeper engagement and intellectual development. Balancing these aspects is crucial for the responsible and effective use of AI in these critical sectors.</p> <p class="mb0">The fact that the application of AI will extend beyond academic support to direct patient care and clinical decision-making is obvious. As an advanced AI-driven tool, it can assist healthcare providers by offering quick access to medical information, suggesting potential diagnoses, and providing drug information, thereby acting as a supportive tool for decision-making (<a href="#ref30">30</a>). In patient interactions, ChatGPT could be employed for patient education, explaining medical conditions and treatments in easily understandable language, and for gathering preliminary patient histories, thus streamlining the pre-consultation process. In the near future, we can envision AI systems aiding in diagnostic processes by analyzing patient data, symptoms, and medical histories, thereby providing clinicians with potential diagnoses or highlighting overlooked aspects of a patient’s condition. This has been thoroughly discussed in transformative fields like radiology and pathology, where AI’s image recognition capabilities can augment human expertise (<a href="#ref43">43</a>, <a href="#ref44">44</a>). Moreover, AI can play a crucial role in personalized medicine. By analyzing large datasets, including genetic information, AI can help tailor treatments to individual patients, enhancing the efficacy and reducing the side effects of therapies (<a href="#ref45">45</a>). In patient management, AI tools can assist in monitoring chronic conditions, alerting healthcare providers to changes in a patient’s status, and suggesting adjustments to treatment plans (<a href="#ref46">46</a>). Furthermore, ChatGPT could be integrated into electronic health records (EHRs) systems, assisting with documentation tasks, reducing administrative burdens, and allowing clinicians more time for patient care (<a href="#ref47">47</a>). However, it is crucial that these applications are monitored and guided by healthcare professionals to ensure accuracy and ethical use, particularly in dealing with sensitive patient data and making clinical decisions. The integration of ChatGPT into medicine and clinical care promises not only to enhance efficiency but also to improve the quality of patient education and engagement, ultimately contributing to better healthcare outcomes.</p> <h3>Limitations</h3> <p class="mb15">The present study on ChatGPT’s performance in clinical problems entailed several potential limitations that should be considered in the context of medical education and clinical practice. The limited dataset size is a first point of concern. Our reliance on a dataset of OB/GYN course questions and state exams may not have adequately captured the vast range of medical knowledge and question types that are encountered in real-world scenarios. Therefore, the use of a more extensive and diverse dataset would have provided a more comprehensive evaluation of ChatGPT’s abilities. Moreover, the fact that the study focused solely on course questions and state exams in the field of OB/GYN may call into question the generalizability of our data. Each medical specialty has its unique complexities, terminologies, and practice nuances, which may not be uniformly comprehensible or addressable by a generalized AI tool like ChatGPT. For instance, the diagnostic reasoning in psychiatry, in surgical fields, or in emergency medicine present different challenges that may not be fully captured in the OB/GYN examination context. However, recent research in medical education and the potential application of ChatGPT in diverse educational and clinical settings has shown that ChatGPT shows general applicability and could serve as a valuable tool for medical educators, students, and clinicians alike (<a href="#ref6">6</a>, <a href="#ref48">48</a>–<a href="#ref51">51</a>). In fact, a fundamental advantage of AI is its high flexibility, allowing it to be applied effectively in various settings without diminishing its impact.</p> <p class="mb15">The study’s results regarding the impact of question difficulty on ChatGPT’s performance may also raise concerns. While ChatGPT demonstrated consistent performance in the OB/GYN course dataset, its effectiveness was influenced by the complexity of the questions in the state exam. This finding raises doubts about ChatGPT’s adaptability to varying levels of difficulty and emphasizes the need both for further fine-tuning and for incorporating data that could enhance the tool’s performance across all contexts. Another potential limitation is the inability of ChatGPT to process images. In medical education, visual information – such as radiological images and anatomical diagrams – plays a vital role. The fact that ChatGPT struggles with image processing currently restricts its applicability in real-world medical scenarios in which such visual content is very commonly encountered. However, the tool’s newest version – ChatGPT-4 – addresses this shortcoming by implementing image-analysis features that are able to identify objects in photos (<a href="#ref52">52</a>). This innovation may indeed only mark the beginning of further advancements in this area.</p> <p class="mb0">All of these limitations are, however, temporary. In the next decade, ChatGPT is expected to undergo transformative advancements, primarily driven by breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. We can anticipate a more nuanced understanding of language and context, including better handling of cultural nuances and idioms, achieved through sophisticated algorithms and diverse, expansive training datasets. Enhanced contextual awareness will make interactions more coherent over longer conversations, while personalization features will tailor responses to individual user preferences and histories. Multimodal capabilities will likely be integrated, allowing ChatGPT to process and respond to text, voice, and visual inputs. Real-time learning from interactions will continuously update its knowledge base, and efforts have to be made to ensure ethical use and bias mitigation.</p> <a id="h6" name="h6"></a> <h2>Conclusion</h2> <p class="mb0">Our data provide valuable insights into ChatGPT’s role in medical education and clinical practice, particularly in the field of OB/GYN. The findings suggest that ChatGPT demonstrates promising potential as a supplementary tool for medical students and healthcare professionals alike. ChatGPT’s ability to provide accurate and insightful responses to medical questions showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. The study’s insights into ChatGPT’s capabilities within OB/GYN are particularly significant, hinting at broader implications for its application across various medical settings. As AI technology continues to advance, it is necessary to continue evaluating and refining tools like ChatGPT to ensure they meet the evolving needs of medical education and practice, while also addressing ethical considerations and maintaining the highest standards of patient care.</p> <a id="h7" name="h7"></a> <h2>Data availability statement</h2> <p class="mb0">The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.</p> <a id="h8" name="h8"></a> <h2>Ethics statement</h2> <p class="mb0">The present study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (2008 version). Since the data stem from anonymously analyzed exam questions, no further consultation or approval by the ethics committee was required, as is outlined in the online guidelines by the Joint Ethics Committee of the Universities of Bavaria (<a href="https://www.gehba.de/fileadmin/daten/Gehba/GEHBa-FAQ_2.1.pdf">https://www.gehba.de/fileadmin/daten/Gehba/GEHBa-FAQ_2.1.pdf</a>).</p> <a id="h9" name="h9"></a> <h2>Author contributions</h2> <p class="mb0">MR: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Project administration. KK: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AS: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. VR: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. NA: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AG: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. FlR: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. EK: Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. MK: Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. FaR: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. BM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft.</p> <a id="h10" name="h10"></a> <h2>Funding</h2> <p class="mb0">The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</p> <a id="h11" name="h11"></a> <h2>Conflict of interest</h2> <p class="mb0">The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</p> <a id="h12" name="h12"></a> <h2>Publisher’s note</h2> <p class="mb0">All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.</p> <a id="h13" name="h13"></a> <h2>References</h2> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref1" id="ref1"></a>1. OpenAI . (2023). OpenAI ChatGPT: Optimizing language models for dialogue. Available at: <a href="https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/">https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref2" id="ref2"></a>2. Brown, TB , Mann, B , Ryder, N , Subbiah, M , Kaplan, J , Dhariwal, P, et al. (2020). Language models are few-shot learners. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2005.14165">https://arxiv.org/abs/2005.14165</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=TB+Brown&author=B+Mann&author=N+Ryder&author=M+Subbiah&author=J+Kaplan&author=P+Dhariwal&publication_year=2020&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref3" id="ref3"></a>3. Tamkin, A , Brundage, M , Clark, J , and Ganguli, D . (2021). Understanding the capabilities, limitations, and societal impact of large language models. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.02503">https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.02503</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Tamkin&author=M+Brundage&author=J+Clark&author=D+Ganguli&publication_year=2021&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref4" id="ref4"></a>4. Dai, Z , Yang, Z , Yang, Y , Carbonell, J , Le, QV , and Salakhutdinov, R (2019). Transformer-XL: Attentive language models beyond a fixed-length context. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02860">https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.02860</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=Z+Dai&author=Z+Yang&author=Y+Yang&author=J+Carbonell&author=QV+Le&author=R+Salakhutdinov&publication_year=2019&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref5" id="ref5"></a>5. Keskar, NS , Mc Cann, B , Varshney, LR , Xiong, C , and Socher, R . (2019). CTRL: A conditional transformer language model for controllable generation. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.05858">https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.05858</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=NS+Keskar&author=B+Mc+Cann&author=LR+Varshney&author=C+Xiong&author=R+Socher&publication_year=2019&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref6" id="ref6"></a>6. Ge, J , and Lai, JC . Artificial intelligence-based text generators in hepatology: ChatGPT is just the beginning. <i>Hepatol Commun</i>. (2023) 7:e0097. doi: 10.1097/HC9.0000000000000097 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/HC9.0000000000000097" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=J+Ge&author=JC+Lai&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence-based+text+generators+in+hepatology:+ChatGPT+is+just+the+beginning&journal=Hepatol+Commun&volume=7&pages=e0097" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref7" id="ref7"></a>7. Eysenbach, G . The role of ChatGPT, generative language models, and artificial intelligence in medical education: a conversation with ChatGPT and a call for papers. <i>JMIR Med Educ</i>. (2023) 9:e46885. doi: 10.2196/46885 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36863937" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/46885" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=G+Eysenbach&publication_year=2023&title=The+role+of+ChatGPT+generative+language+models+and+artificial+intelligence+in+medical+education:+a+conversation+with+ChatGPT+and+a+call+for+papers&journal=JMIR+Med+Educ&volume=9&pages=e46885" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref8" id="ref8"></a>8. Sallam, M . ChatGPT utility in healthcare education, research, and practice: systematic review on the promising perspectives and valid concerns. <i>Healthcare (Basel)</i>. (2023) 11:887. doi: 10.3390/healthcare11060887 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36981544" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11060887" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=M+Sallam&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+utility+in+healthcare+education+research+and+practice:+systematic+review+on+the+promising+perspectives+and+valid+concerns&journal=Healthcare+(Basel)&volume=11&pages=887" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref9" id="ref9"></a>9. AMBOSS . (2020). Medical knowledge distilled. AMBOSS. Available at: <a href="https://www.amboss.com/us">https://www.amboss.com/us</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2020&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref10" id="ref10"></a>10. Gilson, A , Safranek, CW , Huang, T , Socrates, V , Chi, L , Taylor, RA, et al. How does ChatGPT perform on the United States medical licensing examination? The implications of large language models for medical education and knowledge assessment. <i>JMIR Med Educ</i>. (2023) 9:e45312. doi: 10.2196/45312 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36753318" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/45312" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Gilson&author=CW+Safranek&author=T+Huang&author=V+Socrates&author=L+Chi&author=RA+Taylor&publication_year=2023&title=How+does+ChatGPT+perform+on+the+United+States+medical+licensing+examination?+The+implications+of+large+language+models+for+medical+education+and+knowledge+assessment&journal=JMIR+Med+Educ&volume=9&pages=e45312" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref11" id="ref11"></a>11. Wang, R , and Strong, D . <i>Beyond accuracy: What data quality means to data consumers</i>. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc (1996). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=R+Wang&author=D+Strong&publication_year=1996&journal=Beyond+accuracy:+What+data+quality+means+to+data+consumers&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref12" id="ref12"></a>12. Kung, TH , Cheatham, M , Medenilla, A , Sillos, C , De Leon, L , Elepaño, C, et al. Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: potential for AI-assisted medical education using large language models. <i>PLOS Digit Health</i>. (2023) 2:e0000198. doi: 10.1371/journal.pdig.0000198 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000198" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=TH+Kung&author=M+Cheatham&author=A+Medenilla&author=C+Sillos&author=L+De+Leon&author=C+Elepaño&publication_year=2023&title=Performance+of+ChatGPT+on+USMLE:+potential+for+AI-assisted+medical+education+using+large+language+models&journal=PLOS+Digit+Health&volume=2&pages=e0000198" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref13" id="ref13"></a>13. The Economist . (2022). How good is ChatGPT? Available at: <a href="https://www.economist.com/business/2022/12/08/how-good-is-chatgpt">https://www.economist.com/business/2022/12/08/how-good-is-chatgpt</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref14" id="ref14"></a>14. Süddeutsche Zeitung . (2022). Die gefühlte Revolution. Available at: <a href="https://www.sueddeutsche.de/kultur/chatgpt-kuenstliche-intelligenz-1.5708877">https://www.sueddeutsche.de/kultur/chatgpt-kuenstliche-intelligenz-1.5708877</a> </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref15" id="ref15"></a>15. Wang, LKP , Paidisetty, PS , and Cano, AM . The next paradigm shift? ChatGPT, artificial intelligence, and medical education. <i>Med Teach</i>. (2023) 1:1. doi: 10.1080/0142159X.2023.2256961 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2023.2256961" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=LKP+Wang&author=PS+Paidisetty&author=AM+Cano&publication_year=2023&title=The+next+paradigm+shift?+ChatGPT+artificial+intelligence+and+medical+education&journal=Med+Teach&volume=1&pages=1" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref16" id="ref16"></a>16. Reuters . (2023). ChatGPT sets record for fastest-growing user base – analyst note. Available at: <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/">https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref17" id="ref17"></a>17. PECB Insights . (2023). The rise of ChatGPT: Paving the way for large language model adoption. Available from: <a href="https://insights.pecb.com/rise-chatgpt-paving-way-large-language-model-adoption/">https://insights.pecb.com/rise-chatgpt-paving-way-large-language-model-adoption/</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref18" id="ref18"></a>18. Cognizant . (2023). ChatGPT and the generative AI revolution. Available at: <a href="https://www.cognizant.com/us/en/insights/perspectives/chatgpt-and-the-generative-ai-revolution-wf1532750">https://www.cognizant.com/us/en/insights/perspectives/chatgpt-and-the-generative-ai-revolution-wf1532750</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref19" id="ref19"></a>19. Biswas, S . ChatGPT and the future of medical writing. <i>Radiology</i>. (2023) 307:e223312. doi: 10.1148/radiol.223312 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36728748" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.223312" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=S+Biswas&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+and+the+future+of+medical+writing&journal=Radiology&volume=307&pages=e223312" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref20" id="ref20"></a>20. Khan, RA , Jawaid, M , Khan, AR , and Sajjad, M . ChatGPT – reshaping medical education and clinical management. <i>Pak J Med Sci</i>. (2023) 39:605–7. doi: 10.12669/pjms.39.2.7653 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36950398" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.39.2.7653" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=RA+Khan&author=M+Jawaid&author=AR+Khan&author=M+Sajjad&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+–+reshaping+medical+education+and+clinical+management&journal=Pak+J+Med+Sci&volume=39&pages=605-7" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref21" id="ref21"></a>21. Temsah, O , Khan, SA , Chaiah, Y , Senjab, A , Alhasan, K , Jamal, A, et al. Overview of early ChatGPT’s presence in medical literature: insights from a hybrid literature review by ChatGPT and human experts. <i>Cureus</i>. (2023) 15:e37281. doi: 10.7759/cureus.37281 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37038381" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.37281" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=O+Temsah&author=SA+Khan&author=Y+Chaiah&author=A+Senjab&author=K+Alhasan&author=A+Jamal&publication_year=2023&title=Overview+of+early+ChatGPT’s+presence+in+medical+literature:+insights+from+a+hybrid+literature+review+by+ChatGPT+and+human+experts&journal=Cureus&volume=15&pages=e37281" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref22" id="ref22"></a>22. Weng, TL , Wang, YM , Chang, S , Chen, TJ , and Hwang, SJ . ChatGPT failed Taiwan’s family medicine board exam. <i>J Chin Med Assoc</i>. (2023) 86:865. doi: 10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000956 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37418340" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000956" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=TL+Weng&author=YM+Wang&author=S+Chang&author=TJ+Chen&author=SJ+Hwang&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+failed+Taiwan’s+family+medicine+board+exam&journal=J+Chin+Med+Assoc&volume=86&pages=865" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref23" id="ref23"></a>23. Jin, D , Pan, E , Oufattole, N , Weng, WH , Fang, H , and Szolovits, P . (2020). What disease does this patient have? A large-scale open domain question answering dataset from medical exams. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.13081">https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.13081</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=D+Jin&author=E+Pan&author=N+Oufattole&author=WH+Weng&author=H+Fang&author=P+Szolovits&publication_year=2020&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref24" id="ref24"></a>24. Le, AH , and Victoria, Y . “Automatic Question Answering for Medical MCQs: Can It go Further than Information Retrieval?,”in <i>Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP 2019)</i>. (Varna, Bulgaria: INCOMA Ltd) (2019) 418–22. </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=AH+Le&author=Y+Victoria&publication_year=2019&title=Automatic+Question+Answering+for+Medical+MCQs:+Can+It+go+Further+than+Information+Retrieval?&journal=Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Recent+Advances+in+Natural+Language+Processing+(RANLP+2019)&pages=418-22" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref25" id="ref25"></a>25. Jin, Q , Dhingra, B , Liu, Z , Cohen, WW , and Lu, X . (2019). PubMedQA: A dataset for biomedical research question answering. Available at: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.06146">https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.06146</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=Q+Jin&author=B+Dhingra&author=Z+Liu&author=WW+Cohen&author=X+Lu&publication_year=2019&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref26" id="ref26"></a>26. Stanford CRFM . (2022). Introduces PubMedGPT 2.7B. Available at: <a href="https://hai.stanford.edu/news/stanford-crfm-introduces-pubmedgpt-27b">https://hai.stanford.edu/news/stanford-crfm-introduces-pubmedgpt-27b</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref27" id="ref27"></a>27. UpToDate . (2023) Surgeon viewing UpToDate on tablet UpToDate: Interaktive Unterstützung klinischer Entscheidungen. Available at: <a href="https://www.wolterskluwer.com/de-de/solutions/uptodate">https://www.wolterskluwer.com/de-de/solutions/uptodate</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref28" id="ref28"></a>28. ClinicalKey . (2023) Diagnose and treat your patients with confidence. Available at: <a href="https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/">https://www.clinicalkey.com/#!/</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref29" id="ref29"></a>29. IBM Watson . (2023) Conversational AI for fast and friendly customer care. Available at: <a href="https://www.ibm.com/products/watsonx-assistant">https://www.ibm.com/products/watsonx-assistant</a> (Accessed September 17, 2023). </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref30" id="ref30"></a>30. Dave, T , Athaluri, SA , and Singh, S . ChatGPT in medicine: an overview of its applications, advantages, limitations, future prospects, and ethical considerations. <i>Front Artif Intell</i>. (2023) 6:1169595. doi: 10.3389/frai.2023.1169595 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37215063" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1169595" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=T+Dave&author=SA+Athaluri&author=S+Singh&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+in+medicine:+an+overview+of+its+applications+advantages+limitations+future+prospects+and+ethical+considerations&journal=Front+Artif+Intell&volume=6&pages=1169595" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref31" id="ref31"></a>31. Riedel, M , Amann, N , Recker, F , Hennigs, A , Heublein, S , Meyer, B, et al. The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on medical teaching in obstetrics and gynecology-a nationwide expert survey among teaching coordinators at German university hospitals. <i>PLoS One</i>. (2022) 17:e0269562. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269562 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35930549" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269562" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=M+Riedel&author=N+Amann&author=F+Recker&author=A+Hennigs&author=S+Heublein&author=B+Meyer&publication_year=2022&title=The+COVID-19+pandemic+and+its+impact+on+medical+teaching+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology-a+nationwide+expert+survey+among+teaching+coordinators+at+German+university+hospitals&journal=PLoS+One&volume=17&pages=e0269562" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref32" id="ref32"></a>32. Skochelak, SE , and Stack, SJ . Creating the medical schools of the future. <i>Acad Med</i>. (2017) 92:16–9. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000001160 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000001160" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=SE+Skochelak&author=SJ+Stack&publication_year=2017&title=Creating+the+medical+schools+of+the+future&journal=Acad+Med&volume=92&pages=16-9" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref33" id="ref33"></a>33. Irby, DM , Cooke, M , and O’Brien, BC . Calls for reform of medical education by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: 1910 and 2010. <i>Acad Med</i>. (2010) 85:220–7. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c88449 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20107346" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c88449" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=DM+Irby&author=M+Cooke&author=BC+O’Brien&publication_year=2010&title=Calls+for+reform+of+medical+education+by+the+Carnegie+Foundation+for+the+Advancement+of+Teaching:+1910+and+2010&journal=Acad+Med&volume=85&pages=220-7" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref34" id="ref34"></a>34. Enyama, D , Balti, EV , Simeni Njonnou, SR , Ngongang Ouankou, C , Kemta Lekpa, F , Noukeu Njinkui, D, et al. Use of WhatsApp®, for distance teaching during COVID-19 pandemic: experience and perception from a sub-Saharan African setting. <i>BMC Med Educ</i>. (2021) 21:517. doi: 10.1186/s12909-021-02953-9 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34598681" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02953-9" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=D+Enyama&author=EV+Balti&author=SR+Simeni+Njonnou&author=C+Ngongang+Ouankou&author=F+Kemta+Lekpa&author=D+Noukeu+Njinkui&publication_year=2021&title=Use+of+WhatsApp®+for+distance+teaching+during+COVID-19+pandemic:+experience+and+perception+from+a+sub-Saharan+African+setting&journal=BMC+Med+Educ&volume=21&pages=517" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref35" id="ref35"></a>35. Rahm, AK , Töllner, M , Hubert, MO , Klein, K , Wehling, C , Sauer, T, et al. Effects of realistic e-learning cases on students’ learning motivation during COVID-19. <i>PLoS One</i>. (2021) 16:e0249425. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249425 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33882079" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249425" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=AK+Rahm&author=M+Töllner&author=MO+Hubert&author=K+Klein&author=C+Wehling&author=T+Sauer&publication_year=2021&title=Effects+of+realistic+e-learning+cases+on+students’+learning+motivation+during+COVID-19&journal=PLoS+One&volume=16&pages=e0249425" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref36" id="ref36"></a>36. Middeke, A , Anders, S , Schuelper, M , Raupach, T , and Schuelper, N . Training of clinical reasoning with a serious game versus small-group problem-based learning: a prospective study. <i>PLoS One</i>. (2018) 13:e0203851. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203851 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203851" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Middeke&author=S+Anders&author=M+Schuelper&author=T+Raupach&author=N+Schuelper&publication_year=2018&title=Training+of+clinical+reasoning+with+a+serious+game+versus+small-group+problem-based+learning:+a+prospective+study&journal=PLoS+One&volume=13&pages=e0203851" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref37" id="ref37"></a>37. Lee, H . The rise of ChatGPT: exploring its potential in medical education. <i>Anat Sci Educ</i>. (2023). doi: 10.1002/ase.2270 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.2270" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=H+Lee&publication_year=2023&title=The+rise+of+ChatGPT:+exploring+its+potential+in+medical+education&journal=Anat+Sci+Educ&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref38" id="ref38"></a>38. Springer, L , Stanne, ME , and Donovan, SS . Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: a meta-analysis. <i>Rev Educ Res</i>. (1999) 69:21–51. doi: 10.3102/00346543069001021 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543069001021" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=L+Springer&author=ME+Stanne&author=SS+Donovan&publication_year=1999&title=Effects+of+small-group+learning+on+undergraduates+in+science+mathematics+engineering+and+technology:+a+meta-analysis&journal=Rev+Educ+Res&volume=69&pages=21-51" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref39" id="ref39"></a>39. Robinson, L . Small groups, big possibilities: radical pedagogical approaches to critical small-group learning in medical education. <i>Can Med Educ J</i>. (2023) 14:178–9. doi: 10.36834/cmej.76464 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37304643" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.36834/cmej.76464" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=L+Robinson&publication_year=2023&title=Small+groups+big+possibilities:+radical+pedagogical+approaches+to+critical+small-group+learning+in+medical+education&journal=Can+Med+Educ+J&volume=14&pages=178-9" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref40" id="ref40"></a>40. Jones, RW . Learning and teaching in small groups: characteristics, benefits, problems and approaches. <i>Anaesth Intensive Care</i>. (2007) 35:587–92. doi: 10.1177/0310057X0703500420 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18020080" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0310057X0703500420" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=RW+Jones&publication_year=2007&title=Learning+and+teaching+in+small+groups:+characteristics+benefits+problems+and+approaches&journal=Anaesth+Intensive+Care&volume=35&pages=587-92" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref41" id="ref41"></a>41. Riedel, M , Eisenkolb, G , Amann, N , Karge, A , Meyer, B , Tensil, M, et al. Experiences with alternative online lectures in medical education in obstetrics and gynecology during the COVID-19 pandemic-possible efficient and student-orientated models for the future? <i>Arch Gynecol Obstet</i>. (2021) 305:1041–53. doi: 10.1007/s00404-021-06356-5 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-021-06356-5" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=M+Riedel&author=G+Eisenkolb&author=N+Amann&author=A+Karge&author=B+Meyer&author=M+Tensil&publication_year=2021&title=Experiences+with+alternative+online+lectures+in+medical+education+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology+during+the+COVID-19+pandemic-possible+efficient+and+student-orientated+models+for+the+future?&journal=Arch+Gynecol+Obstet&volume=305&pages=1041-53" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref42" id="ref42"></a>42. Burgess, A , van Diggele, C , Roberts, C , and Mellis, C . Facilitating small group learning in the health professions. <i>BMC Med Educ</i>. (2020) 20:457. doi: 10.1186/s12909-020-02282-3 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33272270" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02282-3" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Burgess&author=C+van+Diggele&author=C+Roberts&author=C+Mellis&publication_year=2020&title=Facilitating+small+group+learning+in+the+health+professions&journal=BMC+Med+Educ&volume=20&pages=457" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref43" id="ref43"></a>43. Lecler, A , Duron, L , and Soyer, P . Revolutionizing radiology with GPT-based models: current applications, future possibilities and limitations of ChatGPT. <i>Diagn Interv Imaging</i>. (2023) 104:269–74. doi: 10.1016/j.diii.2023.02.003 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36858933" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diii.2023.02.003" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Lecler&author=L+Duron&author=P+Soyer&publication_year=2023&title=Revolutionizing+radiology+with+GPT-based+models:+current+applications+future+possibilities+and+limitations+of+ChatGPT&journal=Diagn+Interv+Imaging&volume=104&pages=269-74" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref44" id="ref44"></a>44. Schukow, C , Smith, SC , Landgrebe, E , Parasuraman, S , Folaranmi, OO , Paner, GP, et al. Application of ChatGPT in routine diagnostic pathology: promises, pitfalls, and potential future directions. <i>Adv Anat Pathol</i>. (2023). doi: 10.1097/PAP.0000000000000406 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37501529" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PAP.0000000000000406" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=C+Schukow&author=SC+Smith&author=E+Landgrebe&author=S+Parasuraman&author=OO+Folaranmi&author=GP+Paner&publication_year=2023&title=Application+of+ChatGPT+in+routine+diagnostic+pathology:+promises+pitfalls+and+potential+future+directions&journal=Adv+Anat+Pathol&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref45" id="ref45"></a>45. Lacalamita, A , Serino, G , Pantaleo, E , Monaco, A , Amoroso, N , Bellantuono, L, et al. Artificial intelligence and complex network approaches reveal potential gene biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma. <i>Int J Mol Sci</i>. (2023) 24:15286. doi: 10.3390/ijms242015286 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37894965" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242015286" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Lacalamita&author=G+Serino&author=E+Pantaleo&author=A+Monaco&author=N+Amoroso&author=L+Bellantuono&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence+and+complex+network+approaches+reveal+potential+gene+biomarkers+for+hepatocellular+carcinoma&journal=Int+J+Mol+Sci&volume=24&pages=15286" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref46" id="ref46"></a>46. Grünebaum, A , Chervenak, J , Pollet, SL , Katz, A , and Chervenak, FA . The exciting potential for ChatGPT in obstetrics and gynecology. <i>Am J Obstet Gynecol</i>. (2023) 228:696–705. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2023.03.009 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2023.03.009" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=A+Grünebaum&author=J+Chervenak&author=SL+Pollet&author=A+Katz&author=FA+Chervenak&publication_year=2023&title=The+exciting+potential+for+ChatGPT+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology&journal=Am+J+Obstet+Gynecol&volume=228&pages=696-705" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref47" id="ref47"></a>47. Yang, X , Chen, A , PourNejatian, N , Shin, HC , Smith, KE , Parisien, C, et al. A large language model for electronic health records. <i>NPJ Digit Med</i>. (2022) 5:194. doi: 10.1038/s41746-022-00742-2 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36572766" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-022-00742-2" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=X+Yang&author=A+Chen&author=N+PourNejatian&author=HC+Shin&author=KE+Smith&author=C+Parisien&publication_year=2022&title=A+large+language+model+for+electronic+health+records&journal=NPJ+Digit+Med&volume=5&pages=194" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref48" id="ref48"></a>48. Huh, S . Are ChatGPT’s knowledge and interpretation ability comparable to those of medical students in Korea for taking a parasitology examination?: a descriptive study. <i>J Educ Eval Health Prof</i>. (2023) 20:1. doi: 10.3352/jeehp.2023.20.1 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2023.20.1" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=S+Huh&publication_year=2023&title=Are+ChatGPT’s+knowledge+and+interpretation+ability+comparable+to+those+of+medical+students+in+Korea+for+taking+a+parasitology+examination?:+a+descriptive+study&journal=J+Educ+Eval+Health+Prof&volume=20&pages=1" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref49" id="ref49"></a>49. Huang, H , Zheng, O , Wang, D , Yin, J , Wang, Z , Ding, S, et al. ChatGPT for shaping the future of dentistry: the potential of multi-modal large language model. <i>Int J Oral Sci</i>. (2023) 15:29. doi: 10.1038/s41368-023-00239-y </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37507396" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41368-023-00239-y" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=H+Huang&author=O+Zheng&author=D+Wang&author=J+Yin&author=Z+Wang&author=S+Ding&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+for+shaping+the+future+of+dentistry:+the+potential+of+multi-modal+large+language+model&journal=Int+J+Oral+Sci&volume=15&pages=29" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref50" id="ref50"></a>50. Beam, K , Sharma, P , Kumar, B , Wang, C , Brodsky, D , Martin, CR, et al. Performance of a large language model on practice questions for the neonatal board examination. <i>JAMA Pediatr</i>. (2023) 177:e232373. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.2373 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.2373" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=K+Beam&author=P+Sharma&author=B+Kumar&author=C+Wang&author=D+Brodsky&author=CR+Martin&publication_year=2023&title=Performance+of+a+large+language+model+on+practice+questions+for+the+neonatal+board+examination&journal=JAMA+Pediatr&volume=177&pages=e232373" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref51" id="ref51"></a>51. Moshirfar, M , Altaf, AW , Stoakes, IM , Tuttle, JJ , and Hoopes, PC . Artificial intelligence in ophthalmology: a comparative analysis of GPT-3.5, GPT-4, and human expertise in answering StatPearls questions. <i>Cureus</i>. (2023) 15:e40822. doi: 10.7759/cureus.40822 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37485215" target="_blank">PubMed Abstract</a> | <a href="https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.40822" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=M+Moshirfar&author=AW+Altaf&author=IM+Stoakes&author=JJ+Tuttle&author=PC+Hoopes&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence+in+ophthalmology:+a+comparative+analysis+of+GPT-3.5+GPT-4+and+human+expertise+in+answering+StatPearls+questions&journal=Cureus&volume=15&pages=e40822" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> <div class="References" style="margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <p class="ReferencesCopy1"><a name="ref52" id="ref52"></a>52. Waisberg, E , Ong, J , Masalkhi, M , Kamran, SA , Zaman, N , Sarker, P, et al. GPT-4: a new era of artificial intelligence in medicine. <i>Ir J Med Sci</i>. (2023). doi: 10.1007/s11845-023-03377-8 </p> <p class="ReferencesCopy2"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-023-03377-8" target="_blank">CrossRef Full Text</a> | <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?author=E+Waisberg&author=J+Ong&author=M+Masalkhi&author=SA+Kamran&author=N+Zaman&author=P+Sarker&publication_year=2023&title=GPT-4:+a+new+era+of+artificial+intelligence+in+medicine&journal=Ir+J+Med+Sci&" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a></p></div> </div> <div class="thinLineM20"></div> <div class="AbstractSummary"> <p><span>Keywords:</span> artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, medical education, machine learning, obstetrics and gynecology, students</p> <p><span>Citation:</span> Riedel M, Kaefinger K, Stuehrenberg A, Ritter V, Amann N, Graf A, Recker F, Klein E, Kiechle M, Riedel F and Meyer B (2023) ChatGPT’s performance in German OB/GYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice. <i>Front. Med</i>. 