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class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_actinium_to_uranium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 From actinium to uranium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_actinium_to_uranium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neptunium_and_above" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neptunium_and_above"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Neptunium and above </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neptunium_and_above-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isotopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isotopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Isotopes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isotopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_in_nuclear_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_in_nuclear_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Formation in nuclear reactors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_in_nuclear_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_in_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_in_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Distribution in nature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_in_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Extraction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Properties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Properties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Physical properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Chemical properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Compounds </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Compounds subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxides_and_hydroxides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxides_and_hydroxides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Oxides and hydroxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxides_and_hydroxides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Salts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Toxicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Actinide</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" > 97 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinied" title="Aktinied – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aktinied" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B2%E1%8A%96%E1%8B%AD%E1%8B%B5" title="አክቲኖይድ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አክቲኖይድ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1" title="एक्टिनाइड – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="एक्टिनाइड" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="أكتينيدات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أكتينيدات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinido" title="Actinido – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Actinido" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act%C3%ADnidu" title="Actínidu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Actínidu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidl%C9%99r" title="Aktinoidlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aktinoidlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinida" title="Aktinida – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Aktinida" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A1" title="অ্যাক্টিনাইড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাক্টিনাইড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium-h%C4%93" title="Actinium-hē – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Actinium-hē" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Актыноіды – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Актыноіды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Актыніды – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Актыніды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Актинид – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Актинид" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="ཨེག་རྒྱུད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཨེག་རྒྱུད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidi" title="Aktinoidi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Aktinoidi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoide" title="Actinoide – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Actinoide" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Актиноидсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Актиноидсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidy" title="Aktinoidy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aktinoidy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinid" title="Actinid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Actinid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinid" title="Actinid – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Actinid" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoide" title="Actinoide – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Actinoide" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidid" title="Aktinoidid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aktinoidid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Ακτινίδες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακτινίδες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act%C3%ADnido" title="Actínido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Actínido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktiniidoj" title="Aktiniidoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aktiniidoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinido" title="Aktinido – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aktinido" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7" title="آکتینیدها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آکتینیدها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoid" title="Actinoid – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Actinoid" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Actinide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achtain%C3%ADd" title="Achtainíd – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Achtainíd" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sreath_nan_actanach" title="Sreath nan actanach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sreath nan actanach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act%C3%ADnidos" title="Actínidos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Actínidos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium-hi" title="Actinium-hi – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Actinium-hi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%85%ED%8B%B0%EB%8A%84%EC%A1%B1" title="악티늄족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="악티늄족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ակտինիդներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ակտինիդներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1" title="ऐक्टिनाइड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऐक्टिनाइड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidi" title="Aktinoidi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Aktinoidi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinida" title="Aktinida – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aktinida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinido" title="Actinido – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Actinido" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktin%C3%AD%C3%B0" title="Aktiníð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Aktiníð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attinoidi" title="Attinoidi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Attinoidi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%93" title="אקטיניד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אקטיניד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinida" title="Aktinida – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Aktinida" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აქტინოიდები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აქტინოიდები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Актиноидтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Актиноидтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinidi" title="Aktinidi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Aktinidi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Актиноиддер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Актиноиддер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinida" title="Actinida – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Actinida" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktin%C4%ABdi" title="Aktinīdi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aktinīdi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidai" title="Aktinoidai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aktinoidai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinied" title="Aktinied – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aktinied" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attinid" title="Attinid – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Attinid" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoid%C3%A1k" title="Aktinoidák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Aktinoidák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Актиноиди – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Актиноиди" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="ആക്റ്റിനൈഡുകൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആക്റ്റിനൈഡുകൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1" title="ॲक्टिनाइड – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ॲक्टिनाइड" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinida" title="Aktinida – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Aktinida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium-hi%C3%AA" title="Actinium-hiê – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Actinium-hiê" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Actinide" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%AF%E3%83%81%E3%83%8E%E3%82%A4%E3%83%89" title="アクチノイド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アクチノイド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoid" title="Aktinoid – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Aktinoid" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoid" title="Actinoid – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Actinoid" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoid" title="Actinoid – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Actinoid" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinid" title="Actinid – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Actinid" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidlar" title="Aktinoidlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aktinoidlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DA%88" title="ایکٹینائڈ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایکٹینائڈ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinoid" title="Actinoid – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Actinoid" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktynowce" title="Aktynowce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aktynowce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actin%C3%ADdeo" title="Actinídeo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Actinídeo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Actinide" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinyu_rikch%27aq_q%27illay" title="Aktinyu rikch'aq q'illay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Aktinyu rikch'aq q'illay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Актиноиды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Актиноиды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Актиноид – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Актиноид" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinidet" title="Aktinidet – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Aktinidet" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Actinide" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoid" title="Aktinoid – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Aktinoid" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidi" title="Aktinoidi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aktinoidi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ئەکتینیدەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەکتینیدەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Актиноид – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Актиноид" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidi" title="Aktinoidi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aktinoidi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidi" title="Aktinoidi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aktinoidi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoider" title="Aktinoider – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aktinoider" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinido" title="Aktinido – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Aktinido" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="ஆக்டினைடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆக்டினைடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="แอกทิไนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แอกทิไนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Актиноидҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Актиноидҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinit" title="Aktinit – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aktinit" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Актиноїди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Актиноїди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DA%88" title="اکٹینائڈ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اکٹینائڈ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktinoidad" title="Aktinoidad – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Aktinoidad" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%8D_actini" title="Họ actini – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Họ actini" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8C%92%E7%B3%BB%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="錒系元素 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="錒系元素" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinido" title="Actinido – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Actinido" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%94%95%E7%B3%BB%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="锕系元素 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="锕系元素" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81kt%C3%ADn%C3%ADd%C3%AC" title="Áktínídì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Áktínídì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8C%92%E7%B3%BB%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="錒系元素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="錒系元素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%94%95%E7%B3%BB%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="锕系元素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="锕系元素" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19577#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">F-block chemical elements</div> <div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="micro-periodic-table-title" style="float:right; background:#f8f8f8; padding:0.3em; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; margin:0 0 0.25em 0.5em; text-align:center;;"> <div id="micro-periodic-table-title" style="background:#d8d8d8; padding:0.15em 0.3em; font-size:90%; line-height:110%; font-weight:bold;">Actinides in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a></div> <div style="margin: 0.15em 0; display:table-row;"><div style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;"> <table style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </td> <td colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Neon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> </td> <td colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Scandium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Krypton</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"> </td> <td colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Yttrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Technetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ruthenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">Indium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Tellurium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a> </td></tr> <tr