10:1296615. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615</p> <p class="timestamps"><span>Received:</span> 18 September 2023; <span>Accepted:</span> 27 November 2023;<br> <span>Published:</span> 13 December 2023.</p> <div> <p>Edited by:</p> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1218371/overview">Omneya Attallah</a>, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), Egypt</div> <div> <p>Reviewed by:</p> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/416383/overview">Anna Siri</a>, University of Genoa, Italy<br> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1775656/overview">Hosna Salmani</a>, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Iran</div> <p><span>Copyright</span> © 2023 Riedel, Kaefinger, Stuehrenberg, Ritter, Amann, Graf, Recker, Klein, Kiechle, Riedel and Meyer. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank">Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)</a>. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.</p> <p><span>*Correspondence:</span> Maximilian Riedel, <a id="encmail">bWF4aW1pbGlhbi5yaWVkZWxAbXJpLnR1bS5kZQ==</a></p> <div class="clear"></div> </div></div></div> <p class="AbstractSummary__disclaimer"><span>Disclaimer: </span> All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. </p></div></div></main> <aside class="Layout__aside"><div class="ArticleDetails__wrapper"><div class="ArticleDetails__aside"><div class="ArticleDetails__aside__responsiveButtons"><div id="FloatingButtonsEl" class="ActionsDropDown"><button aria-label="Open dropdown" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-toggle" class="ActionsDropDown__button ActionsDropDown__button--type ActionsDropDown__button--icon"><span class="ActionsDropDown__button__label">Download article</span></button> <div class="ActionsDropDown__menuWrapper"> <ul class="ActionsDropDown__menu"><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-pdf" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Download PDF </a></li><li><a href="http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-readCube" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> ReadCube </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/epub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-epub" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> EPUB </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/xml/nlm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-nlmXml" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> XML (NLM) </a></li></ul> <button aria-label="Close modal" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-close" class="ActionsDropDown__mobileClose"></button></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetails__aside__responsiveButtons__items"> <div class="ArticleDetailsShare__responsive"><button aria-label="Open share options" class="ArticleDetailsShare__trigger"></button> <div class="ArticleDetailsShare"><p class="ArticleDetailsShare__title">Share on</p> <ul class="ArticleDetailsShare__list"><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.twitter.com/share?url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on X" aria-label="Share on X" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--x"></a></li><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/share?url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on Linkedin" aria-label="Share on Linkedin" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--linkedin"></a></li><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" aria-label="Share on Facebook" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--facebook"></a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="ActionsDropDown"><button aria-label="Open dropdown" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-toggle" class="ActionsDropDown__button ActionsDropDown__button--typeIconButton ActionsDropDown__button--iconQuote"></button> <div class="ActionsDropDown__menuWrapper"><div class="ActionsDropDown__mobileTitle"> Export citation </div> <ul class="ActionsDropDown__menu"><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/endNote" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-endNote" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> EndNote </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/reference" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-referenceManager" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Reference Manager </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/text" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-simpleTextFile" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Simple Text file </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/bibTex" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-bibTex" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> BibTex </a></li></ul> <button aria-label="Close modal" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-close" class="ActionsDropDown__mobileClose"></button></div></div></div></div> <div class="TotalViews"><div class="TotalViews__data"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__number"> 3,6K </div> <div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__text"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__label">Total views</div></div></div> <div class="TotalViews__data__metrics"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__number"> 1,4K </div> <div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__text"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__label">Downloads</div></div></div> <div class="TotalViews__data__metrics"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__number"> 19 </div> <div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__text"><div class="TotalViews__data__metrics__label">Citations</div></div></div> <div class="ImpactMetricsInfoPopover"><button aria-label="Open impact metrics info" class="ImpactMetricsInfoPopover__button"></button> <div class="ImpactMetricsInfoPopover__tooltip"><button aria-label="Close impact metrics info" class="ImpactMetricsInfoPopover__tooltip__closeButton"></button> <div class="ImpactMetricsInfoPopover__tooltip__text"> Citation numbers are available from Dimensions </div></div></div></div> <div class="TotalViews__viewImpactLink"><span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="View article impact" href="http://loop-impact.frontiersin.org/impact/article/1296615#totalviews/views" target="_blank" data-event="customLink-link-a_viewArticleImpact" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--medium Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>View article impact</span></a></span></div> <div class="TotalViews__altmetric"><div data-badge-popover="bottom" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615" data-condensed="true" data-link-target="new" class="altmetric-embed"></div> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="View altmetric score" href="https://www.altmetric.com/details/doi/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615" target="_blank" data-event="customLink-link-a_viewAltmetricScore" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--medium Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>View altmetric score</span></a></span></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsShare"><p class="ArticleDetailsShare__title">Share on</p> <ul class="ArticleDetailsShare__list"><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.twitter.com/share?url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on X" aria-label="Share on X" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--x"></a></li><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/share?url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on Linkedin" aria-label="Share on Linkedin" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--linkedin"></a></li><li class="ArticleDetailsShare__item"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/full" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" aria-label="Share on Facebook" class="ArticleDetailsShare__link ArticleDetailsShare__link--facebook"></a></li></ul></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__editors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__title">Edited by</div> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1218371/overview" data-event="editorInfo-a-omneyaAttallah" class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo"><figure class="Avatar Avatar--size-32"><img src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/1218371/32" alt="Omneya Attallah" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name notranslate"> Omneya Attallah </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation notranslate"> Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), Egypt </div></div></a></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__editors"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__title">Reviewed by</div> <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/416383/overview" data-event="editorInfo-a-annaSiri" class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo"><figure class="Avatar Avatar--size-32"><img src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/416383/32" alt="Anna Siri" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name notranslate"> Anna Siri </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation notranslate"> Pegaso University, Italy </div></div></a><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1775656/overview" data-event="editorInfo-a-hosnaSalmani" class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo"><figure class="Avatar Avatar--size-32"><img src="https://loop.frontiersin.org/images/profile/1775656/32" alt="Hosna Salmani" class="Avatar__img is-inside-mask"></figure> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__info"><div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__name notranslate"> Hosna Salmani </div> <div class="ArticleDetailsEditors__ediorInfo__affiliation notranslate"> Iran University of Medical Sciences, Iran </div></div></a></div></div> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary ArticleDetailsGlossary--open"><button class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header"><div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header__title">Table of contents</div> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__header__arrow"></div></button> <div class="ArticleDetailsGlossary__content"><ul class="flyoutJournal"> <li><a href="#h1">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="#h2">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="#h3">Materials and methods</a></li> <li><a href="#h4">Results</a></li> <li><a href="#h5">Discussion</a></li> <li><a href="#h6">Conclusion</a></li> <li><a href="#h7">Data availability statement</a></li> <li><a href="#h8">Ethics statement</a></li> <li><a href="#h9">Author contributions</a></li> <li><a href="#h10">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="#h11">Conflict of interest</a></li> <li><a href="#h12">Publisher’s note</a></li> <li><a href="#h13">References</a></li> </ul></div></div>  <div class="ActionsDropDown"><button aria-label="Open dropdown" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-toggle" class="ActionsDropDown__button ActionsDropDown__button--typeOutline ActionsDropDown__button--iconQuote"><span class="ActionsDropDown__button__label">Export citation</span></button> <div class="ActionsDropDown__menuWrapper"> <ul class="ActionsDropDown__menu"><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/endNote" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-endNote" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> EndNote </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/reference" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-referenceManager" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Reference Manager </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/text" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-simpleTextFile" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Simple Text file </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/bibTex" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-bibTex" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> BibTex </a></li></ul> <button aria-label="Close modal" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-close" class="ActionsDropDown__mobileClose"></button></div></div> <div class="CheckForUpdates"><button data-target="crossmark" data-event="checkForUpdates-btn-openModal" class="CheckForUpdates__link"><img src="/article-pages/_nuxt/img/crossmark.5c8ec60.svg" alt="Crossmark icon" class="CheckForUpdates__link__img"> <div class="CheckForUpdates__link__text">Check for updates</div></button></div> <div class="Announcement"><p class="Announcement__title"> Research integrity at Frontiers </p> <article class="CardA"><div class="CardA__wrapper CardA__wrapper--vertical"><figure class="FrontiersImage CardA__img"><picture class="FrontiersImage"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=440&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=320x400&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=268x280&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=366x408&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media=""><source srcset="https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media=""> <img src="https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" alt="Man ultramarathon runner in the mountains he trains at sunset" loading="lazy" class="is-inside-mask"></picture> </figure> <div class="CardA__info"><h2 class="CardA__title">94% of researchers rate our articles as excellent or good</h2> <p class="CardA__text">Learn more about the work of our research integrity team to safeguard the quality of each article we publish.</p> <br> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="About our research integrity team" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-integrity" target="_self" data-event="customLink-link-a_findOutMore" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--small Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>Find out more </span></a></span></div></div></article></div>  </div>  <div><div class="FloatingButtons"> <div class="ActionsDropDown"><button aria-label="Open dropdown" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-toggle" class="ActionsDropDown__button ActionsDropDown__button--type ActionsDropDown__button--iconDownload"><span class="ActionsDropDown__button__label">Download article</span></button> <div class="ActionsDropDown__menuWrapper"><div class="ActionsDropDown__mobileTitle"> Download </div> <ul class="ActionsDropDown__menu"><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-pdf" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> Download PDF </a></li><li><a href="http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-readCube" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> ReadCube </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/epub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-epub" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> EPUB </a></li><li><a href="/journals/medicine/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615/xml/nlm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-event="actionsDropDown-a-nlmXml" class="ActionsDropDown__option"> XML (NLM) </a></li></ul> <button aria-label="Close modal" data-event="actionsDropDown-button-close" class="ActionsDropDown__mobileClose"></button></div></div></div> </div></div></aside></div> <div class="Announcement Announcement--Responsive"><p class="Announcement__title"> Research integrity at Frontiers </p> <article class="CardA"><div class="CardA__wrapper CardA__wrapper--vertical"><figure class="FrontiersImage CardA__img"><picture class="FrontiersImage"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/w=440&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 563px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=320x400&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 1024px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=268x280&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media="(max-width: 1441px)"><source srcset="https://images-provider.frontiersin.org/api/ipx/s=366x408&fit=outside&f=webp/https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media=""><source srcset="https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" media=""> <img src="https://d2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net/media/E32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3/0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8/webimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png" alt="Man ultramarathon runner in the mountains he trains at sunset" loading="lazy" class="is-inside-mask"></picture> </figure> <div class="CardA__info"><h2 class="CardA__title">94% of researchers rate our articles as excellent or good</h2> <p class="CardA__text">Learn more about the work of our research integrity team to safeguard the quality of each article we publish.</p> <br> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="About our research integrity team" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/research-integrity" target="_self" data-event="customLink-link-a_findOutMore" class="Link Link--linkType Link--maincolor Link--small Link--icon Link--chevronRight Link--right"><span>Find out more </span></a></span></div></div></article></div> <div></div></div></div>  <footer class="Footer"><div class="Footer__wrapper"><div class="Footer__sections"><ul class="Accordion"><li class="Accordion__item"><button class="Accordion__headline"> <div class="Accordion__title">Guidelines</div> <div class="Accordion__space"></div> <div class="Accordion__arrow"></div></button> <div class="Accordion__content Accordion__content--fadeOut" style="height:0px;"><ul><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/guidelines/author-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_0-a_authorGuidelines">Author guidelines</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/guidelines/editor-guidelines" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_0-a_editorGuidelines">Editor guidelines</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/guidelines/policies-and-publication-ethics" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_0-a_policiesAndPublicationE">Policies and publication ethics</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/fee-policy" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_0-a_feePolicy">Fee policy</a></li></ul></div></li><li class="Accordion__item"><button class="Accordion__headline"> <div class="Accordion__title">Explore</div> <div class="Accordion__space"></div> <div class="Accordion__arrow"></div></button> <div class="Accordion__content Accordion__content--fadeOut" style="height:0px;"><ul><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_1-a_articles">Articles</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_1-a_researchTopics">Research Topics </a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_1-a_journals">Journals</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/how-we-publish" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_1-a_howWePublish">How we publish</a></li></ul></div></li><li class="Accordion__item"><button class="Accordion__headline"> <div class="Accordion__title">Outreach</div> <div class="Accordion__space"></div> <div class="Accordion__arrow"></div></button> <div class="Accordion__content Accordion__content--fadeOut" style="height:0px;"><ul><li><a href="https://forum.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_2-a_frontiersForum">Frontiers Forum </a></li><li><a href="https://policylabs.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_2-a_frontiersPolicyLabs">Frontiers Policy Labs </a></li><li><a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_2-a_frontiersForYoungMinds">Frontiers for Young Minds</a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersplanetprize.org/" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_2-a_frontiersPlanetPrize">Frontiers Planet Prize</a></li></ul></div></li><li class="Accordion__item"><button class="Accordion__headline"> <div class="Accordion__title">Connect</div> <div class="Accordion__space"></div> <div class="Accordion__arrow"></div></button> <div class="Accordion__content Accordion__content--fadeOut" style="height:0px;"><ul><li><a href="https://helpcenter.frontiersin.org" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_3-a_helpCenter">Help center</a></li><li><a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/settings/email-preferences?a=publishers" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_3-a_emailsAndAlerts">Emails and alerts </a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/about/contact" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_3-a_contactUs">Contact us </a></li><li><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/submission/submit" target="_self" data-event="footer-block_3-a_submit">Submit</a></li><li><a href="https://careers.frontiersin.org/" target="_blank" data-event="footer-block_3-a_careerOpportunities">Career opportunities</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <div class="Footer__socialLinks"><div class="Footer__socialLinks__title">Follow us</div> <span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="Frontiers Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/Frontiersin" target="_blank" data-event="footer-facebook-a_" class="Link Link--linkType Link--grey Link--medium Link--icon Link--facebook Link--right"><span></span></a></span><span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="Frontiers Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/frontiersin" target="_blank" data-event="footer-twitter-a_" class="Link Link--linkType Link--grey Link--medium Link--icon Link--twitter Link--right"><span></span></a></span><span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="Frontiers LinkedIn" href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/frontiers" target="_blank" data-event="footer-linkedIn-a_" class="Link Link--linkType Link--grey Link--medium Link--icon Link--linkedin Link--right"><span></span></a></span><span class="Link__wrapper"><a aria-label="Frontiers Instagram" href="https://www.instagram.com/frontiersin_" target="_blank" data-event="footer-instagram-a_" class="Link Link--linkType Link--grey Link--medium Link--icon Link--instagram Link--right"><span></span></a></span></div></div> <div class="Footer__copyright"><div><span>© 2025 Frontiers Media S.A. All rights reserved</span></div> <div><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/privacy-policy" target="_blank">Privacy policy</a> <span>|</span> <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions" target="_blank">Terms and conditions</a></div></div></div></footer> <div class="SnackbarWrapper"><ul class="SnackbarContainer"></ul></div></div></div></div><script>window.__NUXT__=(function(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z,_,$,aa,ab,ac,ad,ae,af,ag,ah,ai,aj,ak,al,am,an,ao,ap,aq,ar,as,at,au,av,aw,ax,ay,az,aA,aB,aC,aD,aE,aF,aG,aH,aI,aJ,aK,aL,aM,aN,aO,aP,aQ,aR,aS,aT,aU,aV,aW,aX,aY,aZ,a_,a$,ba,bb,bc,bd,be,bf,bg,bh,bi,bj,bk,bl,bm,bn,bo,bp,bq,br,bs,bt,bu,bv,bw,bx,by,bz,bA,bB,bC,bD,bE,bF,bG,bH,bI,bJ,bK,bL,bM,bN,bO,bP,bQ,bR,bS,bT,bU,bV,bW,bX,bY,bZ,b_,b$,ca,cb,cc,cd,ce,cf,cg,ch,ci,cj,ck,cl,cm,cn,co,cp,cq,cr,cs,ct,cu,cv,cw,cx,cy,cz,cA,cB,cC,cD,cE,cF,cG,cH,cI,cJ,cK,cL,cM,cN,cO,cP,cQ,cR,cS,cT,cU,cV){ax.id=ay;ax.name=O;ax.slug=az;ax.specialtyId=2742;ax.__typename="journal_section";return {layout:"ArticleLayout",data:[{}],fetch:{},error:e,state:{currentJournal:{identifier:w,name:t,slug:x,banner:[{id:"3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C",src:W,name:"FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website",tags:["professional","medical","research","biotechnology","scientific","analy","lab"],type:J,width:7360,height:4912,idHash:"67388dad93685635",archive:j,brandId:X,limited:j,fileSize:13595017,isPublic:c,original:"https:\u002F\u002Fbrand.frontiersin.org\u002Fm\u002F67388dad93685635\u002Foriginal\u002FFMED_Main-Visual_Purple_Website.jpg",copyright:"Copyright (c) 2018 RossHelen\u002FShutterstock. No use without permission.",extension:[Y],thumbnails:{mini:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002Fmini-4EBC2476-6EFB-4A3E-A669185B307FEF72.png",thul:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002Fthul-78BD9351-8A86-4C7B-874FC1CC5CAA92CE.png",webimage:W,Guidelines:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002FF6FF788E-26D5-4BC5-8CB92EE85A59CA4A\u002FGuidelines-FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website.png",WebsiteJpg_XL:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002FF6FF788E-26D5-4BC5-8CB92EE85A59CA4A\u002FWebsiteJpg_XL-FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website.jpg",WebsiteWebP_L:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002FF6FF788E-26D5-4BC5-8CB92EE85A59CA4A\u002FWebsiteWebP_L-FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website.webp",WebsiteWebP_M:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002FF6FF788E-26D5-4BC5-8CB92EE85A59CA4A\u002FWebsiteWebP_M-FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website.webp",WebsiteWebP_XL:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002FF6FF788E-26D5-4BC5-8CB92EE85A59CA4A\u002FWebsiteWebP_XL-FMED_Main Visual_Purple_Website.webp"},dateCreated:Z,description:"Laboratory assistant putting test tubes into the holder, Close-up view focused on the tubes",orientation:K,userCreated:"Caroline Sutter",watermarked:j,dateModified:Z,datePublished:"2022-06-27T09:27:09Z",ecsArchiveFiles:[],propertyOptions:["414FB2D4-2283-43FD-BE14E534ECA67928","6C18119B-14BD-4951-B437696F4357BD33","7C692885-DB25-4858-B1FB4FF47B241E9B","D88C0047-EC30-4506-A7DF28A4D765E1CF"],property_Channel:["frontiersin_org"],"property_Sub-Type":["Main_Visual"],property_Asset_Type:["Photography"],activeOriginalFocusPoint:{x:3680,y:_},property_Office_Department:["Publishing"]}],description:"A multidisciplinary journal which advances our medical knowledge. It supports the translation of scientific advances into new therapies and diagnostic tools that will improve patient care.",mission:"\u003Cp\u003EFrontiers in Medicine is a broad-scope, multidisciplinary journal covering all established medical disciplines to improve clinical practice and patient care.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ELed by Field Chief Editor Prof Michel Goldman (Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium), Frontiers in Medicine is indexed in PubMed Central (PMC), Web of Science (SCIE), and Scopus, among others, and welcomes basic and clinical medical research that facilitate the translation of scientific advances into new therapies or diagnostic tools. Topics include, but are not limited to:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Edermatology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Efamily medicine and primary care\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Egastroenterology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Egene and cell therapy\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Egeriatric medicine\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ehealthcare professions education\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ehematology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ehepatobiliary diseases\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Einfectious diseases: pathogenesis and therapy\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eintensive care medicine and anesthesiology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Enephrology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Enuclear medicine\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eobstetrics and gynecology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eophthalmology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Epathology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eprecision medicine\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Epulmonary medicine\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eregulatory science\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Erheumatology\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Etranslational medicine.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIn addition to papers that provide a link between basic research and clinical practice, a particular emphasis is given to studies that are directly relevant to patient care.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs well as the established medical disciplines, Frontiers in Medicine aims to publish research that will facilitate:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eaccess to medicinal products and medical devices worldwide\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Eaddressing the grand health challenges around the world\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ethe exploitation of big data and the use of novel information and communication tools in the assessment of new medicines\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ethe scientific bases for guidelines and decisions from regulatory authorities\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n \u003Cli\u003Ethe use of patient-reported outcomes under real world conditions.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAll studies must contribute insights into the field of medicine. Papers which do not primarily focus on a medical discipline are not suitable for publication in this journal. Manuscripts that focus solely on the molecular or cellular mechanisms of diseases without a foundation in clinical medicine are not suitable for publication in this journal. Similarly, studies that are purely descriptive or observational, without a clear hypothesis or mechanistic investigation, are not within the scope of this journal. Research that is primarily epidemiological or public health-oriented, without a foundation in the pathophysiology or treatment of disease, is also not appropriate for this journal.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFrontiers in Medicine is committed to advancing developments in the field of medicine by allowing unrestricted access to articles and communicating scientific knowledge to researchers and the public alike, to enable the scientific breakthroughs of the future.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EEthics Statement:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAll manuscripts submitted to Frontiers in Medicine that have been conducted in human subjects must conform with current regulations and the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethics committee approval and informed patient consent are required for studies involving human subjects. Ethics committee approval is also needed for studies involving animals. Phase I - Phase IV clinical trials submitted for publication in Frontiers in Medicine must have been registered with an appropriate public trials registry at the time or before the first patient enrolment. The information on the clinical trial registration (Unique Identifier and URL) must be included in the abstract. Authors are required to disclose all apparent or potential conflicts of interest according to the ICMJE guidelines and those of Frontiers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFrontiers endeavors to follow the guidelines and best practice recommendations published by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Authors should refer to the author guidelines for full details.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",palette:"purple",impactFactor:"3.9",citeScore:"3.6",citations:"107000",showTagline:e,twitter:"@FrontMedicine",__typename:"Journal"},currentFrontiersJournal:{id:w,name:t,slug:x,printISSN:e,shortName:L,electronicISSN:M,abbreviation:$,specialtyId:e,publicationDate:e,isOnline:h,isOpenForSubmissions:h,spaceId:c,field:{id:aa,domainId:s,__typename:ab},__typename:a},articleHubSlug:f,articleHubPage:N,currentArticle:{id:1296615,doi:ac,title:ad,acceptanceDate:new Date(1701076423000),receptionDate:new Date(1695064039000),publicationDate:new Date(1702425600000),isPublished:h,abstract:ae,researchTopic:{id:51868,title:"Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology",articlesCount:A,isMagazinePage:i,slug:"education-in-obstetrics-and-gynecology",isOpenForSubmission:i},articleType:{id:24,name:"Original Research"},stage:{id:A,name:f},keywords:["hat gelöscht:","thereby fostering inclusivity and accessibility medical education","ChatGPT","artificial intelligence","machine learning",O,"Students"],authors:[{id:af,firstName:ag,lastName:ah,givenNames:ag,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:h,userId:af,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:ai,firstName:aj,lastName:"Kaefinger",givenNames:aj,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:h,userId:ai,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:ak,lastName:"Stuehrenberg",givenNames:ak,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:al,lastName:"Ritter",givenNames:al,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:am,lastName:"Amann",givenNames:am,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Friedrich–Alexander-University Erlangen–Nuremberg (FAU)",countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:B,lastName:"Graf",givenNames:B,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:an,lastName:"Recker",givenNames:an,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Bonn University Hospital",countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:ao,lastName:"Klein",givenNames:ao,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:ap,lastName:"Kiechle",givenNames:ap,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:aq,lastName:ah,givenNames:aq,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Heidelberg University Hospital",countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:j,firstName:ar,lastName:"Meyer",givenNames:ar,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:i,userId:j,affiliations:[{organizationName:q,countryName:n,cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],editors:[{id:as,firstName:at,lastName:"Attallah",givenNames:at,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:h,userId:as,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT)",countryName:"Egypt",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],reviewers:[{id:au,firstName:B,lastName:"Siri",givenNames:B,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:h,userId:au,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Pegaso University",countryName:"Italy",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]},{id:av,firstName:aw,lastName:"Salmani",givenNames:aw,isCorresponding:i,isProfilePublic:h,userId:av,affiliations:[{organizationName:"Iran University of Medical Sciences",countryName:"Iran",cityName:f,stateName:f,zipCode:f}]}],journal:{id:w,slug:x,name:t,shortName:L,electronicISSN:M,field:{id:aa,domainId:s,__typename:ab},specialtyId:e,journalSectionPaths:[{section:ax,__typename:"journal_journalSectionPath"}],__typename:a},section:ax,impactMetrics:{views:aA,downloads:aB,citations:19},volume:aC,articleVolume:"Volume 10 - 2023",relatedArticles:[],isPublishedV2:i,contents:{titleHtml:"ChatGPT’s performance in German OB\u002FGYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice",fullTextHtml:"\u003Cdiv class=\"JournalAbstract\"\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h1\" name=\"h1\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\"authors\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F2470056\" class=\"user-id-2470056\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002F2470056\u002F74\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\" alt=\"Maximilian Riedel