style="border:none;padding:0;"> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Barium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Osmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury (element)</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">Astatine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Radium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rutherfordium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Dubnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bohrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Meitnerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Darmstadtium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Roentgenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nihonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Flerovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Moscovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Livermorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Tennessine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Oganesson</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Periodic_table" title="Category:Periodic table">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Periodic table forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table#Detailed_table" title="Periodic table">18-column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table#The_long-_or_32-column_table" title="Periodic table">32-column</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_periodic_tables" title="Types of periodic tables">Alternative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">extended</a> forms</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">Periodic table history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">D. Mendeleev</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev#Periodic_table" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">1871 table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">1869 predictions</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">Discovery of elements</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naming_of_chemical_elements" title="Naming of chemical elements">Naming</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_name_etymologies" title="List of chemical element name etymologies">etymology</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">for people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places" title="List of chemical elements named after places">for places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_naming_controversies" title="List of chemical element naming controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements_in_East_Asian_languages" title="Chemical elements in East Asian languages">in East Asia</a>)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_element_name" title="Systematic element name">Systematic element names</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left; background:#eeeeff;"> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Names_for_sets_of_chemical_elements" title="Names for sets of chemical elements">Sets of elements</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">By periodic table structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Groups</a> (1–18)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_1_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Group 1 element">1</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2 (alkaline earth metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15 (pnictogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16 (chalcogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17 (halogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18 (noble gases)</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Periods</a> (1–7, ...)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">8+</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Blocks</a> (s, p, d, f, ...)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">Atomic orbitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aufbau_principle" title="Aufbau principle">Aufbau principle</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">By <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_metals,_metalloids_and_nonmetals" title="Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals">metallic classification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">post-transition</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">actinide</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_line_between_metals_and_nonmetals" title="Dividing line between metals and nonmetals">dividing metals and nonmetals</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal" title="Nonmetal">Nonmetals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">nonmetal halogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals" title="Coinage metals">Coinage metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">Platinum-group metals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">Refractory metals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_element" title="Heavy metal element">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_metal" title="Light metal">Light metals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">Native metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">Noble metals</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main-group_element" title="Main-group element">Main-group elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth elements</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">Transuranium</a> elements</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_actinide" title="Major actinide">Major</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">trans-</a> actinides</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left; background:#eeeeff;"> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Elements</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements" title="List of chemical elements">List of chemical elements</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">by abundance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_human_body" title="Composition of the human body">in human body</a>)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_atomic_properties" title="List of elements by atomic properties">by atomic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_stability_of_isotopes" title="List of elements by stability of isotopes">by isotope stability</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">by symbol</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Properties" title="Chemical element">Properties of elements</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relative_atomic_mass" title="Relative atomic mass">Relative atomic mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(crystal_structure)" title="Periodic table (crystal structure)">Crystal structure</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>Electron <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">configuration</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electronegativity#Allen_electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Allen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity#Pauling_electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Pauling</a>)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">Valence</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Data pages for elements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">Atomic radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Boiling points of the elements (data page)">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Critical points of the elements (data page)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Densities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Densities of the elements (data page)">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_properties_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Elastic properties of the elements (data page)">Elasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)">Electrical resistivity</a></li> <li>Electron <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">affinity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Electron_configurations_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electron configurations of the elements (data page)">configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardnesses_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Hardnesses of the elements (data page)">Hardness</a></li> <li>Heat <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heat capacities of the elements (data page)">capacity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heats_of_fusion_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)">of fusion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heats_of_vaporization_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)">of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energies_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Ionization energies of the elements (data page)">Ionization energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Melting points of the elements (data page)">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speeds_of_sound_of_the_elements" title="Speeds of sound of the elements">Speed of sound</a></li> <li>Thermal <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)">conductivity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansivities_of_the_elements" title="Thermal expansivities of the elements">expansion coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressures_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)">Vapor pressure</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#eeeeff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Periodic_table" title="Category:Periodic table">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry Portal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sidebar_periodic_table" title="Template:Sidebar periodic table"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sidebar_periodic_table" title="Template talk:Sidebar periodic table"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sidebar_periodic_table" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sidebar periodic table"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The actinide (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈæktɪnaɪd/</a>) or actinoid (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈæktɪnɔɪd/</a>) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> in the 5f series, with <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic numbers</a> from 89 to 102, <a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">actinium</a> through <a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">nobelium</a>. (Number 103, <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">lawrencium</a>, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The 1985 <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry">IUPAC Red Book</a> recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a <a href="/wiki/Negative_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative ion">negative ion</a>. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium-like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-4">[4]</a> Actinium through nobelium are <a href="/wiki/F-block" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block">f-block</a> elements, while lawrencium is a <a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a> element<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Neve-7">[7]</a> The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shell</a>, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valence</a>. They all have very large <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radii</a> and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">curium</a> onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> are much more similar to <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a> in their chemistry, with <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the <a href="/wiki/Ionization_chamber" title="Ionization chamber">ionization chambers</a> of most modern <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detectors</a>. Of the actinides, <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial</a> thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a> reactions in <a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">uranium ores</a>. The other actinides are purely <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">synthetic elements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-g1250-8">[8]</a> Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>; analysis of debris from a 1952 <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> explosion showed the presence of americium, <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">curium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">berkelium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">californium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">einsteinium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">fermium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PR1955-9">[9]</a> In presentations of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-1">[1]</a> This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the 4f and 5f series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods). <div style="background:#f8f8f8; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; margin:0; padding:2px; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; width: 66em; max-width: 100%"> <div style="background:#d8d8d8; padding:2px 4px;font-weight:bold; font-size: 90%">Actinides</div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="overflow-x: auto; display:block; border-collapse: separate!important; table-layout:fixed; width: 100%; margin: 0!important;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium"><span title="Ac, actinium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Actinium89Ac[227]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium"><span title="Th, thorium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px solid #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px solid #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Thorium90Th232.04</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium"><span title="Pa, protactinium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Protactinium91Pa231.04</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium"><span title="U , uranium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px solid #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px solid #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Uranium92U238.03</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium"><span title="Np, neptunium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Neptunium93Np[237]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium"><span title="Pu, plutonium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dashed #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Plutonium94Pu[244]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium"><span title="Am, americium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Americium95Am[243]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium"><span title="Cm, curium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Curium96Cm[247]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium"><span title="Bk, berkelium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Berkelium97Bk[247]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium"><span title="Cf, californium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Californium98Cf[251]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium"><span title="Es, einsteinium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Einsteinium99Es[252]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium"><span title="Fm, fermium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Fermium100Fm[257]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium"><span title="Md, mendelevium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Mendelevium101Md[258]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium"><span title="No, nobelium" style="background-color: #9bff99; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Nobelium102No[259]</a> </td> <td width="6.6%" style="min-width: 3em"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium"><span title="Lr, lawrencium" style="background-color: #99ccff; border-top: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; border-bottom: 2px dotted #6e6e8e; display: block; line-height: 1.1em; overflow: hidden; padding: 2px 0; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;">Lawrencium103Lr[266]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8; margin:0;"><div