\"\u003EMaximilian Riedel\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csup\u003E*\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F2577566\" class=\"user-id-2577566\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002F2577566\u002F74\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\" alt=\"Katharina Kaefinger\"\u003EKatharina Kaefinger\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Antonia Stuehrenberg\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EAntonia Stuehrenberg\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Viktoria Ritter\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EViktoria Ritter\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Niklas Amann\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003ENiklas Amann\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Anna Graf\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EAnna Graf\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Florian Recker\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EFlorian Recker\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Evelyn Klein\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EEvelyn Klein\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Marion Kiechle\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EMarion Kiechle\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Fabian Riedel\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EFabian Riedel\u003Csup\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"author-wrapper notranslate\"\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"pr5\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg\" alt=\"Bastian Meyer\" onerror=\"this.onerror=null;this.src='https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fcdn\u002Fimages\u002Fprofile\u002Fdefault_32.jpg';\"\u003EBastian Meyer\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cul class=\"notes\"\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EDepartment of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Munich, Germany\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EDepartment of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Friedrich–Alexander-University Erlangen–Nuremberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EDepartment of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Bonn University Hospital, Bonn, Germany\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Csup\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003EDepartment of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003E\u003Cb\u003EBackground:\u003C\u002Fb\u003E Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes deep learning algorithms to process natural language and generate responses, which renders it suitable for conversational interfaces. ChatGPT’s potential to transform medical education and clinical practice is currently being explored, but its capabilities and limitations in this domain remain incompletely investigated. The present study aimed to assess ChatGPT’s performance in medical knowledge competency for problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB\u002FGYN).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003E\u003Cb\u003EMethods:\u003C\u002Fb\u003E Two datasets were established for analysis: questions (1) from OB\u002FGYN course exams at a German university hospital and (2) from the German medical state licensing exams. In order to assess ChatGPT’s performance, questions were entered into the chat interface, and responses were documented. A quantitative analysis compared ChatGPT’s accuracy with that of medical students for different levels of difficulty and types of questions. Additionally, a qualitative analysis assessed the quality of ChatGPT’s responses regarding ease of understanding, conciseness, accuracy, completeness, and relevance. Non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT were evaluated, and a density index of insights was established in order to quantify the tool’s ability to provide students with relevant and concise medical knowledge.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003E\u003Cb\u003EResults:\u003C\u002Fb\u003E ChatGPT demonstrated consistent and comparable performance across both datasets. It provided correct responses at a rate comparable with that of medical students, thereby indicating its ability to handle a diverse spectrum of questions ranging from general knowledge to complex clinical case presentations. The tool’s accuracy was partly affected by question difficulty in the medical state exam dataset. Our qualitative assessment revealed that ChatGPT provided mostly accurate, complete, and relevant answers. ChatGPT additionally provided many non-obvious insights, especially in correctly answered questions, which indicates its potential for enhancing autonomous medical learning.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003E\u003Cb\u003EConclusion:\u003C\u002Fb\u003E ChatGPT has promise as a supplementary tool in medical education and clinical practice. Its ability to provide accurate and insightful responses showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. As AI technologies continue to evolve, ChatGPT and similar tools may contribute to more efficient and personalized learning experiences and assistance for health care providers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"JournalFullText\"\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h2\" name=\"h2\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EChat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool that was first released by OpenAI on 30 November 2022. Its web-browser-based conversational interface was built atop the large language model Generative Pretrained Transformer 3 (GPT-3), which had first been released in 2020 (\u003Ca href=\"#ref1\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Reinforcement learning techniques were further utilized to train the model on a dataset of 570 gigabytes of text, which allowed ChatGPT to establish probabilistic relationships between words and to perform natural language processing and generation tasks (\u003Ca href=\"#ref2\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe theoretical foundation for the development of ChatGPT was grounded on the idea that language can be learned using patterns and rules found in large text corpora (\u003Ca href=\"#ref3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). ChatGPT generates its responses using deep learning algorithms that are trained on vast sets of text data, which enables the model to understand the structure, syntax, and semantics of natural language (\u003Ca href=\"#ref4\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref5\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). ChatGPT analyzes the input text and generates a response based on the patterns and rules it has learned during the training process (\u003Ca href=\"#ref3\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The model selects the most probable answer from a large set of potential responses and ranks these responses according to their likelihood of being coherent with and appropriate for the input text so as to mimic human language and provide relevant information or assistance. Prior to ChatGPT, large language models had predominantly been confined to the artificial intelligence (AI) research community. However, such models were not widely adopted by the general public due to their technical complexity and lack of accessibility. However, ChatGPT was different because it introduced a conversational interface that enabled users to interact with the AI in a more human-like manner (\u003Ca href=\"#ref6\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe inclusion of ChatGPT or other AI applications in medical education and clinical practice may have the potential to transform the way in which students – as well doctors and patients – acquire knowledge in biomedical sciences (\u003Ca href=\"#ref7\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref8\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In theory, by leveraging their vast knowledge base and real-time information processing capabilities, AI applications can offer personalized learning experiences to medical students. They can adapt to individual learning styles, providing tailored resources and interactive simulations to enhance understanding. Additionally, AI applications could provide instant feedback on students’ performance, identifying areas of weakness and suggesting targeted improvement strategies. This continuous, adaptive learning approach promises to significantly improve the quality and effectiveness of medical education. This development is still at an early stage, and potential applications and benefits remain rather hypothetical due both to the short time for which they have been available and to the lack of impactful studies on the topic. At this early stage of implementation of AI in medical education and clinical practice, our objective was to gain insights into both the capabilities and limitations of ChatGPT in this regard. One significant challenge is the lack of nuanced understanding and contextual judgment that AI applications currently have, which is crucial in medical training. AI systems might struggle to replicate the complex decision-making processes and ethical considerations inherent in clinical practice. Furthermore, issues around data privacy and security are paramount in medical education, where sensitive health information is involved.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EWe sought to assess the tool’s ability to demonstrate medical knowledge and to evaluate its performance in the context of problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB\u002FGYN). In order to achieve this goal, we investigated ChatGPT’s performance by analyzing two datasets: first, the OB\u002FGYN course examinations at the Technical University (TU) Munich, and second, the German medical state licensing exam, with a focus on OB\u002FGYN-related questions. We conducted a quantitative and qualitative analysis and compared the results obtained by ChatGPT with those obtained by the students. We hypothesized that at this early stage of its development, ChatGPT should be capable both of processing medical questions and problems well and of providing a high-quality informative output for medical education. Therefore, we aimed to address and discuss three core questions in our study: (i) How well does ChatGPT perform on standardized written OB\u002FGYN exam questions? (ii) Can ChatGPT potentially be applied as a teaching and learning tool in medical education? (iii) What are the potential applications and limitations of ChatGPT for future use in medical education and clinical practice?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h3\" name=\"h3\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EMaterials and methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EData acquisition and processing\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EWe established two datasets for analyzing and assessing ChatGPT’s ability to understand medical topics and issues in OB\u002FGYN. The first dataset was obtained from the exams in the OB\u002FGYN course during the clinical stage of medical studies at the University Hospital of the Technical University Munich. The corresponding exams were held on 6 February 2023 (with 154 participants), 22 July 2022 (with 125 participants), 7 February 2022 (with 185 participants), 14 July 2021 (with 149 participants), and 1 February 2021 (with 173 participants). The exams are mandatory for passing the OB\u002FGYN course and are usually held in the eighth semester. They test theoretical knowledge across the entire spectrum of OB\u002FGYN that is taught in lectures and small-group seminars during the semester. Topics include general gynecology, prenatal and perinatal medicine, gynecologic oncology, endocrinology, and reproductive medicine. Multiple-choice questions are provided with five answer options each, only one of which is correct. The exams test both the knowledge and understanding of clinical concepts through clinical case presentations. The answer sheets were evaluated anonymously for our study, and the mean rate of correct answers was calculated for each question individually.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe data of the OB\u002FGYN-related state exam questions were obtained from the online teaching and learning software AMBOSS®. This commercial learning platform is particularly well-regarded for its integrated learning system, which includes detailed medical articles, an extensive question bank for exam preparation, and interactive case studies to enhance clinical understanding. One of the standout features of AMBOSS® is its cross-linked articles, which allow users to easily navigate between related topics, making it an efficient tool for both studying and quick reference in clinical practice (\u003Ca href=\"#ref9\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The state exam (“Zweiter Abschnitt der Ärztlichen Prüfung”) typically consists of just over 300 multiple-choice questions with five answer options each, only one of which is correct. The individual specialties and topic areas are represented differently based on their general clinical relevance. OB\u002FGYN-related questions account for approximately 5% of all questions on the state exam. The questions consist partly of general-knowledge questions as well as of questions in the form of clinical case presentations. The questions are compiled anew biannually for the state exam by the Institute for Medical and Pharmaceutical Exam Questions (IMPP). The exams are uniform across Germany and are conducted over three consecutive days. Students can answer the multiple-choice questions from the state exams of recent years through the online platform AMBOSS®, where they can receive annotated explanations and links to teaching content for each answer option. AMBOSS® also offers the option to indicate the relative difficulty of a question on a scale of 1–5 for personal self-assessment and provides the mean rate of correct answers for each question on the exam. For our dataset, we used the latest 104 questions available on AMBOSS® at the time of data acquisition, and we limited the questions to those related to the field of OB\u002FGYN from the state exams from autumn 2022, spring 2022, autumn 2021, and spring 2021.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EWe standardized our input formats for both datasets in ChatGPT in line with Gilson et al. (\u003Ca href=\"#ref10\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This standardization was crucial as it is widely recognized that the phrasing of a prompt can significantly influence the AI’s response or output. Consequently, we excluded questions that contained images because ChatGPT only accepted textual inputs. Additionally, we removed questions with answers presented in table format. The questions were formatted by presenting the question first, followed by the possible multiple-choice answers, each on a new line with a clear numeration of the answer options. A new chat in ChatGPT was opened for each question.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EAfter establishing the two datasets as described above, we investigated ChatGPT’s ability to correctly answer the exam questions. To do so, we entered the corresponding questions with their five answer options into the chat interface of ChatGPT between 10 and 28 February 2023 during several input sessions (not counted). The response time by ChatGPT is immediate as it requires only seconds to process the question and create a cohesive response without the need for corrections. Questions and answers were obtained in the German language. Access was granted through free registration and login via the website \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fopenai.com\u002Fblog\u002Fchatgpt\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fopenai.com\u002Fblog\u002Fchatgpt\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The most recent version of ChatGPT-3 was used at the time of data analysis, and the tool’s response was documented immediately for each individual question. Version 3 of ChatGPT was the first publicly available version capable of comprehensively answering users’ questions formulated in a free and open-ended manner. At the time of data collection for the present study, the most recent text corpora on which ChatGPT had been trained stemmed from September 2021. Therefore, more recent or innovative medical findings after that date may not have been incorporated into the AI’s knowledge base that could have a negative effect on the quality of output. After data acquisition, data analysis followed as described below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EData analysis\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EIn order to compare the accuracy of ChatGPT with that of the students from both datasets, we evaluated each answer manually and only considered a response to be correct if it clearly matched one of the five options. During this stage of data analysis, we disregarded any explanations or justifications of the correct answer as well as comments on the incorrect choices. Furthermore, we classified the level of difficulty for each question based on whether it had been answered correctly by more or fewer than the mean number of students, which was 83% of students for the OB\u002FGYN course and 73% of students for the state exam questions. Thus, we established a simple, yet objective dichotomous characterization of a level of difficulty for each question for further statistical analysis. We then examined whether ChatGPT exhibited any significant differences in its rate of correct responses for the group of easy or difficult questions. Furthermore, we examined whether there was a correlation between the numerical difficulty score (from 1 = “very easy” to 5 = “very difficult”) that had been assigned by AMBOSS® for each question on the one hand and ChatGPT’s performance on the other hand.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EIn order to further investigate ChatGPT’s ability to process information and provide useful medical information, the multiple-choice questions from both the OB\u002FGYN course and the state exam were assigned to the following two groups:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E1. General knowledge questions; for example: \u003Ci\u003E“Which statement about cervical cancer is correct?”\u003C\u002Fi\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E2. Clinical case presentation; for example: \u003Ci\u003E“A 40-year-old gravida I \u002F para 0 presents to the labor ward on the weekend at 34 + 4 weeks of gestation with complaints of having felt unwell for two days. She reports increasing lower limb edema, nausea, and vomiting since yesterday evening, intermittent visual disturbances and tinnitus since a few hours ago, and right upper quadrant abdominal discomfort. Which diagnostic measure is NOT helpful in this situation?”\u003C\u002Fi\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EWe evaluated ChatGPT’s responses to each question based on five variables that are indicative of data quality. For our analysis, we orientated ourselves around the conceptual framework created by Richard Wang and Diane Strong (\u003Ca href=\"#ref11\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Their work, often cited in the field of information systems, identifies several key dimensions of data quality, which are critical for ensuring that the information being used or analyzed is reliable, accurate, and useful. By using these categories derived from Wang and Strong’s framework, our evaluation of ChatGPT’s responses not only adheres to established principles of data quality but also provides a structured and thorough method for assessing the effectiveness and reliability of AI-generated information.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EWe chose five categories to characterize the answers given by ChatGPT:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E1. \u003Ci\u003EEase of understanding\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Was the answer clearly and precisely formulated in a way that was easy to understand?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E2. \u003Ci\u003EConcise representation\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Was the answer clearly structured and divided into sections that facilitated readability?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E3. \u003Ci\u003EAccuracy\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Did the facts mentioned in the answer correspond to the current scientific literature? Were the statements logical and understandable?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E4. \u003Ci\u003ECompleteness\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Was the answer complete, and were all aspects of the question adequately addressed? Was important information omitted, or were there unnecessary details?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E5. \u003Ci\u003ERelevance\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Was the answer directly related to the question asked, or was there any ambiguity in the answer?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThree medical experts in the field of OB\u002FGYN with long clinical experience individually assessed each answer independently with regard to the five items above using a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = “completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”). Mean values from their responses were used for further statistical analysis to ensure consistency of the data.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003ESubsequently, for every question that had received an incorrect response, we categorized the reason for the error into one of the three options listed below. The authors responsible for conducting the qualitative analysis of the responses (i.e., MR, BM, and FR) collaborated on the analysis and resolved any ambiguous labels.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E1. \u003Ci\u003EIncorrect external information.\u003C\u002Fi\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E2. For the question, ChatGPT used incorrect external information that could not be directly derived from the content of the question.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E3. \u003Ci\u003EFailure to consider information within the question.\u003C\u002Fi\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E4. ChatGPT did not consider information mentioned in the question when generating the answer.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E5. \u003Ci\u003EIncorrect linkage of external knowledge with information within the question.\u003C\u002Fi\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E6. ChatGPT considered the information in the question but combined it incorrectly with correct external knowledge.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EChatGPT’s responses to every question in both datasets were further analyzed for the presence and quantity of “non-obvious insights” as described and applied by Kung et al. (\u003Ca href=\"#ref12\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In the authors’ recent publication, an insight was defined by a section of the answer that was characterized by the following four items:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E1. \u003Ci\u003ENon-definitional\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Did not simply define a term in the input question.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E2. \u003Ci\u003EUnique\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: A single insight may have been used to eliminate several answer choices.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top: 0em;margin-bottom: 0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E3. \u003Ci\u003ENon-obvious\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Required deduction or knowledge external to the question.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp style=\"margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;margin-top:0em;margin-bottom:0em;text-align:left;\"\u003E4. \u003Ci\u003EValid\u003C\u002Fi\u003E: Clinically or numerically accurate; preserved directionality.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EUsing Kung et al. as an example, we then established an index (“density of insights”) by normalizing the number of insights to the word count for each response generated by ChatGPT (number of insights\u002Fword count *100). The significance of the “density of insights” index in our case lies in its ability to quantify the richness and depth of information provided by ChatGPT. In medical contexts, where every word can carry significant weight and the efficiency of communication is crucial, this index helps in assessing whether ChatGPT is providing dense and meaningful content that goes beyond superficial explanations. By focusing on non-obvious insights—those elements of a response that are not immediately apparent, require deeper knowledge or deductive reasoning, and are clinically or numerically accurate—the index ensures that the evaluated content is not only informative but also relevant and applicable in a real-world setting.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EStatistical analysis\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe data were evaluated descriptively using Excel (Microsoft®) or Prism (Version 9, GraphPad®). Unpaired chi-square tests were used to determine whether the question difficulty or the type of question (i.e., general knowledge vs. clinical case) had significantly affected ChatGPT’s performance in either dataset. These tests are ideal for comparing categorical variables and are appropriate for assessing whether there are significant differences in the distribution of correct and incorrect answers across these categories. The McNemar statistical test was used to assess whether the availability of multiple-choice answer options had an impact on the accuracy of ChatGPT in answering the questions. The test is used for paired nominal data. Comparing the performance of the same entity (ChatGPT) under two scenarios (with and without multiple-choice options), this test is suitable for evaluating whether these conditions lead to a statistically significant difference in performance. Unpaired \u003Ci\u003Et\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-tests were used to compare the word count between correct and incorrect answers generated by ChatGPT, the expert assessment of ChatGPT’s responses via Likert scale ratings and to analyze the density of insight. These tests are used to compare the means of two independent groups. All \u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-values < 0.05 were defined as statistically significant. Tables and figures were generated in Word (Microsoft®) and Prism (Version 9, GraphPad®).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h4\" name=\"h4\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EResults\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EChatGPT delivered comparable and consistent results\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe dataset of questions from the OB\u002FGYN course included a total of 160 questions, each of which contained five multiple-choice answer options. On average, the medical students in our survey answered 83.1% (95% CI = 80.0–86.2%) of these questions correctly. Average student results for questions (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 35) from spring semester 2022 were unavailable. In the same dataset, ChatGPT provided correct answers 85.6% (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 137) of the time. In order to test the consistency of ChatGPT’s answers, we conducted a second individual validation round. In this second round, ChatGPT achieved similarly good results for the dataset, with 88.7% (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 142) of answers being correct. Overall, ChatGPT provided consistent results for 91.6% (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 145) of the questions in the validation round compared with in the first round of testing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe dataset of the medical sate exam included a total of 104 questions. Students answered 73.4% (95% CI = 69.0–77.8%) of these questions correctly. Four questions had to be removed because they included images that ChatGPT could not process. Moreover, two questions were removed because ChatGPT could not commit to one single answer option. Of the remaining 98 questions, ChatGPT answered a total of 70.4% (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 69) correctly.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EChatGPT maintained its performance without the need for multiple-choice answers\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EIn order to further explore how the answer choices in the exam questions influence the way ChatGPT forms answers and solutions to clinical case presentations, ChatGPT had to solve the questions again, but this time without the five provided multiple-choice answers for each question. Of a total of 46 clinical case presentation questions from the OB\u002FGYN course dataset, five negative questions (“which answer is incorrect?”) had to be excluded because the answers given by ChatGPT could not be assessed without the multiple-choice answer options. ChatGPT’s performance tended to be slightly worse (80.5%; \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 33 out of 41) without the multiple-choice answer options in comparison with its performance when the answer choices were provided for the whole group of clinical case presentations (84.8%; \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 39 out of 46). However, this difference was not statistically significant (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value = 0.13).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EThe difficulty of the questions interfered with ChatGPT’s performance in the OB\u002FGYN course, but not in the state exam questions\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EWe aimed to investigate whether the accuracy of ChatGPT’s answers depended on the difficulty level of the clinical questions. Initially, we categorized questions as \u003Ci\u003Eeasy\u003C\u002Fi\u003E or \u003Ci\u003Edifficult\u003C\u002Fi\u003E based on their rate of correct answers, which had to be either above or below the mean of correct answers achieved by the medical students across all questions in the datasets (83% for the OB\u002FGYN course dataset and 73% for the state exam dataset). We found that ChatGPT’s performance in the OB\u002FGYN course dataset did not significantly depend on the level of difficulty of the question (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value = 0.1). However, in the medical state exam dataset, ChatGPT’s performance on questions that had been defined as \u003Ci\u003Eeasy\u003C\u002Fi\u003E was significantly better (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.01) (\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Furthermore, we assigned a numerical difficulty score (ranging from 1 = “very easy” to 5 = “very difficult”) to each question in the medical state exam dataset and correlated it with ChatGPT’s performance. We observed a decline in the rate of correct answers from \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 27 (27.6%) for Level 1 difficulty to \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 1 (1.0%) for Level 5 difficulty. Correspondingly, there was a rise in the rate of incorrect answers from \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 2 (2.0%) for Level 1 difficulty to \u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 8 (8.2%) for Level 5 difficulty (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.001) (\u003Ca href=\"#tab2\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 1\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" name=\"table1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\n \u003Cpicture\u003E\n \u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=480&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 563px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=370&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1024px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=290&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1441px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=410&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fjpg\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E \u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t001.jpg\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" id=\"tab1\" loading=\"lazy\"\u003E\n \u003C\u002Fpicture\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cb\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fb\u003E. ChatGPT’s performance on questions from the OB\u002FGYN course and the state exam.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine mb15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 2\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" name=\"table2\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\n \u003Cpicture\u003E\n \u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=480&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 563px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=370&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1024px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=290&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1441px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=410&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fjpg\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E \u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t002.jpg\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" id=\"tab2\" loading=\"lazy\"\u003E\n \u003C\u002Fpicture\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cb\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fb\u003E. ChatGPT’s performance on the state exam questions.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EChatGPT answered simple knowledge and patient case questions equally well\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EFor both datasets, we separated questions into one of the following groups: general knowledge questions or clinical case studies. We tested whether the type of question (i.e., knowledge vs. clinical case) altered ChatGPT’s performance. For both the OB\u002FGyn course (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value = 0.84) and the state exam questions (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value = 0.42), we did not find significant differences between the two types of questions (\u003Ca href=\"#tab3\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 3\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" name=\"table3\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\n \u003Cpicture\u003E\n \u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=480&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 563px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=370&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1024px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=290&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1441px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=410&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fjpg\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E \u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t003.jpg\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" id=\"tab3\" loading=\"lazy\"\u003E\n \u003C\u002Fpicture\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cb\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fb\u003E. Correct and incorrect answers by ChatGPT for each type of question (general knowledge or clinical case presentation).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EChatGPT delivered high-quality answers, especially for questions that were answered correctly\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EIn our qualitative analysis of the reasons for ChatGPT’s incorrect answers in the dataset of the OB\u002FGYN course, the main reason was found to be “incorrect internal knowledge” (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 20; 76.9%), followed by “incorrect connection of internal knowledge with external information in the question” (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 4; 15.4%) and “no consideration of the external information provided in the question” (\u003Ci\u003En\u003C\u002Fi\u003E = 2; 7.7%).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EFor further qualitative analysis, three medical experts from the field of OB\u002FGYN assessed ChatGPT’s answers using a five-point Likert scale (from 1 = “completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”). The experts found a positive assessment for both correct and incorrect answers with regard to the qualities of “ease of understanding” (mean Likert scale = 4.8 for correct answers and 4.6 for incorrect answers) and “concise representation” (mean Likert scale = 4.2 for correct answers and 3.9 for incorrect answers). By contrast, the qualities of “accuracy,” “completeness,” and “relevance” were found to have been significantly better assessed (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.0001) for the correct answers compared with for the incorrect answers (\u003Ca href=\"#tab4\"\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003ETABLE 4\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" name=\"table4\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\n \u003Cpicture\u003E\n \u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=480&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 563px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=370&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1024px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=290&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1441px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=410&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fjpg\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E \u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-t004.jpg\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" id=\"tab4\" loading=\"lazy\"\u003E\n \u003C\u002Fpicture\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cb\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fb\u003E. Mean Likert scale (“1” = completely disagree; “5” = completely agree), with standard deviation (SD) for correctly and incorrectly answered questions by ChatGPT and the mean assessment by three medical experts depicted for each question.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EChatGPT provided a high density of non-obvious insights\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EAfter assessing the quality and consistency of ChatGPT, we continued to evaluate the tool’s potential capacity to enhance autonomous medical learning in the field of OB\u002FGYN. ChatGPT provided answers with a significantly larger mean word count (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.0001) of 93 words for the state exam questions compared with 63 words for the OB\u002FGYN course questions (\u003Ca href=\"#fig1\"\u003EFigure 1A\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We further analyzed the quantity of non-obvious insights provided by ChatGPT. More than 85% of both the correctly and incorrectly answered OB\u002FGYN course questions provided at least one non-obvious insight. With regard to the state exam question, however, the incorrect answers, in particular, demonstrated a decrease in the number of questions with at least one significant insight (\u003Ca href=\"#fig1\"\u003EFigure 1B\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In order to better assess non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT, we established a density index by normalizing the number of insights to the word count for each response generated by ChatGPT. Thus, we aimed to quantify ChatGPT’s ability to provide knowledge in OB\u002FGYN in a correct, concise, and relevant manner for medical education. In so doing, we noticed that the density of the insight index was significantly higher for questions that had been answered correctly compared with for those that had been answered incorrectly for both the state exam (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.0001) and the OB\u002FGYN course question (\u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-value <0.0045) (\u003Ca href=\"#fig1\"\u003EFigure 1C\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"Imageheaders\"\u003EFIGURE 1\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"FigureDesc\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" name=\"figure1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003E\n \u003Cpicture\u003E\n \u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=480&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 563px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=370&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1024px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=290&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" media=\"(max-width: 1441px)\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fwebp\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=410&f=webp\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E\u003Csource type=\"image\u002Fjpg\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" media=\"\"\u003E \u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg\" alt=\"www.frontiersin.org\" id=\"fig1\" loading=\"lazy\"\u003E\n \u003C\u002Fpicture\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cb\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fb\u003E. \u003Cb\u003E(A)\u003C\u002Fb\u003E Bar diagram depicting the mean word count, with standard deviation for ChatGPT’s answers to the state exam and OB\u002FGYN course questions. \u003Cb\u003E(B)\u003C\u002Fb\u003E Bar diagram depicting the percentage with at least a non-obvious insight for questions from the state exam and the OB\u002FGYN course, differentiated by questions answered incorrectly or correctly by ChatGPT. \u003Cb\u003E(C)\u003C\u002Fb\u003E Scatter plot depicting the “density of insights” (number of insights\u002Fword count *100) of the responses by ChatGPT for the correctly or incorrectly answered questions from the state exam or the OB\u002FGYN course. Each dot represents one answer by ChatGPT; the horizontal line represents mean. Unpaired \u003Ci\u003Et\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-test was used to calculate \u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-values. All \u003Ci\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fi\u003E-values are shown as full digits.