style="padding:0.3em;"> <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a>  <a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">From decay</a>  <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Synthetic</a> Border shows natural occurrence of the element </div> </div> </div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery,_isolation_and_synthesis">Discovery, isolation and synthesis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Discovery, isolation and synthesis">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"> <caption>Synthesis of transuranium elements<a href="#cite_note-g1252-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[notes 1]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Element </th> <th>Year </th> <th>Method </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td align="center">1940 </td> <td>Bombarding 238U with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> </td> <td align="center">1941 </td> <td>Bombarding 238U with <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuterons</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td align="center">1944 </td> <td>Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td align="center">1944 </td> <td>Bombarding 239Pu with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">α-particles</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td align="center">1949 </td> <td>Bombarding 241Am with α-particles </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td align="center">1950 </td> <td>Bombarding 242Cm with α-particles </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td align="center">1952 </td> <td>As a product of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosion</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td align="center">1952 </td> <td>As a product of nuclear explosion </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td align="center">1955 </td> <td>Bombarding 253Es with α-particles </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td align="center">1965 </td> <td>Bombarding 243Am with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-15">15N</a> or 238U with <a href="/wiki/Neon-22" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon-22">22Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td align="center">1961 –1971 </td> <td>Bombarding 252Cf with <a href="/wiki/Boron-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-10">10B</a> or <a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">11B</a> and of 243Am with 18O </td></tr></tbody></table> Like the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranium elements</a>, which follow uranium in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for <a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">promethium</a>) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, based on his experiments.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th-period <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Seaborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenn Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a> to formulate an "<a href="/wiki/Actinide_concept" title="Actinide concept">actinide hypothesis</a>". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> At present, there are two major methods of producing <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron-deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six <a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground nuclear testing">underground nuclear explosions</a>. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-lives</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">α-decay</a>. This non-observation was attributed to <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_actinium_to_uranium">From actinium to uranium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: From actinium to uranium">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/220px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/330px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/440px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2927" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> suggested the existence of transuranium elements in 1934.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> were the first actinides <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the chemical elements">discovered</a>. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth" title="Martin Heinrich Klaproth">Martin Heinrich Klaproth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">pitchblende</a> ore. He named it after the planet <a href="/wiki/Uranus_(planet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranus (planet)">Uranus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-g1250-8">[8]</a> which had been discovered eight years earlier. Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely <a href="/wiki/Sodium_diuranate" title="Sodium diuranate">sodium diuranate</a>) by dissolving <a href="/wiki/Pitchblende" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitchblende">pitchblende</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> and neutralizing the solution with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a>. He then reduced the obtained yellow powder with charcoal, and extracted a black substance that he mistook for metal.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Sixty years later, the French scientist <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne-Melchior_P%C3%A9ligot" title="Eugène-Melchior Péligot">Eugène-Melchior Péligot</a> identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating <a href="/wiki/Uranium_tetrachloride" title="Uranium tetrachloride">uranium tetrachloride</a> with metallic <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic mass</a> of uranium was then calculated as 120, but <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thorium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium oxide">Thorium oxide</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> in the mineral <a href="/wiki/Thorianite" title="Thorianite">thorianite</a>, which was found in Norway (1827).<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> characterized this material in more detail in 1828. By reduction of <a href="/wiki/Thorium_tetrachloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium tetrachloride">thorium tetrachloride</a> with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse god</a> of thunder and lightning <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium.<a href="#cite_note-g1250-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> was discovered in 1899 by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Louis_Debierne" title="André-Louis Debierne">André-Louis Debierne</a>, an assistant of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium. He described the substance (in 1899) as similar to <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> and (in 1900) as similar to thorium.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> and 2000,<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Oskar_Giesel" title="Friedrich Oskar Giesel">Friedrich Oskar Giesel</a>, who discovered a radioactive element named emanium that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: ακτίς, ακτίνος (aktis, aktinos), meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Goldschmidt" title="Victor Goldschmidt">Victor Goldschmidt</a> in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> was possibly isolated in 1900 by <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> It was first identified in 1913, when <a href="/wiki/Kasimir_Fajans" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasimir Fajans">Kasimir Fajans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Helmuth_G%C3%B6hring" title="Oswald Helmuth Göhring">Oswald Helmuth Göhring</a> encountered the short-lived isotope 234mPa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain#Uranium_series" title="Decay chain">238U decay chain</a>. They named the new element brevium (from Latin brevis meaning brief);<a href="#cite_note-fajans-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> the name was changed to protoactinium (from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning "first beam element") in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> of Germany and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Arnold_Cranston" title="John Arnold Cranston">John Arnold Cranston</a> of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived 231Pa. The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Maddock" title="Alfred Maddock">Alfred Maddock</a> and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore.<a href="#cite_note-g1251-37">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neptunium_and_above">Neptunium and above</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neptunium and above">edit</a>]</div> Neptunium (named for the planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, the next <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a> out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Abelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip H. Abelson">Philip H. Abelson</a> in 1940 in <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley, California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> They produced the 239Np isotope (half-life 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-g1251-37">[36]</a> It was the first <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranium element</a> produced synthetically.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/220px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/330px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/440px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2378" data-file-height="2949" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> and his group at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_at_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California at Berkeley">University of California at Berkeley</a> synthesized Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and element 106, which was later named <a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">seaborgium</a> in his honor while he was still living. They also synthesized more than a hundred actinide isotopes.</figcaption></figure> Transuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> partially converts to <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{}_{0}^{1}n->{}_{92}^{239}U->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{}_{93}^{239}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.3\ {\ce {days}}]{}_{94}^{239}Pu}}\left({\ce {->[\alpha ][2.4\cdot 10^{4}\ {\ce {years}}]}}\right){\ce {^{235}_{92}U}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>n</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>0</mn> <mn>1</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>23.5</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>min</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Np</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>93</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>2.3</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>days</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Pu</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>94</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>2.4</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>years</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mi>α</mi> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>235</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{}_{0}^{1}n->{}_{92}^{239}U->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{}_{93}^{239}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.3\ {\ce {days}}]{}_{94}^{239}Pu}}\left({\ce {->[\alpha ][2.4\cdot 10^{4}\ {\ce {years}}]}}\right){\ce {^{235}_{92}U}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e7a95dee843f1cf5e9156013e8ca01c30870d896" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.484ex; margin-top: -0.415ex; margin-bottom: -0.521ex; width:66.818ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{}_{0}^{1}n->{}_{92}^{239}U->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{}_{93}^{239}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.3\ {\ce {days}}]{}_{94}^{239}Pu}}\left({\ce {->[\alpha ][2.4\cdot 10^{4}\ {\ce {years}}]}}\right){\ce {^{235}_{92}U}}}"></dd></dl> This synthesis reaction was used by Fermi and his collaborators in their design of the reactors located at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a>, which produced significant amounts of plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and the United States' post-war nuclear arsenal.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a>. Thus <a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">nobelium</a> was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with <a href="/wiki/Neon-22" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon-22">neon-22</a> as <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {_{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo>+</mo> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Ne</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>10</mn> <mn>22</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>No</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>102</mn> <mn>256</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo>+</mo> <mn>4</mn> <msubsup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>n</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {_{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a088d7acb65b797289a44aedbbe486b6d7d79d83" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.196ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {_{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n}}}">.</dd></dl> The first isotopes of transplutonium elements, <a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">americium-241</a> and <a href="/wiki/Curium-242" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-242">curium-242</a>, were synthesized in 1944 by <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._James" title="Ralph A. James">Ralph A. James</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ghiorso" title="Albert Ghiorso">Albert Ghiorso</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {_{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Pu</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>94</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo>+</mo> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>He</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>2</mn> <mn>4</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Cm</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>96</mn> <mn>242</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mo>+</mo> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>n</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>0</mn> <mn>1</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {_{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8c838b89bc27612ebf04eda49688958e0cf2d117" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:28.607ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {_{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n}}}">.</dd></dl> The americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> and her husband <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre</a> who are noted for discovering <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> and for their work in <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium <a href="/wiki/Californium-245" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-245">245Cf</a> in 1950, and a similar procedure yielded <a href="/wiki/Berkelium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkelium-243">berkelium-243</a> from americium-241 in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> The new elements were named after <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley, California</a>, by analogy with its <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanide</a> <a href="/wiki/Homologous_series" title="Homologous series">homologue</a> <a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">terbium</a>, which was named after the village of <a href="/wiki/Ytterby" title="Ytterby">Ytterby</a> in Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> In 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely <a href="/wiki/Americium(III)_hydroxide" title="Americium(III) hydroxide">americium hydroxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> Over the few years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> and californium.