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"DottedLine\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h5\" name=\"h5\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EDiscussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EChatGPT has gained significant attention from the public and media alike since its release in late 2022 (\u003Ca href=\"#ref13\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#ref15\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The tool surpassed 100 million users in January 2023, making it the fastest-growing consumer application to date (\u003Ca href=\"#ref16\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). ChatGPT has been recognized both for its potential to revolutionize the way in which we interact with machines and for its ability to pave the way for the transformation of entire industries, such as media, marketing, and computer science (\u003Ca href=\"#ref17\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Some have even argued that ChatGPT may represent the beginning of a new industrial age in which AI and its applications will have a similar impact on economies and societies as the Internet had at the beginning of the 1990s (\u003Ca href=\"#ref18\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The fact that this new technology could also expand to other fields – such as medical education and clinical practice – is therefore not only possible, but also rather likely (\u003Ca href=\"#ref19\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref20\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EOur study yielded novel findings that highlight the proficiency of ChatGPT to perform intricate tasks related to handling complex medical and clinical information in the field of OB\u002FGYN. ChatGPT provided consistent answers and explanations to medial problems and did not require help in finding correct solutions to medical problems in multiple-choice answer options. Remarkably, ChatGPT demonstrated comparable results with those achieved by medical students in the setting of a real exam after extensive studying and exam preparation. Indeed, referring to the usual exam passing score of 60%, ChatGPT was capable of passing both our OB\u002FGYN course examination (83.1%) and the OB\u002FGYN share of the German medical licensing examination (73.4%). It is important to note that we refrained from providing any prompts or training to the AI during the experiment, and we systematically cleared the AI session before inputting each question variant in order to avoid a chain-of-thought bias (\u003Ca href=\"#ref12\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EOur results from the OB\u002FGYN-related exams are in line with or slightly better than ChatGPT’s performance in recent publications with regard to questions from the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) (\u003Ca href=\"#ref10\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref12\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Interestingly, ChatGPT demonstrated particularly good results on questions from the OB\u002FGYN course in our study. We hypothesize that the characteristics of the exam questions were crucial for obtaining such a result. In comparison with the state exam question, the OB\u002FGYN course questions were significantly shorter (mean word count = 23 vs. 102 words), and the quality of the questions was different. The OB\u002FGYN course questions were rather direct and required generally factual knowledge (e.g., “What is NOT a risk factor for the development of ovarian cancer?”), whereas the state exam questions addressed more complex medical questions (e.g., “A 64-year-old woman presents at a gynecological practice with vaginal bleeding that has been ongoing for 14 days. The patient weighs 90 kg and is 150 cm tall. She has been suffering from type 2 diabetes mellitus for 5 years, which is being treated with antidiabetic medication. The patient reports having consistently high blood pressure but is not following an antihypertensive therapy prescription. The suspected diagnosis of an early-stage malignancy (FIGO stage IA) has been confirmed. Which of the therapeutic options listed below is indicated next?”). The questions from the state exam seem to have been more challenging for both the medical students and ChatGPT. This higher level of difficulty of the state exam questions could be explained by the fact that they require both more complex processing and the weighing of multiple pieces of clinical information as compared with the OB\u002FGYN course questions. This finding corresponds to the main reason that we identified for the incorrect answers given by ChatGPT: The primary cause was attributed to the processing of “incorrect internal knowledge,” which accounted for 76.9% of the errors, while a significantly smaller percentage (7.7%) of the errors were attributed to “not considering the external information provided in the question.” ChatGPT’s insufficiencies could have been caused by an inadequately trained model, for example, due to the underrepresentation of clinically relevant and distinctive medical knowledge. Additionally, the human factor may have contributed to this finding because insufficient or invalid human judgment during the initial reinforcement stages could have affected the model’s performance (\u003Ca href=\"#ref12\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EOur analysis underlines the positive aspects of ChatGPT and its potential “real-world” application in medical education and clinical practice. With its use of machine-learning techniques, ChatGPT demonstrated high adaptability and accuracy in resolving medical problems. By implementing this approach, ChatGPT is able to thoroughly assess the context of a query and generate tailored responses that are customized to individual users (\u003Ca href=\"#ref21\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Moreover, the introduction of a conversational interface in ChatGPT enhances its usability, and the ability to ask follow-up questions enables users to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the concepts addressed in their queries, thereby enabling the tool to do more than merely output answers. However, it is important to acknowledge that the answers provided by ChatGPT are limited to the data on which the tool was trained and rely on patterns learned from vast amounts of text data. As a consequence, ChatGPT’s responses may not always be up-to-date or entirely accurate for all scenarios (\u003Ca href=\"#ref21\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In a recent publication, Weng et al. stated that ChatGPT had failed Taiwan’s Family Medicine Board Exam (\u003Ca href=\"#ref22\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The authors hypothesized that possible factors that had contributed to these results included the challenging nature of the specialist exam in family medicine and the limited availability of comprehensive traditional Chinese-language resources for processing medical problems. Despite these challenges, the authors argued that ChatGPT had demonstrated satisfactory performance in handling negatively phrased questions, mutually exclusive questions, and case-scenario questions, thereby suggesting its potential as a valuable learning and exam-preparation tool (\u003Ca href=\"#ref22\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe results of our study indicate that ChatGPT is at the forefront of advancements in the area of machine learning tools and that it displays significant improvements and capabilities in answering medical issues because open-domain-question answering models have faced considerable challenges in solving medical problems until recently. For instance, Jin et al. achieved an accuracy rate of 36.7% on a dataset of 12,723 questions derived from Chinese medical licensing exams in 2020 (\u003Ca href=\"#ref23\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Similarly, Ha et al. reported only 29% accuracy on 454 USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 questions in 2019 (\u003Ca href=\"#ref24\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Improved results were seen in the biomedical question answering (QA) dataset collected from PubMed abstracts from 2019 (PubMedQA). This model attained an accuracy rate of 68.1% and was designed to answer only yes-or-no questions by using information sourced from the corpus of PubMed-available abstracts (\u003Ca href=\"#ref25\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Interestingly, ChatGPT outperformed PubMedGPT, a language model with a similar neural structure but that had been trained solely on biomedical literature and that had achieved an accuracy rate of only 50.3% (\u003Ca href=\"#ref26\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). As argued by Kung et al., this difference in performance may be attributed to PubMedGPT’s domain-specific training, from which it might have absorbed ambiguous information from ongoing academic discourse, thereby leading to less conclusive responses (\u003Ca href=\"#ref12\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe landscape of medical problem-solving tools is diverse, and comparing ChatGPT’s capabilities to other commercially available solutions is vital for a comprehensive understanding of its position. Traditional Medical Decision Support Systems (MDSS) like UpToDate (\u003Ca href=\"#ref27\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and ClinicalKey (\u003Ca href=\"#ref28\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which rely on curated, evidence-based content, offer structured and highly processed medical information. While these systems are renowned for their accuracy and reliability, they lack the conversational interface and adaptability of AI-driven tools like ChatGPT. On the other hand, emerging AI-driven solutions, such as IBM Watson for Health (\u003Ca href=\"#ref29\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), offer more dynamic interactions and the ability to process natural language queries, but they may still face challenges in areas like context understanding and the latest data incorporation. Unlike these systems, ChatGPT brings a unique blend of conversational ease and a vast database of information, though it may currently not match the specialized, up-to-date medical knowledge of dedicated MDSS.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EDespite its great potential, the integration of AI tools like ChatGPT in medicine necessitates careful consideration of several ethical concerns (\u003Ca href=\"#ref30\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Firstly, in medical decision-making, the risk of over-reliance on AI could compromise the essential human element in healthcare, particularly in nuanced fields like OB\u002FGYN. While AI can augment the decision-making process, it cannot replace the critical judgment and empathetic understanding inherent to medical professionals. Secondly, the accuracy and currency of data in AI systems are pivotal, especially in fast-evolving fields like medicine. AI’s reliance on historical data may lead to outdated or incomplete medical advice, underscoring the need for continual updates and human oversight. Thirdly, data privacy and security are paramount in handling sensitive medical information. AI systems must ensure robust protection against data breaches and adhere to stringent privacy regulations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe COVID-19 pandemic has shed a light on the lack of digitalization in medical education and training both in Germany and worldwide. New initiatives have focused on moving away from the conventional lecture-based teaching model and instead prioritize self-directed learning methods that cater to the individual needs that students have (\u003Ca href=\"#ref31\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Additionally, these endeavors incorporate the use of innovative (online) technologies for enhancing overall educational success (\u003Ca href=\"#ref32\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref33\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic have given rise to various experimental teaching concepts. For instance, in a sub-Saharan African setting, instant messaging platforms such as WhatsApp® have been utilized for distance teaching (\u003Ca href=\"#ref34\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Furthermore, one German university hospital introduced realistic e-learning cases within a symptom-based curriculum for internal medicine (\u003Ca href=\"#ref35\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Another approach involved the implementation of virtual “serious gaming” as an alternative to intensive small-group teaching (\u003Ca href=\"#ref36\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In spite of their innovative ideas, however, none of these concepts is likely to be implemented on a broader scale in medical education. This situation highlights an advantage that ChatGPT and similar AI-based applications have because they are freely available over the Internet, which makes them easily accessible for practical use in students’ everyday learning.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EAs an interactive learning aid, AI can provide an accessible platform for reviewing and dissecting complex clinical cases and patient scenarios that medical students might not yet encounter in their training (\u003Ca href=\"#ref37\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Simulated conversations and diagnostic exercises are another area where AI can play a pivotal role. Through these simulations, students can practice their diagnostic skills, receive immediate feedback, and learn to navigate patient interactions effectively. These simulations can also be tailored to mimic a wide range of clinical situations, from common ailments to rare diseases, providing a safe and controlled environment for students to work on their clinical reasoning and decision-making skills. Moreover, AI can be integrated into various educational formats, such as virtual classrooms, online courses, and mobile applications, offering flexibility and convenience for students. It also provides an opportunity for continuous learning outside of traditional classroom settings, making medical education more accessible and adaptable to individual learning preferences (\u003Ca href=\"#ref31\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EChatGPT shows special potential as a surrogate for small-group learning (\u003Ca href=\"#ref10\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which has been proven to be a highly effective teaching approach (\u003Ca href=\"#ref36\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref38\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Small-group learning is characterized by three distinct elements: namely active participation, clear and specific tasks, and facilitated reflection by the participants (\u003Ca href=\"#ref39\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref40\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). ChatGPT can demonstrate all three of these essential characteristics of small-group learning, thereby making it a viable alternative for small-group education. One of the significant advantages of using ChatGPT in this role is its accessibility and availability. Small-group learning can be challenging to organize due to scheduling conflicts or limited resources, but ChatGPT offers an on-demand and self-paced learning experience. Learners can interact with the AI model at their convenience, thereby enabling flexibility in their learning journey. In our own study from 2022 that investigated the learning experiences of medical students at our faculty during the COVID-19 pandemic, the aspects of time and spatial flexibility were particularly praised and valued by our students (\u003Ca href=\"#ref41\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Furthermore, ChatGPT can cater to individual learning needs. In small-group settings, the pace and content of discussions might be influenced by the dynamics of the group, thereby leaving some students with unaddressed questions or uncertainties (\u003Ca href=\"#ref42\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). ChatGPT, on the other hand, can provide personalized responses to individual queries, thus ensuring that each student’s specific knowledge gaps are filled. Another advantage of ChatGPT lies in its potential for a more inclusive learning environment. In some small-group settings, students might feel hesitant to participate actively due to various factors, such as shyness or language barriers. As an AI interface, ChatGPT eliminates such barriers and provides a non-judgmental and non-intimidating platform with which learners can engage and ask questions freely. However, it is also important to acknowledge the limitations of ChatGPT as a surrogate for small-group learning. Indeed, ChatGPT lacks the interactivity and dynamic discussions of small-group settings. Learning in small groups allows for collaborative problem-solving, peer-to-peer feedback, and the exchange of diverse perspectives. These interactive elements foster critical thinking and deeper understanding, which ChatGPT cannot fully replicate. There is also a potential risk of undermining critical thinking and problem-solving skills among students. The ease of accessing information from AI could lead to a dependency that detracts from deeper engagement and intellectual development. Balancing these aspects is crucial for the responsible and effective use of AI in these critical sectors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe fact that the application of AI will extend beyond academic support to direct patient care and clinical decision-making is obvious. As an advanced AI-driven tool, it can assist healthcare providers by offering quick access to medical information, suggesting potential diagnoses, and providing drug information, thereby acting as a supportive tool for decision-making (\u003Ca href=\"#ref30\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In patient interactions, ChatGPT could be employed for patient education, explaining medical conditions and treatments in easily understandable language, and for gathering preliminary patient histories, thus streamlining the pre-consultation process. In the near future, we can envision AI systems aiding in diagnostic processes by analyzing patient data, symptoms, and medical histories, thereby providing clinicians with potential diagnoses or highlighting overlooked aspects of a patient’s condition. This has been thoroughly discussed in transformative fields like radiology and pathology, where AI’s image recognition capabilities can augment human expertise (\u003Ca href=\"#ref43\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref44\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Moreover, AI can play a crucial role in personalized medicine. By analyzing large datasets, including genetic information, AI can help tailor treatments to individual patients, enhancing the efficacy and reducing the side effects of therapies (\u003Ca href=\"#ref45\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In patient management, AI tools can assist in monitoring chronic conditions, alerting healthcare providers to changes in a patient’s status, and suggesting adjustments to treatment plans (\u003Ca href=\"#ref46\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Furthermore, ChatGPT could be integrated into electronic health records (EHRs) systems, assisting with documentation tasks, reducing administrative burdens, and allowing clinicians more time for patient care (\u003Ca href=\"#ref47\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). However, it is crucial that these applications are monitored and guided by healthcare professionals to ensure accuracy and ethical use, particularly in dealing with sensitive patient data and making clinical decisions. The integration of ChatGPT into medicine and clinical care promises not only to enhance efficiency but also to improve the quality of patient education and engagement, ultimately contributing to better healthcare outcomes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003ELimitations\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe present study on ChatGPT’s performance in clinical problems entailed several potential limitations that should be considered in the context of medical education and clinical practice. The limited dataset size is a first point of concern. Our reliance on a dataset of OB\u002FGYN course questions and state exams may not have adequately captured the vast range of medical knowledge and question types that are encountered in real-world scenarios. Therefore, the use of a more extensive and diverse dataset would have provided a more comprehensive evaluation of ChatGPT’s abilities. Moreover, the fact that the study focused solely on course questions and state exams in the field of OB\u002FGYN may call into question the generalizability of our data. Each medical specialty has its unique complexities, terminologies, and practice nuances, which may not be uniformly comprehensible or addressable by a generalized AI tool like ChatGPT. For instance, the diagnostic reasoning in psychiatry, in surgical fields, or in emergency medicine present different challenges that may not be fully captured in the OB\u002FGYN examination context. However, recent research in medical education and the potential application of ChatGPT in diverse educational and clinical settings has shown that ChatGPT shows general applicability and could serve as a valuable tool for medical educators, students, and clinicians alike (\u003Ca href=\"#ref6\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#ref48\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#ref51\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In fact, a fundamental advantage of AI is its high flexibility, allowing it to be applied effectively in various settings without diminishing its impact.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb15\"\u003EThe study’s results regarding the impact of question difficulty on ChatGPT’s performance may also raise concerns. While ChatGPT demonstrated consistent performance in the OB\u002FGYN course dataset, its effectiveness was influenced by the complexity of the questions in the state exam. This finding raises doubts about ChatGPT’s adaptability to varying levels of difficulty and emphasizes the need both for further fine-tuning and for incorporating data that could enhance the tool’s performance across all contexts. Another potential limitation is the inability of ChatGPT to process images. In medical education, visual information – such as radiological images and anatomical diagrams – plays a vital role. The fact that ChatGPT struggles with image processing currently restricts its applicability in real-world medical scenarios in which such visual content is very commonly encountered. However, the tool’s newest version – ChatGPT-4 – addresses this shortcoming by implementing image-analysis features that are able to identify objects in photos (\u003Ca href=\"#ref52\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This innovation may indeed only mark the beginning of further advancements in this area.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EAll of these limitations are, however, temporary. In the next decade, ChatGPT is expected to undergo transformative advancements, primarily driven by breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. We can anticipate a more nuanced understanding of language and context, including better handling of cultural nuances and idioms, achieved through sophisticated algorithms and diverse, expansive training datasets. Enhanced contextual awareness will make interactions more coherent over longer conversations, while personalization features will tailor responses to individual user preferences and histories. Multimodal capabilities will likely be integrated, allowing ChatGPT to process and respond to text, voice, and visual inputs. Real-time learning from interactions will continuously update its knowledge base, and efforts have to be made to ensure ethical use and bias mitigation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h6\" name=\"h6\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EConclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EOur data provide valuable insights into ChatGPT’s role in medical education and clinical practice, particularly in the field of OB\u002FGYN. The findings suggest that ChatGPT demonstrates promising potential as a supplementary tool for medical students and healthcare professionals alike. ChatGPT’s ability to provide accurate and insightful responses to medical questions showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. The study’s insights into ChatGPT’s capabilities within OB\u002FGYN are particularly significant, hinting at broader implications for its application across various medical settings. As AI technology continues to advance, it is necessary to continue evaluating and refining tools like ChatGPT to ensure they meet the evolving needs of medical education and practice, while also addressing ethical considerations and maintaining the highest standards of patient care.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h7\" name=\"h7\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EData availability statement\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h8\" name=\"h8\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EEthics statement\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe present study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (2008 version). Since the data stem from anonymously analyzed exam questions, no further consultation or approval by the ethics committee was required, as is outlined in the online guidelines by the Joint Ethics Committee of the Universities of Bavaria (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.gehba.de\u002Ffileadmin\u002Fdaten\u002FGehba\u002FGEHBa-FAQ_2.1.pdf\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.gehba.de\u002Ffileadmin\u002Fdaten\u002FGehba\u002FGEHBa-FAQ_2.1.pdf\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h9\" name=\"h9\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EAuthor contributions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EMR: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Project administration. KK: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AS: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. VR: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. NA: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AG: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. FlR: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. EK: Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. MK: Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. FaR: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. BM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – original draft.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h10\" name=\"h10\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EFunding\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and\u002For publication of this article.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h11\" name=\"h11\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EConflict of interest\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EThe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h12\" name=\"h12\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EPublisher’s note\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"mb0\"\u003EAll claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca id=\"h13\" name=\"h13\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003Ch2\u003EReferences\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref1\" id=\"ref1\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E1. OpenAI\n. (2023). OpenAI ChatGPT: Optimizing language models for dialogue. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fopenai.com\u002Fblog\u002Fchatgpt\u002F\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fopenai.com\u002Fblog\u002Fchatgpt\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref2\" id=\"ref2\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E2. Brown, TB\n, Mann, B\n, Ryder, N\n, Subbiah, M\n, Kaplan, J\n, Dhariwal, P, et al. (2020). Language models are few-shot learners. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2005.14165\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2005.14165\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=TB+Brown&author=B+Mann&author=N+Ryder&author=M+Subbiah&author=J+Kaplan&author=P+Dhariwal&publication_year=2020&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref3\" id=\"ref3\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E3. Tamkin, A\n, Brundage, M\n, Clark, J\n, and Ganguli, D\n. (2021). Understanding the capabilities, limitations, and societal impact of large language models. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2102.02503\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2102.02503\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Tamkin&author=M+Brundage&author=J+Clark&author=D+Ganguli&publication_year=2021&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref4\" id=\"ref4\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E4. Dai, Z\n, Yang, Z\n, Yang, Y\n, Carbonell, J\n, Le, QV\n, and Salakhutdinov, R (2019). Transformer-XL: Attentive language models beyond a fixed-length context. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1901.02860\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1901.02860\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=Z+Dai&author=Z+Yang&author=Y+Yang&author=J+Carbonell&author=QV+Le&author=R+Salakhutdinov&publication_year=2019&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref5\" id=\"ref5\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E5. Keskar, NS\n, Mc Cann, B\n, Varshney, LR\n, Xiong, C\n, and Socher, R\n. (2019). CTRL: A conditional transformer language model for controllable generation. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1909.05858\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1909.05858\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=NS+Keskar&author=B+Mc+Cann&author=LR+Varshney&author=C+Xiong&author=R+Socher&publication_year=2019&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref6\" id=\"ref6\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E6. Ge, J\n, and Lai, JC\n. Artificial intelligence-based text generators in hepatology: ChatGPT is just the beginning. \u003Ci\u003EHepatol Commun\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 7:e0097. doi: 10.1097\u002FHC9.0000000000000097\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1097\u002FHC9.0000000000000097\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=J+Ge&author=JC+Lai&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence-based+text+generators+in+hepatology:+ChatGPT+is+just+the+beginning&journal=Hepatol+Commun&volume=7&pages=e0097\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref7\" id=\"ref7\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E7. Eysenbach, G\n. The role of ChatGPT, generative language models, and artificial intelligence in medical education: a conversation with ChatGPT and a call for papers. \u003Ci\u003EJMIR Med Educ\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 9:e46885. doi: 10.2196\u002F46885 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36863937\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2196\u002F46885\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=G+Eysenbach&publication_year=2023&title=The+role+of+ChatGPT+generative+language+models+and+artificial+intelligence+in+medical+education:+a+conversation+with+ChatGPT+and+a+call+for+papers&journal=JMIR+Med+Educ&volume=9&pages=e46885\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref8\" id=\"ref8\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E8. Sallam, M\n. ChatGPT utility in healthcare education, research, and practice: systematic review on the promising perspectives and valid concerns. \u003Ci\u003EHealthcare (Basel)\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 11:887. doi: 10.3390\u002Fhealthcare11060887 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36981544\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3390\u002Fhealthcare11060887\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=M+Sallam&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+utility+in+healthcare+education+research+and+practice:+systematic+review+on+the+promising+perspectives+and+valid+concerns&journal=Healthcare+(Basel)&volume=11&pages=887\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref9\" id=\"ref9\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E9. AMBOSS\n. (2020). Medical knowledge distilled. AMBOSS. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.amboss.com\u002Fus\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.amboss.com\u002Fus\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2020&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref10\" id=\"ref10\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E10. Gilson, A\n, Safranek, CW\n, Huang, T\n, Socrates, V\n, Chi, L\n, Taylor, RA, et al. How does ChatGPT perform on the United States medical licensing examination? The implications of large language models for medical education and knowledge assessment. \u003Ci\u003EJMIR Med Educ\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 9:e45312. doi: 10.2196\u002F45312 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36753318\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2196\u002F45312\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Gilson&author=CW+Safranek&author=T+Huang&author=V+Socrates&author=L+Chi&author=RA+Taylor&publication_year=2023&title=How+does+ChatGPT+perform+on+the+United+States+medical+licensing+examination?+The+implications+of+large+language+models+for+medical+education+and+knowledge+assessment&journal=JMIR+Med+Educ&volume=9&pages=e45312\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref11\" id=\"ref11\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E11. Wang, R\n, and Strong, D\n. \u003Ci\u003EBeyond accuracy: What data quality means to data consumers\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc (1996).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=R+Wang&author=D+Strong&publication_year=1996&journal=Beyond+accuracy:+What+data+quality+means+to+data+consumers&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref12\" id=\"ref12\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E12. Kung, TH\n, Cheatham, M\n, Medenilla, A\n, Sillos, C\n, De Leon, L\n, Elepaño, C, et al. Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: potential for AI-assisted medical education using large language models. \u003Ci\u003EPLOS Digit Health\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 2:e0000198. doi: 10.1371\u002Fjournal.pdig.0000198\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pdig.0000198\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=TH+Kung&author=M+Cheatham&author=A+Medenilla&author=C+Sillos&author=L+De+Leon&author=C+Elepaño&publication_year=2023&title=Performance+of+ChatGPT+on+USMLE:+potential+for+AI-assisted+medical+education+using+large+language+models&journal=PLOS+Digit+Health&volume=2&pages=e0000198\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref13\" id=\"ref13\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E13. The Economist\n. (2022). How good is ChatGPT? Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.economist.com\u002Fbusiness\u002F2022\u002F12\u002F08\u002Fhow-good-is-chatgpt\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.economist.com\u002Fbusiness\u002F2022\u002F12\u002F08\u002Fhow-good-is-chatgpt\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref14\" id=\"ref14\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E14. Süddeutsche Zeitung\n. (2022). Die gefühlte Revolution. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sueddeutsche.de\u002Fkultur\u002Fchatgpt-kuenstliche-intelligenz-1.5708877\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.sueddeutsche.de\u002Fkultur\u002Fchatgpt-kuenstliche-intelligenz-1.5708877\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref15\" id=\"ref15\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E15. Wang, LKP\n, Paidisetty, PS\n, and Cano, AM\n. The next paradigm shift? ChatGPT, artificial intelligence, and medical education. \u003Ci\u003EMed Teach\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 1:1. doi: 10.1080\u002F0142159X.2023.2256961\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1080\u002F0142159X.2023.2256961\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=LKP+Wang&author=PS+Paidisetty&author=AM+Cano&publication_year=2023&title=The+next+paradigm+shift?+ChatGPT+artificial+intelligence+and+medical+education&journal=Med+Teach&volume=1&pages=1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref16\" id=\"ref16\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E16. Reuters\n. (2023). ChatGPT sets record for fastest-growing user base – analyst note. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.reuters.com\u002Ftechnology\u002Fchatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01\u002F\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.reuters.com\u002Ftechnology\u002Fchatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref17\" id=\"ref17\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E17. PECB Insights\n. (2023). The rise of ChatGPT: Paving the way for large language model adoption. Available from: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Finsights.pecb.com\u002Frise-chatgpt-paving-way-large-language-model-adoption\u002F\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Finsights.pecb.com\u002Frise-chatgpt-paving-way-large-language-model-adoption\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref18\" id=\"ref18\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E18. Cognizant\n. (2023). ChatGPT and the generative AI revolution. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cognizant.com\u002Fus\u002Fen\u002Finsights\u002Fperspectives\u002Fchatgpt-and-the-generative-ai-revolution-wf1532750\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cognizant.com\u002Fus\u002Fen\u002Finsights\u002Fperspectives\u002Fchatgpt-and-the-generative-ai-revolution-wf1532750\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref19\" id=\"ref19\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E19. Biswas, S\n. ChatGPT and the future of medical writing. \u003Ci\u003ERadiology\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 307:e223312. doi: 10.1148\u002Fradiol.223312 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36728748\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1148\u002Fradiol.223312\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=S+Biswas&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+and+the+future+of+medical+writing&journal=Radiology&volume=307&pages=e223312\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref20\" id=\"ref20\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E20. Khan, RA\n, Jawaid, M\n, Khan, AR\n, and Sajjad, M\n. ChatGPT – reshaping medical education and clinical management. \u003Ci\u003EPak J Med Sci\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 39:605–7. doi: 10.12669\u002Fpjms.39.2.7653 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36950398\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.12669\u002Fpjms.39.2.7653\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=RA+Khan&author=M+Jawaid&author=AR+Khan&author=M+Sajjad&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+–+reshaping+medical+education+and+clinical+management&journal=Pak+J+Med+Sci&volume=39&pages=605-7\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref21\" id=\"ref21\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E21. Temsah, O\n, Khan, SA\n, Chaiah, Y\n, Senjab, A\n, Alhasan, K\n, Jamal, A, et al. Overview of early ChatGPT’s presence in medical literature: insights from a hybrid literature review by ChatGPT and human experts. \u003Ci\u003ECureus\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 15:e37281. doi: 10.7759\u002Fcureus.37281 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37038381\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.7759\u002Fcureus.37281\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=O+Temsah&author=SA+Khan&author=Y+Chaiah&author=A+Senjab&author=K+Alhasan&author=A+Jamal&publication_year=2023&title=Overview+of+early+ChatGPT’s+presence+in+medical+literature:+insights+from+a+hybrid+literature+review+by+ChatGPT+and+human+experts&journal=Cureus&volume=15&pages=e37281\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref22\" id=\"ref22\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E22. Weng, TL\n, Wang, YM\n, Chang, S\n, Chen, TJ\n, and Hwang, SJ\n. ChatGPT failed Taiwan’s family medicine board exam. \u003Ci\u003EJ Chin Med Assoc\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 86:865. doi: 10.1097\u002FJCMA.0000000000000956 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37418340\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1097\u002FJCMA.0000000000000956\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=TL+Weng&author=YM+Wang&author=S+Chang&author=TJ+Chen&author=SJ+Hwang&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+failed+Taiwan’s+family+medicine+board+exam&journal=J+Chin+Med+Assoc&volume=86&pages=865\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref23\" id=\"ref23\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E23. Jin, D\n, Pan, E\n, Oufattole, N\n, Weng, WH\n, Fang, H\n, and Szolovits, P\n. (2020). What disease does this patient have? A large-scale open domain question answering dataset from medical exams. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2009.13081\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2009.13081\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=D+Jin&author=E+Pan&author=N+Oufattole&author=WH+Weng&author=H+Fang&author=P+Szolovits&publication_year=2020&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref24\" id=\"ref24\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E24. Le, AH\n, and Victoria, Y\n. “Automatic Question Answering for Medical MCQs: Can It go Further than Information Retrieval?,”in \u003Ci\u003EProceedings of the International Conference on Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP 2019)\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (Varna, Bulgaria: INCOMA Ltd) (2019) 418–22.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=AH+Le&author=Y+Victoria&publication_year=2019&title=Automatic+Question+Answering+for+Medical+MCQs:+Can+It+go+Further+than+Information+Retrieval?&journal=Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Recent+Advances+in+Natural+Language+Processing+(RANLP+2019)&pages=418-22\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref25\" id=\"ref25\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E25. Jin, Q\n, Dhingra, B\n, Liu, Z\n, Cohen, WW\n, and Lu, X\n. (2019). PubMedQA: A dataset for biomedical research question answering. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1909.06146\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F1909.06146\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=Q+Jin&author=B+Dhingra&author=Z+Liu&author=WW+Cohen&author=X+Lu&publication_year=2019&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref26\" id=\"ref26\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E26. Stanford CRFM\n. (2022). Introduces PubMedGPT 2.7B. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fhai.stanford.edu\u002Fnews\u002Fstanford-crfm-introduces-pubmedgpt-27b\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fhai.stanford.edu\u002Fnews\u002Fstanford-crfm-introduces-pubmedgpt-27b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2022&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref27\" id=\"ref27\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E27. UpToDate\n. (2023) Surgeon viewing UpToDate on tablet UpToDate: Interaktive Unterstützung klinischer Entscheidungen. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.wolterskluwer.com\u002Fde-de\u002Fsolutions\u002Fuptodate\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.wolterskluwer.com\u002Fde-de\u002Fsolutions\u002Fuptodate\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref28\" id=\"ref28\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E28. ClinicalKey\n. (2023) Diagnose and treat your patients with confidence. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.clinicalkey.com\u002F#!\u002F\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.clinicalkey.com\u002F#!\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref29\" id=\"ref29\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E29. IBM Watson\n. (2023) Conversational AI for fast and friendly customer care. Available at: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ibm.com\u002Fproducts\u002Fwatsonx-assistant\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.ibm.com\u002Fproducts\u002Fwatsonx-assistant\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (Accessed September 17, 2023).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?publication_year=2023&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref30\" id=\"ref30\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E30. Dave, T\n, Athaluri, SA\n, and Singh, S\n. ChatGPT in medicine: an overview of its applications, advantages, limitations, future prospects, and ethical considerations. \u003Ci\u003EFront Artif Intell\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 6:1169595. doi: 10.3389\u002Ffrai.2023.1169595 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37215063\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3389\u002Ffrai.2023.1169595\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=T+Dave&author=SA+Athaluri&author=S+Singh&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+in+medicine:+an+overview+of+its+applications+advantages+limitations+future+prospects+and+ethical+considerations&journal=Front+Artif+Intell&volume=6&pages=1169595\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref31\" id=\"ref31\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E31. Riedel, M\n, Amann, N\n, Recker, F\n, Hennigs, A\n, Heublein, S\n, Meyer, B, et al. The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on medical teaching in obstetrics and gynecology-a nationwide expert survey among teaching coordinators at German university hospitals. \u003Ci\u003EPLoS One\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2022) 17:e0269562. doi: 10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0269562 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F35930549\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0269562\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=M+Riedel&author=N+Amann&author=F+Recker&author=A+Hennigs&author=S+Heublein&author=B+Meyer&publication_year=2022&title=The+COVID-19+pandemic+and+its+impact+on+medical+teaching+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology-a+nationwide+expert+survey+among+teaching+coordinators+at+German+university+hospitals&journal=PLoS+One&volume=17&pages=e0269562\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref32\" id=\"ref32\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E32. Skochelak, SE\n, and Stack, SJ\n. Creating the medical schools of the future. \u003Ci\u003EAcad Med\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2017) 92:16–9. doi: 10.1097\u002FACM.0000000000001160\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1097\u002FACM.0000000000001160\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=SE+Skochelak&author=SJ+Stack&publication_year=2017&title=Creating+the+medical+schools+of+the+future&journal=Acad+Med&volume=92&pages=16-9\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref33\" id=\"ref33\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E33. Irby, DM\n, Cooke, M\n, and O’Brien, BC\n. Calls for reform of medical education by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: 1910 and 2010. \u003Ci\u003EAcad Med\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2010) 85:220–7. doi: 10.1097\u002FACM.0b013e3181c88449 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F20107346\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1097\u002FACM.0b013e3181c88449\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=DM+Irby&author=M+Cooke&author=BC+O’Brien&publication_year=2010&title=Calls+for+reform+of+medical+education+by+the+Carnegie+Foundation+for+the+Advancement+of+Teaching:+1910+and+2010&journal=Acad+Med&volume=85&pages=220-7\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref34\" id=\"ref34\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E34. Enyama, D\n, Balti, EV\n, Simeni Njonnou, SR\n, Ngongang Ouankou, C\n, Kemta Lekpa, F\n, Noukeu Njinkui, D, et al. Use of WhatsApp®, for distance teaching during COVID-19 pandemic: experience and perception from a sub-Saharan African setting. \u003Ci\u003EBMC Med Educ\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2021) 21:517. doi: 10.1186\u002Fs12909-021-02953-9 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F34598681\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1186\u002Fs12909-021-02953-9\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=D+Enyama&author=EV+Balti&author=SR+Simeni+Njonnou&author=C+Ngongang+Ouankou&author=F+Kemta+Lekpa&author=D+Noukeu+Njinkui&publication_year=2021&title=Use+of+WhatsApp®+for+distance+teaching+during+COVID-19+pandemic:+experience+and+perception+from+a+sub-Saharan+African+setting&journal=BMC+Med+Educ&volume=21&pages=517\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref35\" id=\"ref35\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E35. Rahm, AK\n, Töllner, M\n, Hubert, MO\n, Klein, K\n, Wehling, C\n, Sauer, T, et al. Effects of realistic e-learning cases on students’ learning motivation during COVID-19. \u003Ci\u003EPLoS One\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2021) 16:e0249425. doi: 10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0249425 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F33882079\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0249425\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=AK+Rahm&author=M+Töllner&author=MO+Hubert&author=K+Klein&author=C+Wehling&author=T+Sauer&publication_year=2021&title=Effects+of+realistic+e-learning+cases+on+students’+learning+motivation+during+COVID-19&journal=PLoS+One&volume=16&pages=e0249425\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref36\" id=\"ref36\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E36. Middeke, A\n, Anders, S\n, Schuelper, M\n, Raupach, T\n, and Schuelper, N\n. Training of clinical reasoning with a serious game versus small-group problem-based learning: a prospective study. \u003Ci\u003EPLoS One\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2018) 13:e0203851. doi: 10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0203851\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0203851\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Middeke&author=S+Anders&author=M+Schuelper&author=T+Raupach&author=N+Schuelper&publication_year=2018&title=Training+of+clinical+reasoning+with+a+serious+game+versus+small-group+problem-based+learning:+a+prospective+study&journal=PLoS+One&volume=13&pages=e0203851\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref37\" id=\"ref37\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E37. Lee, H\n. The rise of ChatGPT: exploring its potential in medical education. \u003Ci\u003EAnat Sci Educ\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023). doi: 10.1002\u002Fase.2270\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1002\u002Fase.2270\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=H+Lee&publication_year=2023&title=The+rise+of+ChatGPT:+exploring+its+potential+in+medical+education&journal=Anat+Sci+Educ&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref38\" id=\"ref38\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E38. Springer, L\n, Stanne, ME\n, and Donovan, SS\n. Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: a meta-analysis. \u003Ci\u003ERev Educ Res\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (1999) 69:21–51. doi: 10.3102\u002F00346543069001021\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3102\u002F00346543069001021\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=L+Springer&author=ME+Stanne&author=SS+Donovan&publication_year=1999&title=Effects+of+small-group+learning+on+undergraduates+in+science+mathematics+engineering+and+technology:+a+meta-analysis&journal=Rev+Educ+Res&volume=69&pages=21-51\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref39\" id=\"ref39\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E39. Robinson, L\n. Small groups, big possibilities: radical pedagogical approaches to critical small-group learning in medical education. \u003Ci\u003ECan Med Educ J\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 14:178–9. doi: 10.36834\u002Fcmej.76464 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37304643\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.36834\u002Fcmej.76464\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=L+Robinson&publication_year=2023&title=Small+groups+big+possibilities:+radical+pedagogical+approaches+to+critical+small-group+learning+in+medical+education&journal=Can+Med+Educ+J&volume=14&pages=178-9\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref40\" id=\"ref40\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E40. Jones, RW\n. Learning and teaching in small groups: characteristics, benefits, problems and approaches. \u003Ci\u003EAnaesth Intensive Care\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2007) 35:587–92. doi: 10.1177\u002F0310057X0703500420 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F18020080\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1177\u002F0310057X0703500420\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=RW+Jones&publication_year=2007&title=Learning+and+teaching+in+small+groups:+characteristics+benefits+problems+and+approaches&journal=Anaesth+Intensive+Care&volume=35&pages=587-92\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref41\" id=\"ref41\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E41. Riedel, M\n, Eisenkolb, G\n, Amann, N\n, Karge, A\n, Meyer, B\n, Tensil, M, et al. Experiences with alternative online lectures in medical education in obstetrics and gynecology during the COVID-19 pandemic-possible efficient and student-orientated models for the future? \u003Ci\u003EArch Gynecol Obstet\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2021) 305:1041–53. doi: 10.1007\u002Fs00404-021-06356-5\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs00404-021-06356-5\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=M+Riedel&author=G+Eisenkolb&author=N+Amann&author=A+Karge&author=B+Meyer&author=M+Tensil&publication_year=2021&title=Experiences+with+alternative+online+lectures+in+medical+education+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology+during+the+COVID-19+pandemic-possible+efficient+and+student-orientated+models+for+the+future?&journal=Arch+Gynecol+Obstet&volume=305&pages=1041-53\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref42\" id=\"ref42\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E42. Burgess, A\n, van Diggele, C\n, Roberts, C\n, and Mellis, C\n. Facilitating small group learning in the health professions. \u003Ci\u003EBMC Med Educ\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2020) 20:457. doi: 10.1186\u002Fs12909-020-02282-3 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F33272270\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1186\u002Fs12909-020-02282-3\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Burgess&author=C+van+Diggele&author=C+Roberts&author=C+Mellis&publication_year=2020&title=Facilitating+small+group+learning+in+the+health+professions&journal=BMC+Med+Educ&volume=20&pages=457\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref43\" id=\"ref43\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E43. Lecler, A\n, Duron, L\n, and Soyer, P\n. Revolutionizing radiology with GPT-based models: current applications, future possibilities and limitations of ChatGPT. \u003Ci\u003EDiagn Interv Imaging\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 104:269–74. doi: 10.1016\u002Fj.diii.2023.02.003 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36858933\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.diii.2023.02.003\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Lecler&author=L+Duron&author=P+Soyer&publication_year=2023&title=Revolutionizing+radiology+with+GPT-based+models:+current+applications+future+possibilities+and+limitations+of+ChatGPT&journal=Diagn+Interv+Imaging&volume=104&pages=269-74\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref44\" id=\"ref44\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E44. Schukow, C\n, Smith, SC\n, Landgrebe, E\n, Parasuraman, S\n, Folaranmi, OO\n, Paner, GP, et al. Application of ChatGPT in routine diagnostic pathology: promises, pitfalls, and potential future directions. \u003Ci\u003EAdv Anat Pathol\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023). doi: 10.1097\u002FPAP.0000000000000406 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37501529\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1097\u002FPAP.0000000000000406\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=C+Schukow&author=SC+Smith&author=E+Landgrebe&author=S+Parasuraman&author=OO+Folaranmi&author=GP+Paner&publication_year=2023&title=Application+of+ChatGPT+in+routine+diagnostic+pathology:+promises+pitfalls+and+potential+future+directions&journal=Adv+Anat+Pathol&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref45\" id=\"ref45\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E45. Lacalamita, A\n, Serino, G\n, Pantaleo, E\n, Monaco, A\n, Amoroso, N\n, Bellantuono, L, et al. Artificial intelligence and complex network approaches reveal potential gene biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma. \u003Ci\u003EInt J Mol Sci\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 24:15286. doi: 10.3390\u002Fijms242015286 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37894965\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3390\u002Fijms242015286\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Lacalamita&author=G+Serino&author=E+Pantaleo&author=A+Monaco&author=N+Amoroso&author=L+Bellantuono&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence+and+complex+network+approaches+reveal+potential+gene+biomarkers+for+hepatocellular+carcinoma&journal=Int+J+Mol+Sci&volume=24&pages=15286\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref46\" id=\"ref46\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E46. Grünebaum, A\n, Chervenak, J\n, Pollet, SL\n, Katz, A\n, and Chervenak, FA\n. The exciting potential for ChatGPT in obstetrics and gynecology. \u003Ci\u003EAm J Obstet Gynecol\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 228:696–705. doi: 10.1016\u002Fj.ajog.2023.03.009\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.ajog.2023.03.009\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=A+Grünebaum&author=J+Chervenak&author=SL+Pollet&author=A+Katz&author=FA+Chervenak&publication_year=2023&title=The+exciting+potential+for+ChatGPT+in+obstetrics+and+gynecology&journal=Am+J+Obstet+Gynecol&volume=228&pages=696-705\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref47\" id=\"ref47\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E47. Yang, X\n, Chen, A\n, PourNejatian, N\n, Shin, HC\n, Smith, KE\n, Parisien, C, et al. A large language model for electronic health records. \u003Ci\u003ENPJ Digit Med\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2022) 5:194. doi: 10.1038\u002Fs41746-022-00742-2 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F36572766\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fs41746-022-00742-2\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=X+Yang&author=A+Chen&author=N+PourNejatian&author=HC+Shin&author=KE+Smith&author=C+Parisien&publication_year=2022&title=A+large+language+model+for+electronic+health+records&journal=NPJ+Digit+Med&volume=5&pages=194\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref48\" id=\"ref48\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E48. Huh, S\n. Are ChatGPT’s knowledge and interpretation ability comparable to those of medical students in Korea for taking a parasitology examination?: a descriptive study. \u003Ci\u003EJ Educ Eval Health Prof\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 20:1. doi: 10.3352\u002Fjeehp.2023.20.1\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3352\u002Fjeehp.2023.20.1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=S+Huh&publication_year=2023&title=Are+ChatGPT’s+knowledge+and+interpretation+ability+comparable+to+those+of+medical+students+in+Korea+for+taking+a+parasitology+examination?:+a+descriptive+study&journal=J+Educ+Eval+Health+Prof&volume=20&pages=1\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref49\" id=\"ref49\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E49. Huang, H\n, Zheng, O\n, Wang, D\n, Yin, J\n, Wang, Z\n, Ding, S, et al. ChatGPT for shaping the future of dentistry: the potential of multi-modal large language model. \u003Ci\u003EInt J Oral Sci\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 15:29. doi: 10.1038\u002Fs41368-023-00239-y \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37507396\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fs41368-023-00239-y\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=H+Huang&author=O+Zheng&author=D+Wang&author=J+Yin&author=Z+Wang&author=S+Ding&publication_year=2023&title=ChatGPT+for+shaping+the+future+of+dentistry:+the+potential+of+multi-modal+large+language+model&journal=Int+J+Oral+Sci&volume=15&pages=29\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref50\" id=\"ref50\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E50. Beam, K\n, Sharma, P\n, Kumar, B\n, Wang, C\n, Brodsky, D\n, Martin, CR, et al. Performance of a large language model on practice questions for the neonatal board examination. \u003Ci\u003EJAMA Pediatr\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 177:e232373. doi: 10.1001\u002Fjamapediatrics.2023.2373\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1001\u002Fjamapediatrics.2023.2373\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=K+Beam&author=P+Sharma&author=B+Kumar&author=C+Wang&author=D+Brodsky&author=CR+Martin&publication_year=2023&title=Performance+of+a+large+language+model+on+practice+questions+for+the+neonatal+board+examination&journal=JAMA+Pediatr&volume=177&pages=e232373\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref51\" id=\"ref51\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E51. Moshirfar, M\n, Altaf, AW\n, Stoakes, IM\n, Tuttle, JJ\n, and Hoopes, PC\n. Artificial intelligence in ophthalmology: a comparative analysis of GPT-3.5, GPT-4, and human expertise in answering StatPearls questions. \u003Ci\u003ECureus\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023) 15:e40822. doi: 10.7759\u002Fcureus.40822 \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002F37485215\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EPubMed Abstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.7759\u002Fcureus.40822\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=M+Moshirfar&author=AW+Altaf&author=IM+Stoakes&author=JJ+Tuttle&author=PC+Hoopes&publication_year=2023&title=Artificial+intelligence+in+ophthalmology:+a+comparative+analysis+of+GPT-3.5+GPT-4+and+human+expertise+in+answering+StatPearls+questions&journal=Cureus&volume=15&pages=e40822\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"References\" style=\"margin-bottom:0.5em;\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy1\"\u003E\u003Ca name=\"ref52\" id=\"ref52\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E52. Waisberg, E\n, Ong, J\n, Masalkhi, M\n, Kamran, SA\n, Zaman, N\n, Sarker, P, et al. GPT-4: a new era of artificial intelligence in medicine. \u003Ci\u003EIr J Med Sci\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. (2023). doi: 10.1007\u002Fs11845-023-03377-8\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"ReferencesCopy2\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11845-023-03377-8\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECrossRef Full Text\u003C\u002Fa\u003E | \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?author=E+Waisberg&author=J+Ong&author=M+Masalkhi&author=SA+Kamran&author=N+Zaman&author=P+Sarker&publication_year=2023&title=GPT-4:+a+new+era+of+artificial+intelligence+in+medicine&journal=Ir+J+Med+Sci&\" target=\"_blank\"\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"thinLineM20\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"AbstractSummary\"\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EKeywords:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, medical education, machine learning, obstetrics and gynecology, students\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECitation:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Riedel M, Kaefinger K, Stuehrenberg A, Ritter V, Amann N, Graf A, Recker F, Klein E, Kiechle M, Riedel F and Meyer B (2023) ChatGPT’s performance in German OB\u002FGYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice. \u003Ci\u003EFront. Med\u003C\u002Fi\u003E. 10:1296615. doi: 10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"timestamps\"\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EReceived:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 18 September 2023; \u003Cspan\u003EAccepted:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 27 November 2023;\u003Cbr\u003E \u003Cspan\u003EPublished:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E 13 December 2023.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Cdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EEdited by:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F1218371\u002Foverview\"\u003EOmneya Attallah\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), Egypt\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003Cdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EReviewed by:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F416383\u002Foverview\"\u003EAnna Siri\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, University of Genoa, Italy\u003Cbr\u003E \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fpeople\u002F1775656\u002Foverview\"\u003EHosna Salmani\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Iran\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECopyright\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E © 2023 Riedel, Kaefinger, Stuehrenberg, Ritter, Amann, Graf, Recker, Klein, Kiechle, Riedel and Meyer. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the \u003Ca rel=\"license\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ECreative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E*Correspondence:\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Maximilian Riedel, \u003Ca id=\"encmail\"\u003EbWF4aW1pbGlhbi5yaWVkZWxAbXJpLnR1bS5kZQ==\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E \u003Cdiv class=\"clear\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E \u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",menuHtml:"\u003Cul class=\"flyoutJournal\"\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h1\"\u003EAbstract\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h2\"\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h3\"\u003EMaterials and methods\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h4\"\u003EResults\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h5\"\u003EDiscussion\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h6\"\u003EConclusion\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h7\"\u003EData availability statement\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h8\"\u003EEthics statement\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h9\"\u003EAuthor contributions\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h10\"\u003EFunding\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h11\"\u003EConflict of interest\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h12\"\u003EPublisher’s note\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#h13\"\u003EReferences\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E \u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},files:[{name:"EPUB.epub",fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:aD,name:aD}},{name:aE,fileServerPackageEntryId:"fmed-10-1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615.pdf",type:{code:u,name:u}},{name:aE,fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:u,name:u}},{name:"fmed-10-1296615.xml",fileServerPackageEntryId:"fmed-10-1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615.xml",type:{code:"NLM_XML",name:"XML"}},{name:"Provisional PDF.pdf",fileServerPackageEntryId:f,type:{code:u,name:u}}]},currentArticlePageMetaInfo:{title:aF,link:[{rel:"canonical",href:aG}],meta:[{hid:C,property:C,name:C,content:aH},{hid:aI,property:aI,name:"title",content:aF},{hid:aJ,property:aJ,name:C,content:aH},{hid:aK,name:aK,content:"hat gelöscht:,thereby fostering inclusivity and accessibility medical education,ChatGPT,artificial intelligence,machine learning,Obstetrics and Gynecology,Students"},{hid:aL,property:aL,name:"site_name",content:D},{hid:aM,property:aM,name:J,content:"https:\u002F\u002Fimages-provider.frontiersin.org\u002Fapi\u002Fipx\u002Fw=1200&f=png\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Ffiles\u002FArticles\u002F1296615\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-HTML\u002Fimage_m\u002Ffmed-10-1296615-g001.jpg"},{hid:aN,property:aN,name:"type",content:"article"},{hid:aO,property:aO,name:"url",content:aG},{hid:aP,name:aP,content:"summary_large_image"},{hid:aQ,name:aQ,content:"10"},{hid:aR,name:aR,content:t},{hid:aS,name:aS,content:D},{hid:aT,name:aT,content:L},{hid:aU,name:aU,content:M},{hid:aV,name:aV,content:ac},{hid:aW,name:aW,content:"1296615"},{hid:aX,name:aX,content:"English"},{hid:aY,name:aY,content:ad},{hid:aZ,name:aZ,content:"hat gelöscht:; thereby fostering inclusivity and accessibility medical education; ChatGPT; artificial intelligence; machine learning; Obstetrics and Gynecology; Students"},{hid:a_,name:a_,content:ae},{hid:a$,name:a$,content:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615\u002Fpdf"},{hid:ba,name:ba,content:"2023\u002F11\u002F27"},{hid:bb,name:bb,content:"2023\u002F12\u002F13"},{hid:"citation_author_0",name:o,content:"Riedel, Maximilian"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_0",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_1",name:o,content:"Kaefinger, Katharina"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_1",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_2",name:o,content:"Stuehrenberg, Antonia"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_2",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_3",name:o,content:"Ritter, Viktoria"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_3",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_4",name:o,content:"Amann, Niklas"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_4",name:p,content:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Friedrich–Alexander-University Erlangen–Nuremberg (FAU), Germany"},{hid:"citation_author_5",name:o,content:"Graf, Anna"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_5",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_6",name:o,content:"Recker, Florian"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_6",name:p,content:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Bonn University Hospital, Germany"},{hid:"citation_author_7",name:o,content:"Klein, Evelyn"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_7",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_8",name:o,content:"Kiechle, Marion"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_8",name:p,content:r},{hid:"citation_author_9",name:o,content:"Riedel, Fabian"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_9",name:p,content:"Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany"},{hid:"citation_author_10",name:o,content:"Meyer, Bastian"},{hid:"citation_author_institution_10",name:p,content:r},{hid:bc,name:bc,content:"doi:10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615"}],script:[{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnjs.cloudflare.com\u002Fpolyfill\u002Fv3\u002Fpolyfill.min.js?features=es6",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnjs.cloudflare.com\u002Fajax\u002Flibs\u002Fmathjax\u002F2.7.1\u002FMathJax.js?config=TeX-MML-AM_CHTML",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fd1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net\u002Fassets\u002Faltmetric_badges-f0bc9b243ff5677d05460c1eb71834ca998946d764eb3bc244ab4b18ba50d21e.js",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fapi.altmetric.com\u002Fv1\u002Fdoi\u002F10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615?callback=_altmetric.embed_callback&domain=www.frontiersin.org&key=3c130976ca2b8f2e88f8377633751ba1&cache_until=14-15",body:h,async:h},{src:"https:\u002F\u002Fcrossmark-cdn.crossref.org\u002Fwidget\u002Fv2.0\u002Fwidget.js",body:h,async:h}]},articleHubArticlesList:[],showCrossmarkWidget:h,hasSupplementalData:i,isPreviewArticlePage:i,settingsFeaturesSwitchers:{displayTitlePillLabels:h,displayRelatedArticlesBox:h,showEditors:h,showReviewers:h,showLoopImpactLink:h,enableFigshare:i},tenantConfig:{spaceId:c,name:D,availableJournalPages:[bd,be,bf,"volumes","about"],announcement:{sys:{id:"2tE5oIdYfULBQILAgR2OSx",__typename:"Sys"},preHeader:"Research integrity at Frontiers",title:"94% of researchers rate our articles as excellent or good",description:"Learn more about the work of our research integrity team to safeguard the quality of each article we publish.",image:[{id:"0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8",src:bg,name:bh,tags:["ultra","sunset","achieving","summer","challenge","winning","extreme","workout","hike","path","action","uphill","effort","athlete","physical","height","activity","mountaineering","endurance","mount","runner","nordic","race","male","achieve","nature","run","adventure",K,"perseverance","freedom","fitness","backcountry","altitude","sports","man","hill","mountain","outdoor","exercise","energetic","trail","climb","skyrunning","lifestyle"],type:J,width:7100,height:4733,archive:j,brandId:X,limited:j,fileSize:16838862,isPublic:j,original:e,copyright:e,extension:[Y],thumbnails:{mini:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002Fmini-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png",thul:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002Fthul-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png",webimage:bg,Guidelines:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002FGuidelines-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png",WebsiteJpg_XL:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002FWebsiteJpg_XL-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.jpg",WebsiteWebP_L:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002FWebsiteWebP_L-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.webp",WebsiteWebP_M:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002FWebsiteWebP_M-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.webp",WebsiteWebP_XL:"https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002FWebsiteWebP_XL-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.webp"},dateCreated:"2022-12-14T15:44:00Z",description:bh,orientation:K,watermarked:j,dateModified:"2023-01-26T09:08:47Z",datePublished:"2022-12-14T16:40:06Z",videoPreviewURLs:[],textMetaproperties:[]}],link:{text:"Find out more ",url:bi,target:g,ariaLabel:"About our research integrity team",__typename:y},__typename:"Announcement"}},components:{ibar:{tenantLogo:f,journalLogo:f,aboutUs:[{title:"Who we are",links:[{text:"Mission and values",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fmission",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"History",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fhistory",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Leadership",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fleadership",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Awards",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fawards",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"Impact and progress",links:[{text:"Frontiers' impact",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fimpact",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Progress Report 2022",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fprogressreport.frontiersin.org\u002F?utm_source=fweb&utm_medium=frep&utm_campaign=pr20",target:m,ariaLabel:e},{text:"All annual reports",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fannual-reports",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"Publishing model",links:[{text:bj,url:bk,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Open access",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fopen-access",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bl,url:bm,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Peer review",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fpeer-review",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Research integrity",url:bi,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bn,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fresearch-topics",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"Services",links:[{text:"Societies",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fpublishingpartnerships.frontiersin.org\u002F",target:m,ariaLabel:e},{text:"National consortia",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fopen-access-agreements\u002Fconsortia",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Institutional partnerships",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fopen-access-agreements",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Collaborators",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fcollaborators",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"More from Frontiers",links:[{text:"Frontiers Forum",url:bo,target:m,ariaLabel:"this link will take you to the Frontiers Forum website"},{text:bp,url:bq,target:m,ariaLabel:br},{text:"Press office",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fpressoffice.frontiersin.org\u002F",target:m,ariaLabel:"this link will take you to the Frontiers press office website"},{text:"Sustainability",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.orgabout\u002Fsustainability",target:g,ariaLabel:"link to information about Frontiers' sustainability"},{text:bs,url:bt,target:m,ariaLabel:"this link will take you to the Frontiers careers website"},{text:"Contact us",url:bu,target:g,ariaLabel:"this link will take you to the help pages to contact our support team"}]}],submitUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fsubmission\u002Fsubmit?domainid=2&fieldid=39&specialtyid=0&entitytype=2&entityid=602",showSubmitButton:h,journal:{id:w,name:t,slug:x,sections:[{id:797,name:"Dermatology",slug:"dermatology"},{id:842,name:"Family Medicine and Primary Care",slug:"family-medicine-and-primary-care"},{id:681,name:"Gastroenterology",slug:bv},{id:1321,name:"Gene and Cell Therapy",slug:"gene-and-cell-therapy"},{id:790,name:"Geriatric Medicine",slug:"geriatric-medicine"},{id:1969,name:"Healthcare Professions Education",slug:"healthcare-professions-education"},{id:752,name:"Hematology",slug:bw},{id:3648,name:"Hepatobiliary Diseases",slug:"hepatobiliary-diseases"},{id:3379,name:"Infectious Diseases: Pathogenesis and Therapy",slug:"infectious-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy"},{id:1139,name:"Intensive Care Medicine and Anesthesiology",slug:"intensive-care-medicine-and-anesthesiology"},{id:768,name:"Nephrology",slug:bx},{id:815,name:"Nuclear Medicine",slug:by},{id:ay,name:O,slug:az},{id:1635,name:"Ophthalmology",slug:bz},{id:618,name:"Pathology",slug:P},{id:1307,name:"Precision Medicine",slug:"precision-medicine"},{id:678,name:"Pulmonary Medicine",slug:"pulmonary-medicine"},{id:1306,name:"Regulatory Science",slug:"regulatory-science"},{id:662,name:"Rheumatology",slug:"rheumatology"},{id:1318,name:"Translational Medicine",slug:"translational-medicine"}]},sectionTerm:"Sections",aboutJournal:[{title:"Scope",links:[{text:"Field chief editors",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-editors",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Mission & scope",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-scope",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Facts",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-facts",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Journal sections",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-submission",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Open access statement",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-open",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Copyright statement",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#copyright-statement",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Quality",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Fabout#about-quality",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"For authors",links:[{text:"Why submit?",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Fwhy-submit",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Article types",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Farticle-types",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bA,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Fauthor-guidelines",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bB,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Feditor-guidelines",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Publishing fees",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Fpublishing-fees",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Submission checklist",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Fsubmission-checklist",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Contact editorial office",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Ffor-authors\u002Fcontact-editorial-office",target:g,ariaLabel:e}]}],mainLinks:[{text:"All journals",url:bC,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"All articles",url:bD,target:g,ariaLabel:e}],journalLinks:[{text:bE,url:bd,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bn,url:bf,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Editorial board",url:be,target:g,ariaLabel:e}],helpCenterLink:{text:E,url:bF,target:m,ariaLabel:E}},footer:{blocks:[{title:"Guidelines",links:[{text:bA,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fguidelines\u002Fauthor-guidelines",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bB,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fguidelines\u002Feditor-guidelines",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Policies and publication ethics",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fguidelines\u002Fpolicies-and-publication-ethics",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bl,url:bm,target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"Explore",links:[{text:bE,url:bD,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Research Topics ",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fresearch-topics",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:"Journals",url:bC,target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bj,url:bk,target:g,ariaLabel:e}]},{title:"Outreach",links:[{text:"Frontiers Forum ",url:bo,target:m,ariaLabel:"Frontiers Forum website"},{text:"Frontiers Policy Labs ",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fpolicylabs.frontiersin.org\u002F",target:m,ariaLabel:e},{text:bG,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fkids.frontiersin.org\u002F",target:m,ariaLabel:"Frontiers for Young Minds journal"},{text:bp,url:bq,target:m,ariaLabel:br}]},{title:"Connect",links:[{text:E,url:bF,target:m,ariaLabel:E},{text:"Emails and alerts ",url:"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org\u002Fsettings\u002Femail-preferences?a=publishers",target:m,ariaLabel:"Subscribe to Frontiers emails"},{text:"Contact us ",url:bu,target:g,ariaLabel:"Subscribe to newsletter"},{text:"Submit",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fsubmission\u002Fsubmit",target:g,ariaLabel:e},{text:bs,url:bt,target:m,ariaLabel:e}]}],socialLinks:[{link:{text:bH,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FFrontiersin",target:m,ariaLabel:bH},type:y,color:F,icon:"Facebook",size:G,hiddenText:h},{link:{text:"Frontiers Twitter",url:"https:\u002F\u002Ftwitter.com\u002Ffrontiersin",target:m,ariaLabel:e},type:y,color:F,icon:"Twitter",size:G,hiddenText:h},{link:{text:"Frontiers LinkedIn",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.linkedin.com\u002Fcompany\u002Ffrontiers",target:m,ariaLabel:e},type:y,color:F,icon:"LinkedIn",size:G,hiddenText:h},{link:{text:"Frontiers Instagram",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.instagram.com\u002Ffrontiersin_",target:m,ariaLabel:e},type:y,color:F,icon:"Instagram",size:G,hiddenText:h}],copyright:"Frontiers Media S.A. All rights reserved",termsAndConditionsUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Flegal\u002Fterms-and-conditions",privacyPolicyUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Flegal\u002Fprivacy-policy"},newsletterComponent:e,snackbarItems:[]},mainHeader:{title:f,image:N,breadcrumbs:[],linksCollection:{total:j,items:[]},metricsCollection:{total:j,items:[]}},user:{loggedUserInfo:N},journals:[{id:bI,name:bJ,slug:bK,abbreviation:bL,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2445,name:bJ,slug:bK,abbreviation:bL,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:Q,name:"Test SSPH Journal",slug:"test-ssph-journal",abbreviation:"testjournal",space:{id:v,domainName:H,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:bM,name:"TEST ALF Journal",slug:"test-alf-journal",abbreviation:"talfj",space:{id:z,domainName:R,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:k,name:bN,slug:bO,abbreviation:bP,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2360,name:bN,slug:bO,abbreviation:bP,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:c,name:"Smoke Test Field",slug:"smoke-test-field",abbreviation:"FJST",space:{id:S,domainName:bQ,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:bM,name:bR,slug:bS,abbreviation:bT,space:{id:v,domainName:H,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2077,name:bR,slug:bS,abbreviation:bT,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:Q,name:bU,slug:bV,abbreviation:bW,space:{id:z,domainName:R,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:Q,name:bU,slug:bV,abbreviation:bW,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:bX,name:bY,slug:bZ,abbreviation:b_,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3776,name:bY,slug:bZ,abbreviation:b_,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:b$,name:ca,slug:cb,abbreviation:cc,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3765,name:ca,slug:cb,abbreviation:cc,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:14,name:cd,slug:ce,abbreviation:cf,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3414,name:cd,slug:ce,abbreviation:cf,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:20,name:cg,slug:ch,abbreviation:ci,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3754,name:cg,slug:ch,abbreviation:ci,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:S,name:cj,slug:ck,abbreviation:cl,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2444,name:cj,slug:ck,abbreviation:cl,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cm,name:cn,slug:co,abbreviation:cp,space:{id:v,domainName:H,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cm,name:cn,slug:co,abbreviation:cp,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:k,name:"GSL Test",slug:"gsl-test",abbreviation:"gslt",space:{id:s,domainName:T,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2356,name:"Frontiers in the Internet of Things",slug:"the-internet-of-things",abbreviation:"friot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:656,name:"Frontiers in Zoological Science",slug:"zoological-science",abbreviation:"fzoos",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1720,name:"Frontiers in Zoological Research",slug:"zoological-research",abbreviation:"fzolr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3162,name:"Frontiers in Wound Care",slug:"wound-care",abbreviation:"fwoca",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3136,name:"Frontiers in Worm Science",slug:"worm-science",abbreviation:"fwors",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3583,name:"Frontiers in Wind Energy",slug:"wind-energy",abbreviation:"fwinde",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1451,name:"Frontiers in Water",slug:"water",abbreviation:"frwa",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1561,name:"Frontiers in Virtual Reality",slug:"virtual-reality",abbreviation:"frvir",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2000,name:"Frontiers in Virology",slug:"virology",abbreviation:"fviro",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:649,name:"Frontiers in Veterinary Science",slug:"veterinary-science",abbreviation:"fvets",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2176,name:"Frontiers in Urology",slug:"urology",abbreviation:"fruro",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3099,name:"Frontiers in Tuberculosis",slug:"tuberculosis",abbreviation:"ftubr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1843,name:"Frontiers in Tropical Diseases",slug:"tropical-diseases",abbreviation:"fitd",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2417,name:"Frontiers in Transplantation",slug:"transplantation",abbreviation:"frtra",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:473,name:"Frontiers in Toxicology",slug:"toxicology",abbreviation:"ftox",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2105,name:"Frontiers in Thermal Engineering",slug:"thermal-engineering",abbreviation:"fther",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3190,name:"Frontiers in The Neurobiology of Pain",slug:"the-neurobiology-of-pain",abbreviation:f,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1967,name:"Frontiers in Test_Field_Science_Archive",slug:"testfieldsciencearchive",abbreviation:"fntesc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1347,name:"Frontiers in Test_Field_Humanities_Archive",slug:"testfieldhumanitiesarchive",abbreviation:"fntes",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:aA,name:"Frontiers in Taxonomy",slug:"taxonomy",abbreviation:"Front. Taxon.",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:v,name:"Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience",slug:"systems-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnsys",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1721,name:"Frontiers in Systems Biology",slug:"systems-biology",abbreviation:"fsysb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3381,name:"Frontiers in Synthetic Biology",slug:"synthetic-biology",abbreviation:"fsybi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:22,name:"Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience",slug:"synaptic-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnsyn",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2299,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Tourism",slug:"sustainable-tourism",abbreviation:"frsut",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2483,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Resource Management",slug:"sustainable-resource-management",abbreviation:"fsrma",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1335,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems",slug:"sustainable-food-systems",abbreviation:"fsufs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2726,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Energy Policy",slug:"sustainable-energy-policy",abbreviation:"fsuep",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1468,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Cities",slug:"sustainable-cities",abbreviation:"frsc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:aB,name:"Frontiers in Sustainable Business",slug:"sustainable-business",abbreviation:"fisb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1547,name:"Frontiers in Sustainability",slug:"sustainability",abbreviation:"frsus",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:604,name:"Frontiers in Surgery",slug:"surgery",abbreviation:"fsurg",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2504,name:"Frontiers in Structural Biology",slug:"structural-biology",abbreviation:"frsbi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2497,name:"Frontiers in Stroke",slug:"stroke",abbreviation:"fstro",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3434,name:"Frontiers in Stem Cells",slug:"stem-cells",abbreviation:"fstce",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1482,name:"Frontiers in Sports and Active Living",slug:"sports-and-active-living",abbreviation:"fspor",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1695,name:"Frontiers in Space Technologies",slug:"space-technologies",abbreviation:"frspt",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3519,name:"Frontiers in Solar Energy",slug:"solar-energy",abbreviation:"fsoln",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1718,name:"Frontiers in Soil Science",slug:"soil-science",abbreviation:"fsoil",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2346,name:"Frontiers in Soft Matter",slug:"soft-matter",abbreviation:"frsfm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1213,name:"Frontiers in Sociology",slug:"sociology",abbreviation:"fsoc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:U,name:"Frontiers in Society Journal Archive",slug:"society-journal-archive",abbreviation:V,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2690,name:"Frontiers in Social Psychology",slug:"social-psychology",abbreviation:"frsps",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2819,name:"Frontiers in Smart Grids",slug:"smart-grids",abbreviation:"frsgr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2288,name:"Frontiers in Sleep",slug:"sleep",abbreviation:"frsle",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2552,name:"Frontiers in Skin Cancer",slug:"skin-cancer",abbreviation:"fskcr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1786,name:"Frontiers in Signal Processing",slug:"signal-processing",abbreviation:"frsip",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1704,name:"Frontiers in Sensors",slug:"sensors",abbreviation:"fsens",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:v,name:"Frontiers in Science archive",slug:"science-archive",abbreviation:I,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3737,name:"Frontiers in Science Diplomacy",slug:"science-diplomacy",abbreviation:"fsdip",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2766,name:"Frontiers in Science",slug:"science",abbreviation:"fsci",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:657,name:"Frontiers in Robotics and AI",slug:"robotics-and-ai",abbreviation:"frobt",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1606,name:"Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics",slug:"research-metrics-and-analytics",abbreviation:"frma",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1479,name:"Frontiers in Reproductive Health",slug:"reproductive-health",abbreviation:"frph",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1830,name:"Frontiers in Remote Sensing",slug:"remote-sensing",abbreviation:"frsen",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:659,name:"Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences",slug:"rehabilitation-sciences",abbreviation:"fresc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3550,name:"Frontiers in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"regenerative-medicine",abbreviation:"fregm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1949,name:"Frontiers in Radiology",slug:"radiology",abbreviation:"fradi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3189,name:"Frontiers in RNA Research",slug:"rna-research",abbreviation:"frnar",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2306,name:"Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology",slug:"quantum-science-and-technology",abbreviation:"frqst",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:U,name:"Frontiers in Public Health Archive",slug:"public-health-archive",abbreviation:V,space:{id:v,domainName:H,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:609,name:"Frontiers in Public Health",slug:"public-health",abbreviation:"fpubh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:36,name:"Frontiers in Psychology",slug:"psychology",abbreviation:"fpsyg",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:71,name:"Frontiers in Psychiatry",slug:"psychiatry",abbreviation:"fpsyt",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3267,name:"Frontiers in Protistology",slug:"protistology",abbreviation:"frpro",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2452,name:"Frontiers in Proteomics",slug:"proteomics",abbreviation:"fprot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3171,name:"Frontiers in Prosthetics and Orthotics",slug:"prosthetics-and-orthotics",abbreviation:"fpror ",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3643,name:"Frontiers in Polymer Science",slug:"polymer-science",abbreviation:"fplms",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1558,name:"Frontiers in Political Science",slug:"political-science",abbreviation:"fpos",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3615,name:"Frontiers in Polar Science",slug:"polar-science",abbreviation:"fposc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:373,name:"Frontiers in Plant Science",slug:"plant-science",abbreviation:"fpls",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3477,name:"Frontiers in Plant Physiology",slug:"plant-physiology",abbreviation:"fphgy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3589,name:"Frontiers in Plant Genomics",slug:"plant-genomics",abbreviation:"fpgen",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3579,name:"Frontiers in Plant Ecology",slug:"plant-ecology",abbreviation:"fpley",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:210,name:"Frontiers in Physiology",slug:"physiology",abbreviation:"fphys",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:616,name:"Frontiers in Physics",slug:"physics",abbreviation:"fphy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1803,name:"Frontiers in Photonics",slug:"photonics",abbreviation:"fphot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3604,name:"Frontiers in Photobiology",slug:"photobiology",abbreviation:"fphbi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:176,name:"Frontiers in Pharmacology",slug:"pharmacology",abbreviation:"fphar",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3388,name:"Frontiers in Personality Disorders",slug:"personality-disorders",abbreviation:"fprsd",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:606,name:"Frontiers in Pediatrics",slug:"pediatrics",abbreviation:"fped",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2554,name:"Frontiers in Pediatric Dermatology",slug:"pediatric-dermatology",abbreviation:"fpdm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:U,name:"Frontiers in Pathology and Oncology Archive",slug:"pathology-and-oncology-archive",abbreviation:V,space:{id:z,domainName:R,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:610,name:cq,slug:P,abbreviation:cr,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3351,name:cq,slug:P,abbreviation:cr,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2705,name:"Frontiers in Parasitology",slug:"parasitology",abbreviation:"fpara",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1727,name:"Frontiers in Pain Research",slug:"pain-research",abbreviation:"fpain",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2679,name:"Frontiers in Organizational Psychology",slug:"organizational-psychology",abbreviation:"forgp",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1702,name:"Frontiers in Oral Health",slug:"oral-health",abbreviation:"froh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2232,name:"Frontiers in Ophthalmology",slug:bz,abbreviation:"fopht",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:451,name:"Frontiers in Oncology",slug:"oncology",abbreviation:"fonc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3123,name:"Frontiers in Ocean Sustainability",slug:"ocean-sustainability",abbreviation:"focsu",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2612,name:"Frontiers in Occupational Therapy",slug:"occupational-therapy",abbreviation:"froct",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:628,name:"Frontiers in Nutrition",slug:"nutrition",abbreviation:"fnut",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2062,name:"Frontiers in Nuclear Medicine",slug:by,abbreviation:"fnume",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2172,name:"Frontiers in Nuclear Engineering",slug:"nuclear-engineering",abbreviation:"fnuen",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:c,name:"Frontiers in Neuroscience",slug:"neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnins",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cs,name:"Frontiers in Neurorobotics",slug:"neurorobotics",abbreviation:"fnbot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3056,name:"Frontiers in Neuropsychiatry",slug:"neuropsychiatry",abbreviation:"fnpsy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:141,name:"Frontiers in Neurology",slug:"neurology",abbreviation:"fneur",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:ct,name:"Frontiers in Neuroinformatics",slug:"neuroinformatics",abbreviation:"fninf",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3283,name:"Frontiers in Neuroinflammation",slug:"neuroinflammation",abbreviation:"fnein",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1973,name:"Frontiers in Neuroimaging",slug:"neuroimaging",abbreviation:"fnimg",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1833,name:"Frontiers in Neuroergonomics",slug:"neuroergonomics",abbreviation:"fnrgo",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:A,name:"Frontiers in Neuroengineering",slug:"neuroengineering",abbreviation:"fneng",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cu,name:"Frontiers in Neuroenergetics",slug:"neuroenergetics",abbreviation:"fnene",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:z,name:"Frontiers in Neuroanatomy",slug:"neuroanatomy",abbreviation:"fnana",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:b$,name:"Frontiers in Neural Circuits",slug:"neural-circuits",abbreviation:"fncir",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2021,name:"Frontiers in Network Physiology",slug:"network-physiology",abbreviation:"fnetp",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3130,name:"Frontiers in Network Neuroscience",slug:"network-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnnsc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2357,name:"Frontiers in Nephrology",slug:bx,abbreviation:"fneph",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2320,name:"Frontiers in Natural Products",slug:"natural-products",abbreviation:"fntpr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1528,name:"Frontiers in Nanotechnology",slug:"nanotechnology",abbreviation:"fnano",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2882,name:"Frontiers in Musculoskeletal Disorders",slug:"musculoskeletal-disorders",abbreviation:"fmscd",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3275,name:"Frontiers in Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"multiple-sclerosis",abbreviation:"fmscr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3152,name:"Frontiers in Mollusk Science",slug:"mollusk-science",abbreviation:"fmlsc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2031,name:"Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience",slug:"molecular-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnmol",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2086,name:"Frontiers in Molecular Medicine",slug:"molecular-medicine",abbreviation:"fmmed",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:698,name:"Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences",slug:"molecular-biosciences",abbreviation:"fmolb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2807,name:"Frontiers in Microbiomes",slug:"microbiomes",abbreviation:"frmbi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:310,name:"Frontiers in Microbiology",slug:"microbiology",abbreviation:"fmicb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2327,name:"Frontiers in Metals and Alloys",slug:"metals-and-alloys",abbreviation:"ftmal",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2307,name:"Frontiers in Membrane Science and Technology",slug:"membrane-science-and-technology",abbreviation:"frmst",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:w,name:t,slug:x,abbreviation:$,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1573,name:"Frontiers in Medical Technology",slug:"medical-technology",abbreviation:"fmedt",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3135,name:"Frontiers in Medical Engineering",slug:"medical-engineering",abbreviation:"fmede",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:950,name:"Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering",slug:"mechanical-engineering",abbreviation:"fmech",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:608,name:"Frontiers in Materials",slug:"materials",abbreviation:"fmats",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:655,name:"Frontiers in Marine Science",slug:"marine-science",abbreviation:"fmars",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2100,name:"Frontiers in Manufacturing Technology",slug:"manufacturing-technology",abbreviation:"fmtec",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2931,name:"Frontiers in Mammal Science",slug:"mammal-science",abbreviation:"fmamm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2896,name:"Frontiers in Malaria",slug:"malaria",abbreviation:"fmala",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3107,name:"Frontiers in Lupus",slug:"lupus",abbreviation:"flupu",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:435,name:"Frontiers in Linguistics",slug:"linguistics",abbreviation:"fling",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2636,name:"Frontiers in Language Sciences",slug:"language-sciences",abbreviation:"flang",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2670,name:"Frontiers in Lab on a Chip Technologies",slug:"lab-on-a-chip-technologies",abbreviation:"frlct",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cv,name:"Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience",slug:"integrative-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnint",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1723,name:"Frontiers in Insect Science",slug:"insect-science",abbreviation:"finsc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3093,name:"Frontiers in Influenza",slug:"influenza",abbreviation:"finfl",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3073,name:"Frontiers in Inflammation",slug:"inflammation",abbreviation:"finmn",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3200,name:"Frontiers in Industrial Microbiology",slug:"industrial-microbiology",abbreviation:"finmi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3291,name:"Frontiers in Industrial Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering",abbreviation:"fieng",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2765,name:"Frontiers in Impact Journals",slug:"impact-journals",abbreviation:f,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3078,name:"Frontiers in Immunotherapeutics",slug:"immunotherapeutics",abbreviation:"fimms",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:276,name:"Frontiers in Immunology",slug:"immunology",abbreviation:"fimmu",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2379,name:"Frontiers in Imaging",slug:"imaging",abbreviation:"fimag",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:629,name:"Frontiers in ICT",slug:"ict",abbreviation:"fict",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:16,name:"Frontiers in Humanities and Social Sciences Archive",slug:"humanities-and-social-sciences-archive",abbreviation:I,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3759,name:"Frontiers in Human Rights",slug:"human-rights",abbreviation:f,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1588,name:"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience",slug:"human-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnhum",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1533,name:"Frontiers in Human Dynamics",slug:"human-dynamics",abbreviation:"fhumd",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2733,name:"Frontiers in Horticulture",slug:"horticulture",abbreviation:"fhort",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3316,name:"Frontiers in Histology",slug:"histology",abbreviation:"frhis",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2378,name:"Frontiers in High Performance Computing",slug:"high-performance-computing",abbreviation:"fhpcp",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:_,name:"Frontiers in Hematology",slug:bw,abbreviation:"frhem",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2063,name:"Frontiers in Health Services",slug:"health-services",abbreviation:"frhs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:z,name:"Frontiers in Health Archive",slug:"health-archive",abbreviation:I,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3508,name:"Frontiers in Green Chemistry",slug:"green-chemistry",abbreviation:"fgrch",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1728,name:"Frontiers in Global Women's Health",slug:"global-womens-health",abbreviation:"fgwh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2918,name:"Frontiers in Geochemistry",slug:"geochemistry",abbreviation:"fgeoc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1540,name:"Frontiers in Genome Editing",slug:"genome-editing",abbreviation:"fgeed",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:240,name:"Frontiers in Genetics",slug:"genetics",abbreviation:"fgene",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3496,name:"Frontiers in Genetic Microbiology",slug:"genetic-microbiology",abbreviation:"fgemi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3227,name:"Frontiers in Genetic Disorders",slug:"genetic-disorders",abbreviation:"frged",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2333,name:"Frontiers in Gastroenterology",slug:bv,abbreviation:"fgstr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1529,name:"Frontiers in Future Transportation",slug:"future-transportation",abbreviation:"ffutr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1725,name:"Frontiers in Fungal Biology",slug:"fungal-biology",abbreviation:"ffunb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2826,name:"Frontiers in Fuels",slug:"fuels",abbreviation:"ffuel",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3207,name:"Frontiers in Freshwater Science",slug:"freshwater-science",abbreviation:"ffwsc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1366,name:"Frontiers in Forests and Global Change",slug:"forests-and-global-change",abbreviation:"ffgc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2689,name:"Frontiers in Forensic Science",slug:"forensic-science",abbreviation:f,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2289,name:"Frontiers in Food Science and Technology",slug:"food-science-and-technology",abbreviation:"frfst",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3559,name:"Frontiers in Fluorescence",slug:"fluorescence",abbreviation:"fflur",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2987,name:"Frontiers in Fish Science",slug:"fish-science",abbreviation:"frish",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3489,name:"Frontiers in Fire Science and Technology",slug:"fire-science-and-technology",abbreviation:"firtc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2749,name:"Frontiers in Financial Economics",slug:"financial-economics",abbreviation:"ffecn",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:c,name:"Frontiers in FSHIP Test Journal",slug:"fship-test-journal",abbreviation:"ftest",space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:bX,name:"Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience",slug:"evolutionary-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnevo",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2955,name:"Frontiers in Ethology",slug:"ethology",abbreviation:"fetho",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3032,name:"Frontiers in Epigenetics and Epigenomics",slug:"epigenetics-and-epigenomics",abbreviation:"freae",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2394,name:"Frontiers in Epidemiology",slug:"epidemiology",abbreviation:"fepid",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3450,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Toxicology",slug:"environmental-toxicology",abbreviation:"fentx",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:627,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Science",slug:"environmental-science",abbreviation:"fenvs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2888,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Health",slug:"environmental-health",abbreviation:"fenvh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2851,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Engineering",slug:"environmental-engineering",abbreviation:"fenve",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2547,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Economics",slug:"environmental-economics",abbreviation:"frevc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1697,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Chemistry",slug:"environmental-chemistry",abbreviation:"fenvc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2756,name:"Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology",slug:"environmental-archaeology",abbreviation:"fearc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:15,name:"Frontiers in Engineering archive",slug:"engineering-archive",abbreviation:I,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:626,name:"Frontiers in Energy Research",slug:"energy-research",abbreviation:"fenrg",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3115,name:"Frontiers in Energy Efficiency",slug:"energy-efficiency",abbreviation:"fenef",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:106,name:"Frontiers in Endocrinology",slug:"endocrinology",abbreviation:"fendo",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1696,name:"Frontiers in Electronics",slug:"electronics",abbreviation:"felec",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1800,name:"Frontiers in Electronic Materials",slug:"electronic-materials",abbreviation:"femat",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2998,name:"Frontiers in Educational Psychology",slug:"educational-psychology",abbreviation:"fepys",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1239,name:"Frontiers in Education",slug:"education",abbreviation:"feduc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:625,name:"Frontiers in Economics",slug:"economics",abbreviation:"fecon",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:471,name:"Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution",slug:"ecology-and-evolution",abbreviation:"fevo",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:c,name:"Frontiers in Earth Science Archive",slug:"earth-science-archive",abbreviation:"gslfj",space:{id:s,domainName:T,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:654,name:"Frontiers in Earth Science",slug:"earth-science",abbreviation:"feart",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3309,name:"Frontiers in Earth Observation and Land Monitoring",slug:"earth-observation-and-land-monitoring",abbreviation:"feolm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2161,name:"Frontiers in Drug Safety and Regulation",slug:"drug-safety-and-regulation",abbreviation:"fdsfr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2137,name:"Frontiers in Drug Discovery",slug:"drug-discovery",abbreviation:"fddsv",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2136,name:"Frontiers in Drug Delivery",slug:"drug-delivery",abbreviation:"fddev",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2775,name:"Frontiers in Disaster and Emergency Medicine",slug:"disaster-and-emergency-medicine",abbreviation:"femer",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:788,name:"Frontiers in Digital Humanities",slug:"digital-humanities",abbreviation:"fdigh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1534,name:"Frontiers in Digital Health",slug:"digital-health",abbreviation:"fdgth",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2999,name:"Frontiers in Developmental Psychology",slug:"developmental-psychology",abbreviation:"fdpys",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2873,name:"Frontiers in Detector Science and Technology",slug:"detector-science-and-technology",abbreviation:"fdest",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3611,name:"Frontiers in Design Engineering",slug:"design-engineering",abbreviation:"fdese",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2550,name:"Frontiers in Dermatological Research",slug:"dermatological-research",abbreviation:"fdmre",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:607,name:"Frontiers in Dental Medicine",slug:"dental-medicine",abbreviation:"fdmed",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2597,name:"Frontiers in Dementia",slug:"dementia",abbreviation:"frdem",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1785,name:"Frontiers in Control Engineering",slug:"control-engineering",abbreviation:"fcteg",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1724,name:"Frontiers in Conservation Science",slug:"conservation-science",abbreviation:"fcosc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3454,name:"Frontiers in Condensed Matter",slug:"condensed-matter",abbreviation:"fconm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1511,name:"Frontiers in Computer Science",slug:"computer-science",abbreviation:"fcomp",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3566,name:"Frontiers in Computational Physiology",slug:"computational-physiology",abbreviation:"fcphy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:bI,name:"Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience",slug:"computational-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fncom",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3234,name:"Frontiers in Complex Systems",slug:"complex-systems",abbreviation:"fcpxs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1787,name:"Frontiers in Communications and Networks",slug:"communications-and-networks",abbreviation:"frcmn",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1238,name:"Frontiers in Communication",slug:"communication",abbreviation:"fcomm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2535,name:"Frontiers in Cognition",slug:"cognition",abbreviation:"fcogn",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2857,name:"Frontiers in Coatings, Dyes and Interface Engineering",slug:"coatings-dyes-and-interface-engineering",abbreviation:"frcdi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3222,name:"Frontiers in Clinical Microbiology",slug:"clinical-microbiology",abbreviation:"fclmi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1729,name:"Frontiers in Clinical Diabetes and Healthcare",slug:"clinical-diabetes-and-healthcare",abbreviation:"fcdhc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2551,name:"Frontiers in Clinical Dermatology",slug:"clinical-dermatology",abbreviation:"fcldm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1490,name:"Frontiers in Climate",slug:"climate",abbreviation:"fclim",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3338,name:"Frontiers in Chromosome Research",slug:"chromosome-research",abbreviation:f,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2587,name:"Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry",slug:"child-and-adolescent-psychiatry",abbreviation:"frcha",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:601,name:"Frontiers in Chemistry",slug:"chemistry",abbreviation:"fchem",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1532,name:"Frontiers in Chemical Engineering",slug:"chemical-engineering",abbreviation:"fceng",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3038,name:"Frontiers in Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology",abbreviation:"fchbi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3322,name:"Frontiers in Ceramics",slug:"ceramics",abbreviation:"fceic",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1440,name:"Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology",slug:"cellular-and-infection-microbiology",abbreviation:"fcimb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1523,name:"Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience",slug:"cellular-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fncel",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3084,name:"Frontiers in Cellular Immunology",slug:"cellular-immunology",abbreviation:"fcimy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:403,name:"Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology",slug:"cell-and-developmental-biology",abbreviation:"fcell",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3178,name:"Frontiers in Cell Signaling",slug:"cell-signaling",abbreviation:"fcsig",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2655,name:"Frontiers in Cell Death",slug:"cell-death",abbreviation:"fceld",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1901,name:"Frontiers in Catalysis",slug:"catalysis",abbreviation:"fctls",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:755,name:"Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiovascular-medicine",abbreviation:"fcvm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2662,name:"Frontiers in Carbon",slug:"carbon",abbreviation:"frcrb",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3513,name:"Frontiers in Cancer Interception",slug:"cancer-interception",abbreviation:"fcint",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3433,name:"Frontiers in Cancer Control and Society",slug:"cancer-control-and-society",abbreviation:"fcacs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:921,name:"Frontiers in Built Environment",slug:"built-environment",abbreviation:"fbuil",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1418,name:"Frontiers in Blockchain",slug:"blockchain",abbreviation:"fbloc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2971,name:"Frontiers in Bird Science",slug:"bird-science",abbreviation:"fbirs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3300,name:"Frontiers in Biophysics",slug:"biophysics",abbreviation:"frbis",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2222,name:"Frontiers in Biomaterials Science",slug:"biomaterials-science",abbreviation:"fbiom",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1722,name:"Frontiers in Bioinformatics",slug:"bioinformatics",abbreviation:"fbinf",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:452,name:"Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology",slug:"bioengineering-and-biotechnology",abbreviation:"fbioe",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1380,name:"Frontiers in Big Data",slug:"big-data",abbreviation:"fdata",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1589,name:"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience",slug:"behavioral-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnbeh",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2432,name:"Frontiers in Behavioral Economics",slug:"behavioral-economics",abbreviation:"frbhe",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2796,name:"Frontiers in Bee Science",slug:"bee-science",abbreviation:"frbee",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3214,name:"Frontiers in Batteries and Electrochemistry",slug:"batteries-and-electrochemistry",abbreviation:"fbael",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3011,name:"Frontiers in Bacteriology",slug:"bacteriology",abbreviation:"fbrio",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3040,name:"Frontiers in Audiology and Otology",slug:"audiology-and-otology",abbreviation:"fauot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:603,name:"Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences",slug:"astronomy-and-space-sciences",abbreviation:"fspas",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1437,name:"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence",slug:"artificial-intelligence",abbreviation:"frai",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2940,name:"Frontiers in Arachnid Science",slug:"arachnid-science",abbreviation:"frchs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2834,name:"Frontiers in Aquaculture",slug:"aquaculture",abbreviation:"faquc",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:981,name:"Frontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics",slug:"applied-mathematics-and-statistics",abbreviation:"fams",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3417,name:"Frontiers in Applied Environmental Microbiology",slug:"applied-environmental-microbiology",abbreviation:"faemi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2714,name:"Frontiers in Antibiotics",slug:"antibiotics",abbreviation:"frabi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3443,name:"Frontiers in Anti-Cancer Therapies",slug:"anti-cancer-therapies",abbreviation:"facth",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3253,name:"Frontiers in Antennas and Propagation",slug:"antennas-and-propagation",abbreviation:"fanpr",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1719,name:"Frontiers in Animal Science",slug:"animal-science",abbreviation:"fanim",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2513,name:"Frontiers in Anesthesiology",slug:"anesthesiology",abbreviation:"fanes",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1989,name:"Frontiers in Analytical Science",slug:"analytical-science",abbreviation:"frans",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2909,name:"Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science",slug:"amphibian-and-reptile-science",abbreviation:"famrs",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1705,name:"Frontiers in Allergy",slug:"allergy",abbreviation:"falgy",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1541,name:"Frontiers in Agronomy",slug:"agronomy",abbreviation:"fagro",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3631,name:"Frontiers in Agricultural Engineering",slug:"agricultural-engineering",abbreviation:"faeng",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2477,name:"Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience",slug:"aging-neuroscience",abbreviation:"fnagi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:1566,name:"Frontiers in Aging",slug:"aging",abbreviation:"fragi",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2449,name:"Frontiers in Aerospace Engineering",slug:"aerospace-engineering",abbreviation:"fpace",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2195,name:"Frontiers in Adolescent Medicine",slug:"adolescent-medicine",abbreviation:"fradm",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3426,name:"Frontiers in Acoustics",slug:"acoustics",abbreviation:"facou",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:979,name:bG,slug:"frontiers-for-young-minds",abbreviation:"frym",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3260,name:"Frontiers In Ocean Engineering",slug:"frontiers-in-ocean-engineering",abbreviation:"focen",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cs,name:"FSHIP Test Journal 2",slug:"fship-test-journal-2",abbreviation:"FTJ2",space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:k,name:cw,slug:cx,abbreviation:cy,space:{id:S,domainName:bQ,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3746,name:cw,slug:cx,abbreviation:cy,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:ct,name:cz,slug:cA,abbreviation:cB,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3231,name:cz,slug:cA,abbreviation:cB,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:s,name:cC,slug:cD,abbreviation:cE,space:{id:s,domainName:T,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2078,name:cC,slug:cD,abbreviation:cE,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cv,name:cF,slug:cG,abbreviation:cH,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2359,name:cF,slug:cG,abbreviation:cH,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:8,name:cI,slug:cJ,abbreviation:cK,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2446,name:cI,slug:cJ,abbreviation:cK,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:aC,name:cL,slug:cM,abbreviation:cN,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3230,name:cL,slug:cM,abbreviation:cN,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:s,name:cO,slug:cP,abbreviation:cQ,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:2358,name:cO,slug:cP,abbreviation:cQ,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3660,name:"Advanced Optical Technologies",slug:"advanced-optical-technologies",abbreviation:"aot",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:cu,name:cR,slug:cS,abbreviation:cT,space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3659,name:cR,slug:cS,abbreviation:cT,space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:A,name:cU,slug:cV,abbreviation:"abp",space:{id:k,domainName:l,__typename:b},__typename:a},{id:3695,name:cU,slug:cV,abbreviation:"ABP",space:{id:c,domainName:d,__typename:b},__typename:a}]},serverRendered:h,routePath:"\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615\u002Ffull",config:{baseUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org",appName:"article-pages-2022",spaceId:c,spaceName:D,domain:d,loopUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Floop.frontiersin.org",ssMainDomain:d,googleRecaptchaKeyName:"FrontiersRecaptchaV2",googleRecaptchaSiteKey:"6LdG3i0UAAAAAOC4qUh35ubHgJotEHp_STXHgr_v",linkedArticleCopyText:"'{\"articleTypeCopyText\":[{\"articleTypeId\":0,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"Part of this article's content has been mentioned in:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article mentions parts of:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":122,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"Parts of this article's content have been modified or rectified in:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is an erratum on:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":129,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"Parts of this article's content have been modified or rectified in:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is an addendum to:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":128,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"A correction has been applied to this article in:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is a correction to:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":134,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"A retraction of this article was approved in:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is a retraction of:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":29,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"A commentary has been posted on this article:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is a commentary on:\"},{\"articleTypeId\":30,\"originalArticleCopyText\":\"A commentary has been posted on this article:\",\"linkedArticleCopyText\":\"This article is a commentary on:\"}],\"articleIdCopyText\":[]}'\n",articleTypeConfigurableLabel:"\u003C\u003Carticle-type:uppercase\u003E\u003E article",terminologySettings:"'{\"terms\":[{\"sequenceNumber\":1,\"key\":\"frontiers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Frontiers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Frontiers\",\"category\":\"Customer\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":2,\"key\":\"submission_system\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submission system\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submission system\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":3,\"key\":\"public_pages\",\"tenantTerm\":\"public pages\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"public pages\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":4,\"key\":\"my_frontiers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"my frontiers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"my frontiers\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":5,\"key\":\"digital_editorial_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"digital editorial office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"digital editorial office\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":6,\"key\":\"deo\",\"tenantTerm\":\"DEO\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"DEO\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":7,\"key\":\"digital_editorial_office_for_chiefs\",\"tenantTerm\":\"digital editorial office for chiefs\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"digital editorial office for chiefs\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":8,\"key\":\"digital_editorial_office_for_eof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"digital editorial office for eof\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"digital editorial office for eof\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":9,\"key\":\"editorial_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial office\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":10,\"key\":\"eof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"EOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"EOF\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":11,\"key\":\"research_topic_management\",\"tenantTerm\":\"research topic management\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"research topic management\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":12,\"key\":\"review_forum\",\"tenantTerm\":\"review forum\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"review forum\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":13,\"key\":\"accounting_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"accounting office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accounting office\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":14,\"key\":\"aof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AOF\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":15,\"key\":\"publishing_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"publishing office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"publishing office\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":16,\"key\":\"production_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"production office forum\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"production office forum\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":17,\"key\":\"pof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"POF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"POF\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":18,\"key\":\"book_office_forum\",\"tenantTerm\":\"book office forum\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"book office forum\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":19,\"key\":\"bof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"BOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"BOF\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":20,\"key\":\"aira\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AIRA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AIRA\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":21,\"key\":\"editorial_board_management\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial board management\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial board management\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":22,\"key\":\"ebm\",\"tenantTerm\":\"EBM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"EBM\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":23,\"key\":\"domain\",\"tenantTerm\":\"domain\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"domain\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":24,\"key\":\"journal\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":25,\"key\":\"section\",\"tenantTerm\":\"section\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"section\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":26,\"key\":\"domains\",\"tenantTerm\":\"domains\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"domains\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":27,\"key\":\"specialty_section\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty section\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty section\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":28,\"key\":\"specialty_journal\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty journal\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty journal\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":29,\"key\":\"journals\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journals\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journals\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":30,\"key\":\"sections\",\"tenantTerm\":\"sections\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"sections\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":31,\"key\":\"specialty_sections\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty sections\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty sections\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":32,\"key\":\"specialty_journals\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty journals\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty journals\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":33,\"key\":\"manuscript\",\"tenantTerm\":\"manuscript\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"manuscript\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":34,\"key\":\"manuscripts\",\"tenantTerm\":\"manuscripts\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"manuscripts\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":35,\"key\":\"article\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":36,\"key\":\"articles\",\"tenantTerm\":\"articles\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"articles\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":37,\"key\":\"article_type\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article type\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article type\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":38,\"key\":\"article_types\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article types\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article types\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":39,\"key\":\"author\",\"tenantTerm\":\"author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":40,\"key\":\"authors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"authors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"authors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":41,\"key\":\"authoring\",\"tenantTerm\":\"authoring\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"authoring\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":42,\"key\":\"authored\",\"tenantTerm\":\"authored\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"authored\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":43,\"key\":\"accept\",\"tenantTerm\":\"accept\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accept\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":44,\"key\":\"accepted\",\"tenantTerm\":\"accepted\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accepted\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":45,\"key\":\"assistant_field_chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Assistant Field Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Assistant Field Chief Editor\",\"description\":\"An editorial role on a Field Journal that a Registered User may hold. This gives them rights to different functionality and parts of the platform\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":46,\"key\":\"assistant_specialty_chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Assistant Specialty Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Assistant Specialty Chief Editor\",\"description\":\"An editorial role on a specialty that a Registered User may hold. This gives them rights to different functionality and parts of the platform\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":47,\"key\":\"assistant_specialty_chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Assistant Specialty Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Assistant Specialty Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":48,\"key\":\"associate_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Associate Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Associate Editor\",\"description\":\"An editorial role on a specialty that a Registered User may hold. This gives them rights to different functionality and parts of the platform\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":49,\"key\":\"specialty_chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Specialty Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Specialty Chief Editor\",\"description\":\"An editorial role on a specialty that a Registered User may hold. This gives them rights to different functionality and parts of the platform\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":50,\"key\":\"specialty_chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Specialty Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Specialty Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":51,\"key\":\"chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Chief Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":52,\"key\":\"chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":53,\"key\":\"call_for_participation\",\"tenantTerm\":\"call for participation\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"call for participation\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":54,\"key\":\"citation\",\"tenantTerm\":\"citation\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"citation\",\"category\":\"Misc.\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":55,\"key\":\"citations\",\"tenantTerm\":\"citations\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"citations\",\"category\":\"Misc.\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":56,\"key\":\"contributor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"contributor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"contributor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":57,\"key\":\"contributors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"contributors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"contributors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":58,\"key\":\"corresponding_author\",\"tenantTerm\":\"corresponding author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"corresponding author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":59,\"key\":\"corresponding_authors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"corresponding authors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"corresponding authors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":60,\"key\":\"decline\",\"tenantTerm\":\"decline\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"decline\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":61,\"key\":\"declined\",\"tenantTerm\":\"declined\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"declined\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":62,\"key\":\"reject\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reject\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reject\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":63,\"key\":\"rejected\",\"tenantTerm\":\"rejected\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"rejected\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":64,\"key\":\"publish\",\"tenantTerm\":\"publish\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"publish\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":65,\"key\":\"published\",\"tenantTerm\":\"published\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"published\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":66,\"key\":\"publication\",\"tenantTerm\":\"publication\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"publication\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":67,\"key\":\"peer_review\",\"tenantTerm\":\"peer review\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"peer review\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":68,\"key\":\"peer_reviewed\",\"tenantTerm\":\"peer reviewed\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"peer reviewed\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":69,\"key\":\"initial_validation\",\"tenantTerm\":\"initial validation\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"initial validation\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":70,\"key\":\"editorial_assignment\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial assignment\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial assignment\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":71,\"key\":\"independent_review\",\"tenantTerm\":\"independent review\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"independent review\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":72,\"key\":\"interactive_review\",\"tenantTerm\":\"interactive review\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"interactive review\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":73,\"key\":\"review\",\"tenantTerm\":\"review\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"review\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":74,\"key\":\"reviewing\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reviewing\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reviewing\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":75,\"key\":\"reviewer\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reviewer\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reviewer\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":76,\"key\":\"reviewers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reviewers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reviewers\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":77,\"key\":\"review_finalized\",\"tenantTerm\":\"review finalized\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"review finalized\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":78,\"key\":\"final_decision\",\"tenantTerm\":\"final decision\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"final decision\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":79,\"key\":\"final_validation\",\"tenantTerm\":\"final validation\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"final validation\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":80,\"key\":\"ae_accept_manuscript\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommend to accept manuscript\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accept manuscript\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":81,\"key\":\"fee\",\"tenantTerm\":\"fee\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"fee\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":82,\"key\":\"fees\",\"tenantTerm\":\"fees\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"fees\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":83,\"key\":\"guest_associate_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Guest Associate Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Guest Associate Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":84,\"key\":\"guest_associate_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Guest Associate Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Guest Associate Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":85,\"key\":\"in_review\",\"tenantTerm\":\"in review\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"in review\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":86,\"key\":\"institutional_member\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institutional partner\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institutional partner\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":87,\"key\":\"institutional_membership\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institutional partnership\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institutional partnership\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":88,\"key\":\"article_processing_charge\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article processing charge\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article processing charge\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":89,\"key\":\"article_processing_charges\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article processing charges\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article processing charges\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":90,\"key\":\"apcs\",\"tenantTerm\":\"APCs\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"APCs\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":91,\"key\":\"apc\",\"tenantTerm\":\"APC\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"APC\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":92,\"key\":\"received\",\"tenantTerm\":\"received\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"received\",\"description\":\"Date manuscript was received on.\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":93,\"key\":\"transferred\",\"tenantTerm\":\"transferred\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"transferred\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":94,\"key\":\"transfer\",\"tenantTerm\":\"transfer\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"transfer\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":95,\"key\":\"research_topic\",\"tenantTerm\":\"research topic\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"research topic\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":96,\"key\":\"research_topics\",\"tenantTerm\":\"research topics\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"research topics\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":97,\"key\":\"topic_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Topic Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Topic Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":98,\"key\":\"review_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Review Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Review Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":99,\"key\":\"title\",\"tenantTerm\":\"title\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"title\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":100,\"key\":\"running_title\",\"tenantTerm\":\"running title\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"running title\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":101,\"key\":\"submit\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submit\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submit\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":102,\"key\":\"submitted\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submitted\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submitted\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":103,\"key\":\"submitting\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submitting\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submitting\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":104,\"key\":\"t_e\",\"tenantTerm\":\"TE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"TE\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":105,\"key\":\"topic\",\"tenantTerm\":\"topic\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"topic\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":106,\"key\":\"topic_summary\",\"tenantTerm\":\"topic summary\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"topic summary\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":107,\"key\":\"figure\",\"tenantTerm\":\"figure\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"figure\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":108,\"key\":\"figures\",\"tenantTerm\":\"figures\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"figures\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":109,\"key\":\"editorial_file\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial file\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial file\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":110,\"key\":\"editorial_files\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial files\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial files\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":111,\"key\":\"e_book\",\"tenantTerm\":\"e-book\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"e-book\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":112,\"key\":\"organization\",\"tenantTerm\":\"organization\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"organization\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":113,\"key\":\"institution\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institution\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institution\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":114,\"key\":\"reference\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reference\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reference\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":115,\"key\":\"references\",\"tenantTerm\":\"references\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"references\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":116,\"key\":\"sce\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SCE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SCE\",\"description\":\"Abbreviation for Specialty Chief Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":117,\"key\":\"submission\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submission\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submission\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":118,\"key\":\"submissions\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submissions\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submissions\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":119,\"key\":\"editing\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editing\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editing\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":120,\"key\":\"in_preparation\",\"tenantTerm\":\"in preparation\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"in preparation\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":121,\"key\":\"country_region\",\"tenantTerm\":\"country\u002Fregion\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"country\u002Fregion\",\"description\":\"Because of political issues, some of the country listings are actually classified as `regions` and we need to include this. However other clients may not want to do this.\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":122,\"key\":\"countries_regions\",\"tenantTerm\":\"countries\u002Fregions\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"countries\u002Fregions\",\"description\":\"Because of political issues, some of the country listings are actually classified as `regions` and we need to include this. However other clients may not want to do this.\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":123,\"key\":\"specialty\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":124,\"key\":\"specialties\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialties\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialties\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":125,\"key\":\"associate_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Associate Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Associate Editors\",\"description\":\"An editorial role on a specialty that a Registered User may hold. This gives them rights to different functionality and parts of the platform\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":126,\"key\":\"reviewed\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reviewed\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reviewed\",\"category\":\"Peer Review Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":127,\"key\":\"institutional_members\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institutional partners\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institutional partners\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":128,\"key\":\"institutional_memberships\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institutional partnerships\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institutional partnerships\",\"category\":\"Accounting\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":129,\"key\":\"assistant_field_chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Assistant Field Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Assistant Field Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":130,\"key\":\"publications\",\"tenantTerm\":\"publications\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"publications\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":131,\"key\":\"ae_accepted\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommended acceptance\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accepted\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":132,\"key\":\"field_journal\",\"tenantTerm\":\"field journal\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"field journal\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":133,\"key\":\"field_journals\",\"tenantTerm\":\"field journals\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"field journals\",\"category\":\"Taxonomy\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":134,\"key\":\"program_manager\",\"tenantTerm\":\"program manager\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"program manager\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":135,\"key\":\"journal_manager\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal manager\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal manager\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":136,\"key\":\"journal_specialist\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal specialist\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal specialist\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":137,\"key\":\"program_managers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"program managers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"program managers\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":138,\"key\":\"journal_managers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal managers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal managers\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":139,\"key\":\"journal_specialists\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal specialists\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal specialists\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":140,\"key\":\"cover_letter\",\"tenantTerm\":\"manuscript contribution to the field\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"manuscript contribution to the field\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":141,\"key\":\"ae_accepted_manuscript\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommended to accept manuscript\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accepted manuscript\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":142,\"key\":\"recommend_for_rejection\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommend for rejection\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"recommend for rejection\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":143,\"key\":\"recommended_for_rejection\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommended for rejection\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"recommended for rejection\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":144,\"key\":\"ae\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AE\",\"description\":\"Associate Editor - board member\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":145,\"key\":\"re\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RE\",\"description\":\"Review Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":146,\"key\":\"rev\",\"tenantTerm\":\"REV\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"REV\",\"description\":\"Reviewer\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":147,\"key\":\"aut\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AUT\",\"description\":\"Author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":148,\"key\":\"coraut\",\"tenantTerm\":\"CORAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"CORAUT\",\"description\":\"Corresponding author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":149,\"key\":\"saut\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SAUT\",\"description\":\"Submitting author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":150,\"key\":\"coaut\",\"tenantTerm\":\"COAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"COAUT\",\"description\":\"co-author\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":151,\"key\":\"tsof\",\"tenantTerm\":\"TSOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"TSOF\",\"description\":\"Typesetter\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":152,\"key\":\"typesetting_office\",\"tenantTerm\":\"typesetting office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"typesetting office\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":153,\"key\":\"config\",\"tenantTerm\":\"CONFIG\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"CONFIG\",\"description\":\"Configuration office role\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":154,\"key\":\"jm\",\"tenantTerm\":\"JM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"JM\",\"description\":\"Journal Manager\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":155,\"key\":\"rte\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RTE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RTE\",\"description\":\"Research topic editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":156,\"key\":\"organizations\",\"tenantTerm\":\"organizations\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"organizations\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":157,\"key\":\"publishing\",\"tenantTerm\":\"publishing\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"publishing\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":158,\"key\":\"acceptance\",\"tenantTerm\":\"acceptance\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"acceptance\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":159,\"key\":\"preferred_associate_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"preferred associate editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"preferred associate editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":160,\"key\":\"topic_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Topic Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Topic Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":161,\"key\":\"institutions\",\"tenantTerm\":\"institutions\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"institutions\",\"category\":\"Core\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":162,\"key\":\"author(s)\",\"tenantTerm\":\"author(s)\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"author(s)\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":163,\"key\":\"figure(s)\",\"tenantTerm\":\"figure(s)\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"figure(s)\",\"category\":\"Manuscript Metadata\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":164,\"key\":\"co-authors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"co-authors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"co-authors\",\"description\":\"co-authors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":165,\"key\":\"editorial_board_members\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial board members\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial board members\",\"description\":\"editorial board members\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":166,\"key\":\"editorial_board\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial board\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial board\",\"description\":\"editorial board\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":167,\"key\":\"co-authorship\",\"tenantTerm\":\"co-authorship\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"co-authorship\",\"description\":\"co-authorship\",\"category\":\"Misc.\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":168,\"key\":\"role_id_1\",\"tenantTerm\":\"registration office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"registration office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":169,\"key\":\"role_id_2\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":170,\"key\":\"role_id_7\",\"tenantTerm\":\"field chief editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"field chief editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":171,\"key\":\"role_id_8\",\"tenantTerm\":\"assistant field chief editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"assistant field chief editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":172,\"key\":\"role_id_9\",\"tenantTerm\":\"specialty chief editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"specialty chief editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":173,\"key\":\"role_id_10\",\"tenantTerm\":\"assistant specialty chief editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"assistant specialty chief editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":174,\"key\":\"role_id_11\",\"tenantTerm\":\"associate editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"associate editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":175,\"key\":\"role_id_12\",\"tenantTerm\":\"guest associate editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"guest associate editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":176,\"key\":\"role_id_13\",\"tenantTerm\":\"review editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"review editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":177,\"key\":\"role_id_14\",\"tenantTerm\":\"reviewer\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"reviewer\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":178,\"key\":\"role_id_15\",\"tenantTerm\":\"author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"author\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":179,\"key\":\"role_id_16\",\"tenantTerm\":\"corresponding author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"corresponding author\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":180,\"key\":\"role_id_17\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submitting author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submitting author\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":181,\"key\":\"role_id_18\",\"tenantTerm\":\"co-author\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"co-author\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":182,\"key\":\"role_id_20\",\"tenantTerm\":\"production office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"production office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":183,\"key\":\"role_id_22\",\"tenantTerm\":\"typesetting office (typesetter)\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"typesetting office (typesetter)\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":184,\"key\":\"role_id_24\",\"tenantTerm\":\"registered user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"registered user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":185,\"key\":\"role_id_35\",\"tenantTerm\":\"job office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"job office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":186,\"key\":\"role_id_41\",\"tenantTerm\":\"special event administrator\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"special event administrator\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":187,\"key\":\"role_id_42\",\"tenantTerm\":\"special event reviewer\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"special event reviewer\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":188,\"key\":\"role_id_43\",\"tenantTerm\":\"submit abstract\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"submit abstract\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":189,\"key\":\"role_id_52\",\"tenantTerm\":\"events office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"events office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":190,\"key\":\"role_id_53\",\"tenantTerm\":\"event administrator\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"event administrator\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":191,\"key\":\"role_id_89\",\"tenantTerm\":\"content management office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"content management office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":192,\"key\":\"role_id_98\",\"tenantTerm\":\"accounting office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accounting office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":193,\"key\":\"role_id_99\",\"tenantTerm\":\"projects\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"projects\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":194,\"key\":\"role_id_103\",\"tenantTerm\":\"configuration office\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"configuration office\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":195,\"key\":\"role_id_104\",\"tenantTerm\":\"beta user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"beta user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":196,\"key\":\"role_id_106\",\"tenantTerm\":\"wfconf\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"wfconf\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":197,\"key\":\"role_id_107\",\"tenantTerm\":\"rt management beta user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"rt management beta user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":198,\"key\":\"role_id_108\",\"tenantTerm\":\"deo beta user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"deo beta user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":199,\"key\":\"role_id_109\",\"tenantTerm\":\"search beta user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"search beta user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":200,\"key\":\"role_id_110\",\"tenantTerm\":\"journal manager\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"journal manager\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":201,\"key\":\"role_id_111\",\"tenantTerm\":\"myfrontiers beta user\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"myfrontiers beta user\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":202,\"key\":\"role_id_21\",\"tenantTerm\":\"copy editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"copy editor\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":203,\"key\":\"role_id_1_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"ROF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"ROF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":204,\"key\":\"role_id_2_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"EOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"EOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":205,\"key\":\"role_id_7_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"FCE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"FCE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":206,\"key\":\"role_id_8_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AFCE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AFCE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":207,\"key\":\"role_id_9_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SCE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SCE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":208,\"key\":\"role_id_10_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"ASCE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"ASCE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":209,\"key\":\"role_id_11_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":210,\"key\":\"role_id_12_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"GAE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"GAE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":211,\"key\":\"role_id_13_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RE\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RE\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":212,\"key\":\"role_id_14_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"REV\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"REV\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":213,\"key\":\"role_id_15_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AUT\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":214,\"key\":\"role_id_16_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"CORAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"CORAUT\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":215,\"key\":\"role_id_17_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SAUT\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":216,\"key\":\"role_id_18_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"COAUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"COAUT\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":217,\"key\":\"role_id_20_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"POF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"POF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":218,\"key\":\"role_id_22_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"TSOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"TSOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":219,\"key\":\"role_id_24_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RU\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RU\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":220,\"key\":\"role_id_35_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"JOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"JOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":221,\"key\":\"role_id_41_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SE-ADM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SE-ADM\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":222,\"key\":\"role_id_42_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SE-REV\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SE-REV\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":223,\"key\":\"role_id_43_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SE-AUT\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SE-AUT\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":224,\"key\":\"role_id_52_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"EVOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"EVOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":225,\"key\":\"role_id_53_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"EV-ADM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"EV-ADM\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":226,\"key\":\"role_id_89_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"COMOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"COMOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":227,\"key\":\"role_id_98_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"AOF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"AOF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":228,\"key\":\"role_id_99_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Projects\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Projects\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":229,\"key\":\"role_id_103_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"CONFIG\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"CONFIG\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":230,\"key\":\"role_id_104_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"BETA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"BETA\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":231,\"key\":\"role_id_106_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"WFCONF\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"WFCONF\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":232,\"key\":\"role_id_107_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RTBETA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RTBETA\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":233,\"key\":\"role_id_108_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"DEOBETA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"DEOBETA\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":234,\"key\":\"role_id_109_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"SEARCHBETA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"SEARCHBETA\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":235,\"key\":\"role_id_110_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"JM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"JM\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":236,\"key\":\"role_id_111_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"MFBETA\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"MFBETA\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":237,\"key\":\"role_id_21_abr\",\"tenantTerm\":\"COPED\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"COPED\",\"category\":\"User Role\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":238,\"key\":\"reviewer_editorial_board\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial board\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editorial board\",\"description\":\"This is the label for the review editorial board\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":239,\"key\":\"field_chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Field Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Field Chief Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":240,\"key\":\"field_chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Field Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Field Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":241,\"key\":\"editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":242,\"key\":\"editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":243,\"key\":\"board\",\"tenantTerm\":\"board\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"board\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":244,\"key\":\"boards\",\"tenantTerm\":\"boards\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"boards\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":245,\"key\":\"article_collection\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article collection\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article collection\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":246,\"key\":\"article_collections\",\"tenantTerm\":\"article collections\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"article collections\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":247,\"key\":\"handling_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"handling editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"associate editor\",\"description\":\"This terminology key is for the person assigned to edit a manuscript. It is a label for the temporary handling editor assignment.\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":248,\"key\":\"handling_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"handling editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"associate editors\",\"description\":\"This terminology key is for the person assigned to edit a manuscript. It is a label for the temporary handling editor assignment.\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":249,\"key\":\"ae_accept\",\"tenantTerm\":\"recommend acceptance\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"accept\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":250,\"key\":\"rtm\",\"tenantTerm\":\"RTM\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"RTM\",\"category\":\"Product\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":251,\"key\":\"frontiers_media_sa\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Frontiers Media S.A\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Frontiers Media S.A\",\"category\":\"Customer\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":252,\"key\":\"review_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Review Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Review Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":253,\"key\":\"journal_card_chief_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Chief Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Chief Editor\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":254,\"key\":\"journal_card_chief_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Chief Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Chief Editors\",\"category\":\"Label (Role)\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":255,\"key\":\"call_for_papers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Call for papers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Call for papers\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":256,\"key\":\"calls_for_papers\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Calls for papers\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Calls for papers\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":257,\"key\":\"supervising_editor\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Supervising Editor\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Supervising Editor\",\"description\":\"A Chief or Assistant Chief editor who is assigned to a manuscript to supervise.\",\"category\":\"Role\",\"externalKey\":\"supervising_editor\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":258,\"key\":\"supervising_editors\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Supervising Editors\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Supervising Editors\",\"description\":\"A Chief or Assistant Chief editor who is assigned to a manuscript to supervise.\",\"category\":\"Role\",\"externalKey\":\"supervising_editors\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":259,\"key\":\"reviewer_endorse\",\"tenantTerm\":\"endorse\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"endorse\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":260,\"key\":\"reviewer_endorsed\",\"tenantTerm\":\"endorsed\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"endorsed\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":261,\"key\":\"reviewer_endorse_publication\",\"tenantTerm\":\"endorse publication\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"endorse publication\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":262,\"key\":\"reviewer_endorsed_publication\",\"tenantTerm\":\"endorsed publication\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"endorsed publication\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":263,\"key\":\"editor_role\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editor role\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Editor Role\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":264,\"key\":\"editor_roles\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editor roles\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Editor Roles\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":265,\"key\":\"editorial_role\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial role\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Editorial Role\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":266,\"key\":\"editorial_roles\",\"tenantTerm\":\"editorial roles\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Editorial Roles\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":267,\"key\":\"call_for_paper\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Call for paper\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Call for paper\",\"category\":\"Label\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":268,\"key\":\"research_topic_abstract\",\"tenantTerm\":\"manuscript summary\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"manuscript summary\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":269,\"key\":\"research_topic_abstracts\",\"tenantTerm\":\"manuscript summaries\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"manuscript summaries\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":270,\"key\":\"submissions_team_manager\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Journal Manager\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Content Manager\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":271,\"key\":\"submissions_team\",\"tenantTerm\":\"Journal Team\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"Content Team\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":272,\"key\":\"topic_coordinator\",\"tenantTerm\":\"topic coordinator\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"topic coordinator\",\"category\":\"Process\"},{\"sequenceNumber\":273,\"key\":\"topic_coordinators\",\"tenantTerm\":\"topic coordinators\",\"frontiersDefaultTerm\":\"topic coordinators\",\"category\":\"Process\"}]}'\n",gtmId:"GTM-M322FV2",gtmAuth:"owVbWxfaJr21yQv1fe1cAQ",gtmServerUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Ftag-manager.frontiersin.org",gtmPreview:"env-1",faviconSize512:"https:\u002F\u002Fbrand.frontiersin.org\u002Fm\u002Fed3f9ce840a03d7\u002Ffavicon_512-tenantFavicon-Frontiers.png",socialMediaImg:"https:\u002F\u002Fbrand.frontiersin.org\u002Fm\u002F1c8bcb536c789e11\u002FGuidelines-Frontiers_Logo_1200x628_1-91to1.png",_app:{basePath:"\u002F",assetsPath:"\u002Farticle-pages\u002F_nuxt\u002F",cdnURL:e}},apollo:{contentfulJournalsDelivery:Object.create(null),contentfulJournalsPreview:Object.create(null),contentfulHomeDelivery:Object.create(null),contentfulHomePreview:Object.create(null),frontiersGraph:Object.create(null)}}}("journal_journal","public_space",1,"frontiersin.org",null,"","_self",true,false,0,3,"frontierspartnerships.org","_blank","Germany","citation_author","citation_author_institution","Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU)","Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich (TU), Germany",2,"Frontiers in Medicine","PDF",5,602,"medicine","Link",4,18,"Anna","description","Frontiers","Help center","Grey","Medium","ssph-journal.org","fship","image","landscape","Front. Med.","2296-858X",void 0,"Obstetrics and Gynecology","pathology",1920,"por-journal.com",7,"escubed.org",1918,"fipp","https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F3501F557-CAFA-4218-930C20D1D930C78C\u002Fwebimage-5988957C-0534-4338-984381D67214C0AF.png","22C10171-81B3-4DA6-99342F272A32E8BB","jpg","2022-06-27T10:00:04Z",2456,"fmed",39,"journal_field","10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615","ChatGPT’s performance in German OB\u002FGYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice","\u003Csec id=\"sec1\"\u003E\u003Ctitle\u003EBackground\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\u003Cp\u003EChat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes deep learning algorithms to process natural language and generate responses, which renders it suitable for conversational interfaces. ChatGPT’s potential to transform medical education and clinical practice is currently being explored, but its capabilities and limitations in this domain remain incompletely investigated. The present study aimed to assess ChatGPT’s performance in medical knowledge competency for problem assessment in obstetrics and gynecology (OB\u002FGYN).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fsec\u003E\u003Csec id=\"sec2\"\u003E\u003Ctitle\u003EMethods\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\u003Cp\u003ETwo datasets were established for analysis: questions (1) from OB\u002FGYN course exams at a German university hospital and (2) from the German medical state licensing exams. In order to assess ChatGPT’s performance, questions were entered into the chat interface, and responses were documented. A quantitative analysis compared ChatGPT’s accuracy with that of medical students for different levels of difficulty and types of questions. Additionally, a qualitative analysis assessed the quality of ChatGPT’s responses regarding ease of understanding, conciseness, accuracy, completeness, and relevance. Non-obvious insights generated by ChatGPT were evaluated, and a density index of insights was established in order to quantify the tool’s ability to provide students with relevant and concise medical knowledge.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fsec\u003E\u003Csec id=\"sec3\"\u003E\u003Ctitle\u003EResults\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\u003Cp\u003EChatGPT demonstrated consistent and comparable performance across both datasets. It provided correct responses at a rate comparable with that of medical students, thereby indicating its ability to handle a diverse spectrum of questions ranging from general knowledge to complex clinical case presentations. The tool’s accuracy was partly affected by question difficulty in the medical state exam dataset. Our qualitative assessment revealed that ChatGPT provided mostly accurate, complete, and relevant answers. ChatGPT additionally provided many non-obvious insights, especially in correctly answered questions, which indicates its potential for enhancing autonomous medical learning.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fsec\u003E\u003Csec id=\"sec4\"\u003E\u003Ctitle\u003EConclusion\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\u003Cp\u003EChatGPT has promise as a supplementary tool in medical education and clinical practice. Its ability to provide accurate and insightful responses showcases its adaptability to complex clinical scenarios. As AI technologies continue to evolve, ChatGPT and similar tools may contribute to more efficient and personalized learning experiences and assistance for health care providers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fsec\u003E",2470056,"Maximilian","Riedel",2577566,"Katharina","Antonia","Viktoria","Niklas","Florian","Evelyn","Marion","Fabian","Bastian",1218371,"Omneya",416383,1775656,"Hosna",{},2526,"obstetrics-and-gynecology",3573,1397,10,"EPUB","fmed-10-1296615.pdf","Frontiers | ChatGPT’s performance in German OB\u002FGYN exams – paving the way for AI-enhanced medical education and clinical practice","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals\u002Fmedicine\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffmed.2023.1296615\u002Ffull","BackgroundChat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an artificial learning and large language model tool developed by OpenAI in 2022. It utilizes ...","og:title","og:description","keywords","og:site_name","og:image","og:type","og:url","twitter:card","citation_volume","citation_journal_title","citation_publisher","citation_journal_abbrev","citation_issn","citation_doi","citation_firstpage","citation_language","citation_title","citation_keywords","citation_abstract","citation_pdf_url","citation_online_date","citation_publication_date","dc.identifier","articles","editors","research-topics","https:\u002F\u002Fd2csxpduxe849s.cloudfront.net\u002Fmedia\u002FE32629C6-9347-4F84-81FEAEF7BFA342B3\u002F0B4B1380-42EB-4FD5-9D7E2DBC603E79F8\u002Fwebimage-C4875379-1478-416F-B03DF68FE3D8DBB5.png","Man ultramarathon runner in the mountains he trains at sunset","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fresearch-integrity","How we publish","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fhow-we-publish","Fee policy","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Ffee-policy","Research Topics","https:\u002F\u002Fforum.frontiersin.org\u002F","Frontiers Planet Prize","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersplanetprize.org\u002F","this link will take you to the Frontiers Planet Prize website","Career opportunities","https:\u002F\u002Fcareers.frontiersin.org\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fabout\u002Fcontact","gastroenterology","hematology","nephrology","nuclear-medicine","ophthalmology","Author guidelines","Editor guidelines","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Fjournals","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Farticles","Articles","https:\u002F\u002Fhelpcenter.frontiersin.org","Frontiers for Young Minds","Frontiers Facebook",9,"Transplant International","transplant-international","ti",1921,"Spanish Journal of Soil Science","spanish-journal-of-soil-science","sjss","ebm-journal.org","Public Health Reviews","public-health-reviews","phrs","Pathology and Oncology Research","pathology-and-oncology-research","pore",21,"Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice","pastoralism-research-policy-and-practice","past",11,"Oncology Reviews","oncology-reviews","or","Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences","journal-of-pharmacy-pharmaceutical-sciences","jpps","Journal of Cutaneous Immunology and Allergy","journal-of-cutaneous-immunology-and-allergy","JCIA","Journal of Abdominal Wall Surgery","journal-of-abdominal-wall-surgery","jaws",1919,"International Journal of Public Health","international-journal-of-public-health","ijph","Frontiers in Pathology","fpath",13,12,17,6,"Experimental Biology and Medicine","experimental-biology-and-medicine","EBM","European Journal of Cultural Management and Policy","european-journal-of-cultural-management-and-policy","ejcmp","Earth Science, Systems and Society","earth-science-systems-and-society","esss","Dystonia","dystonia","dyst","British Journal of Biomedical Science","british-journal-of-biomedical-science","bjbs","Aerospace Research Communications","aerospace-research-communications","arc","Advances in Drug and Alcohol Research","advances-in-drug-and-alcohol-research","adar","Acta Virologica","acta-virologica","av","Acta Biochimica Polonica","acta-biochimica-polonica"));</script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/e397d1a.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/a5e7651.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/f548f7f.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/e3c5a8f.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/0d6d8e5.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/ed7fc59.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/2abb6c5.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/701e3a3.js" defer></script><script src="/article-pages/_nuxt/71728a1.js" defer></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/polyfill/v3/polyfill.min.js?features=es6" data-body="true" async></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/mathjax/2.7.1/MathJax.js?config=TeX-MML-AM_CHTML" data-body="true" async></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/altmetric_badges-f0bc9b243ff5677d05460c1eb71834ca998946d764eb3bc244ab4b18ba50d21e.js" data-body="true" async></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://api.altmetric.com/v1/doi/10.3389/fmed.2023.1296615?callback=_altmetric.embed_callback&domain=www.frontiersin.org&key=3c130976ca2b8f2e88f8377633751ba1&cache_until=14-15" data-body="true" async></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://crossmark-cdn.crossref.org/widget/v2.0/widget.js" data-body="true" async></script> </body> </html>