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced in 1958,<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> and the first californium compound (0.3 μg of CfOCl) was obtained in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952–1953 in the fallout from the "<a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a>" nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, which underwent a series of <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decays</a> to nuclides such as <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-253" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-253">einsteinium-253</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fermium-255" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermium-255">fermium-255</a>. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the US military until 1955 due to <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> tensions.<a href="#cite_note-PR1955-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-PhysRev.99.1048-53">[52]</a> Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on those elements.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> The "Ivy Mike" studies were declassified and published in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-PhysRev.99.1048-53">[52]</a> The first significant (submicrogram) amounts of einsteinium were produced in 1961 by Cunningham and colleagues, but this has not been done for fermium yet.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> The first isotope of mendelevium, <a href="/wiki/Mendelevium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelevium-256">256Md</a> (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Robert_Choppin" title="Gregory Robert Choppin">Gregory Robert Choppin</a>, Bernard G. Harvey and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Gerald_Thompson" title="Stanley Gerald Thompson">Stanley Gerald Thompson</a> when they bombarded an 253Es target with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> in the 60-inch <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> of <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkeley Radiation Laboratory">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Nobelium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobelium-256">256No</a> by the Russian group of <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Flyorov" title="Georgy Flyorov">Georgy Flyorov</a> in 1965, as acknowledged by the <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22.<a href="#cite_note-g1252-10">[10]</a> In 1961, Ghiorso et al. obtained the first isotope of lawrencium by irradiating californium (mostly <a href="/wiki/Californium-252" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-252">californium-252</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Boron-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-10">boron-10</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">boron-11</a> ions.<a href="#cite_note-g1252-10">[10]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> of this isotope was not clearly established (possibly 258 or 259) at the time. In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrencium-256">256Lr</a> was synthesized by Flyorov et al. from <a href="/wiki/Americium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Americium-243">243Am</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">18O</a>. Thus IUPAC recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Isotopes">Isotopes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Isotopes">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="7">Nuclear properties of isotopes of the most important transplutonium isotopes<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Isotope </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Probability of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> in % </th> <th colspan="2">Emission energy (MeV) (yield in %) </th> <th colspan="2">Specific activity (Bq/kg)<a href="#cite_note-61">[notes 2]</a> of </th></tr> <tr> <th>α </th> <th>γ </th> <th>α, β-particles </th> <th>fission </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">241Am</a></td> <td>432.2(7) y</td> <td>4.3(18)×10−10</td> <td>5.485 (84.8) 5.442 (13.1) 5.388 (1.66)</td> <td>0.059 (35.9) 0.026 (2.27)</td> <td>1.27×1014</td> <td>546.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Americium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Americium-243">243Am</a></td> <td>7.37(4)×103 y</td> <td>3.7(2)×10−9</td> <td>5.275 (87.1) 5.233 (11.2) 5.181 (1.36)</td> <td>0.074 (67.2) 0.043 (5.9)</td> <td>7.39×1012</td> <td>273.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-242" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-242">242Cm</a></td> <td>162.8(2) d</td> <td>6.2(3)×10−6</td> <td>6.069 (25.92) 6.112 (74.08)</td> <td>0.044 (0.04) 0.102 (4×10−3)</td> <td>1.23×1017</td> <td>7.6×109 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-244" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-244">244Cm</a></td> <td>18.10(2) y</td> <td>1.37(3)×10−4</td> <td>5.762 (23.6) 5.804 (76.4)</td> <td>0.043 (0.02) 0.100 (1.5×10−3)</td> <td>2.96×1015</td> <td>4.1×109 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-245" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-245">245Cm</a></td> <td>8.5(1)×103 y</td> <td>6.1(9)×10−7</td> <td>5.529 (0.58) 5.488 (0.83) 5.361 (93.2)</td> <td>0.175 (9.88) 0.133 (2.83)</td> <td>6.35×1012</td> <td>3.9×104 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-246" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-246">246Cm</a></td> <td>4.76(4)×103 y</td> <td>0.02615(7)</td> <td>5.343 (17.8) 5.386 (82.2)</td> <td>0.045 (19)</td> <td>1.13×1013</td> <td>2.95×109 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-247" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-247">247Cm</a></td> <td>1.56(5)×107 y</td> <td>—</td> <td>5.267 (13.8) 5.212 (5.7) 5.147 (1.2)</td> <td>0.402 (72) 0.278 (3.4)</td> <td>3.43×109</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium-248" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-248">248Cm</a></td> <td>3.48(6)×105 y</td> <td>8.39(16)</td> <td>5.034 (16.52) 5.078 (75)</td> <td>—</td> <td>1.40×1011</td> <td>1.29×1010 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Berkelium-249" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkelium-249">249Bk</a></td> <td>330(4) d</td> <td>4.7(2)×10−8</td> <td>5.406 (1×10−3) 5.378 (2.6×10−4)</td> <td>0.32 (5.8×10−5)</td> <td>5.88×1016</td> <td>2.76×107 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium-249" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-249">249Cf</a></td> <td>351(2) y</td> <td>5.0(4)×10−7</td> <td>6.193 (2.46) 6.139 (1.33) 5.946 (3.33)</td> <td>0.388 (66) 0.333 (14.6)</td> <td>1.51×1014</td> <td>7.57×105 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium-250" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-250">250Cf</a></td> <td>13.08(9) y</td> <td>0.077(3)</td> <td>5.988 (14.99) 6.030 (84.6)</td> <td>0.043</td> <td>4.04×1015</td> <td>3.11×1012 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium-251" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-251">251Cf</a></td> <td>900(40) y</td> <td>?</td> <td>6.078 (2.6) 5.567 (0.9) 5.569 (0.9)</td> <td>0.177 (17.3) 0.227 (6.8)</td> <td>5.86×1013</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium-252" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-252">252Cf</a></td> <td>2.645(8) y</td> <td>3.092(8)</td> <td>6.075 (15.2) 6.118 (81.6)</td> <td>0.042 (1.4×10−2) 0.100 (1.3×10−2)</td> <td>1.92×1016</td> <td>6.14×1014 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium-254" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-254">254Cf</a></td> <td>60.5(2) d</td> <td>≈100</td> <td>5.834 (0.26) 5.792 (5.3×10−2)</td> <td>—</td> <td>9.75×1014</td> <td>3.13×1017 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-253" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-253">253Es</a></td> <td>20.47(3) d</td> <td>8.7(3)×10−6</td> <td>6.540 (0.85) 6.552 (0.71) 6.590 (6.6)</td> <td>0.387 (0.05) 0.429 (8×10−3)</td> <td>9.33×1017</td> <td>8.12×1010 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-254" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-254">254Es</a></td> <td>275.7(5) d</td> <td>< 3×10−6</td> <td>6.347 (0.75) 6.358 (2.6) 6.415 (1.8)</td> <td>0.042 (100) 0.034 (30)</td> <td>6.9×1016</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-255" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-255">255Es</a></td> <td>39.8(12) d</td> <td>0.0041(2)</td> <td>6.267 (0.78) 6.401 (7)</td> <td>—</td> <td>4.38×1017(β) 3.81×1016(α)</td> <td>1.95×1013 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fermium-255" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermium-255">255Fm</a></td> <td>20.07(7) h</td> <td>2.4(10)×10−5</td> <td>7.022 (93.4) 6.963 (5.04) 6.892 (0.62)</td> <td>0.00057 (19.1) 0.081 (1)</td> <td>2.27×1019</td> <td>5.44×1012 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fermium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermium-256">256Fm</a></td> <td>157.6(13) min</td> <td>91.9(3)</td> <td>6.872 (1.2) 6.917 (6.9)</td> <td>—</td> <td>1.58×1020</td> <td>1.4×1019 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fermium-257" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermium-257">257Fm</a></td> <td>100.5(2) d</td> <td>0.210(4)</td> <td>6.752 (0.58) 6.695 (3.39) 6.622 (0.6)</td> <td>0.241 (11) 0.179 (8.7)</td> <td>1.87×1017</td> <td>3.93×1014 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelevium-256">256Md</a></td> <td>77(2) min</td> <td>—</td> <td>7.142 (1.84) 7.206 (5.9)</td> <td>—</td> <td>3.53×1020</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium-257" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelevium-257">257Md</a></td> <td>5.52(5) h</td> <td>—</td> <td>7.074 (14)</td> <td>0.371 (11.7) 0.325 (2.5)</td> <td>8.17×1019</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium-258" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelevium-258">258Md</a></td> <td>51.5(3) d</td> <td>—</td> <td>6.73</td> <td>—</td> <td>3.64×1017</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobelium-255" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobelium-255">255No</a></td> <td>3.1(2) min</td> <td>—</td> <td>8.312 (1.16) 8.266 (2.6) 8.121 (27.8)</td> <td>0.187 (3.4)</td> <td>8.78×1021</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobelium-259" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobelium-259">259No</a></td> <td>58(5) min</td> <td>—</td> <td>7.455 (9.8) 7.500 (29.3) 7.533 (17.3)</td> <td>—</td> <td>4.63×1020</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium-256" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrencium-256">256Lr</a></td> <td>27(3) s</td> <td>< 0.03</td> <td>8.319 (5.4) 8.390 (16) 8.430 (33)</td> <td>—</td> <td>5.96×1022</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium-257" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrencium-257">257Lr</a></td> <td>646(25) ms</td> <td>—</td> <td>8.796 (18) 8.861 (82)</td> <td>—</td> <td>1.54×1024</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isotopes_and_half-life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/330px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="396" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/495px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/660px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Actinides have 89–103 protons and usually 117–159 neutrons.</figcaption></figure> Thirty-four <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_actinium" title="Isotopes of actinium">isotopes of actinium</a> and eight excited <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear isomerism">isomeric states</a> of some of its <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclides</a> are known, ranging in mass number from 203 to 236.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Three isotopes, <a href="/wiki/Actinium-225" title="Actinium-225">225Ac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Actinium-227" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-227">227Ac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Actinium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-228">228Ac</a>, were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications. Actinium-225 is a member of the radioactive <a href="/wiki/Neptunium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium series">neptunium series</a>;<a href="#cite_note-g1254-62">[60]</a> it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a> and it is an α-emitter with a half-life of 10 days. Actinium-225 is less available than actinium-228, but is more promising in radiotracer applications.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> Actinium-227 (half-life 21.77 years) occurs in all uranium ores, but in small quantities. One gram of uranium (in radioactive equilibrium) contains only 2×10−10 gram of 227Ac.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Actinium-228 is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_series#Thorium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive series">radioactive thorium series</a> formed by the decay of <a href="/wiki/Radium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-228">228Ra</a>;<a href="#cite_note-g1254-62">[60]</a> it is a β− emitter with a half-life of 6.15 hours. In one tonne of thorium there is 5×10−8 gram of 228Ac. It was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> in 1906.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> There are 32 known <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium" title="Isotopes of thorium">isotopes of thorium</a> ranging in mass number from 207 to 238.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Of these, the longest-lived is 232Th, whose half-life of 1.4×1010 years means that it still exists in nature as a <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclide</a>. The next longest-lived is 230Th, an intermediate decay product of 238U with a half-life of 75,400 years. Several other thorium isotopes have half-lives over a day; all of these are also transient in the decay chains of 232Th, 235U, and 238U. Twenty-nine <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_protactinium" title="Isotopes of protactinium">isotopes of protactinium</a> are known with mass numbers 211–239<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> as well as three excited <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear isomerism">isomeric states</a>. Only <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-231" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-231">231Pa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-234" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-234">234Pa</a> have been found in nature. All the isotopes have short lifetimes, except for protactinium-231 (half-life 32,760 years). The most important isotopes are 231Pa and <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-233" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-233">233Pa</a>, which is an intermediate product in obtaining uranium-233 and is the most affordable among artificial isotopes of protactinium. 233Pa has convenient half-life and energy of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">γ-radiation</a>, and thus was used in most studies of protactinium chemistry. Protactinium-233 is a <a href="/wiki/Beta_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta radiation">β-emitter</a> with a half-life of 26.97 days.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a> There are 27 known <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium" title="Isotopes of uranium">isotopes of uranium</a>, having mass numbers 215–242 (except 220).<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> Three of them, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234U</a>, 235U and 238U, are present in appreciable quantities in nature. Among others, the most important is 233U, which is a final product of transformation of <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">232Th</a> irradiated by slow neutrons. 233U has a much higher fission efficiency by low-energy (thermal) neutrons, compared e.g. with 235U. Most uranium chemistry studies were carried out on uranium-238 owing to its long half-life of 4.4×109 years.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> There are 25 <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_neptunium" title="Isotopes of neptunium">isotopes of neptunium</a> with mass numbers 219–244 (except 221);<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> they are all highly radioactive. The most popular among scientists are long-lived 237Np (t1/2 = 2.20×106 years) and short-lived 239Np, 238Np (t1/2 ~ 2 days).<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a> There are 21 known <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Isotopes of plutonium">isotopes of plutonium</a>, having mass numbers 227–247.<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> The most stable isotope of plutonium is 244Pu with half-life of 8.13×107 years.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Eighteen <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_americium" title="Isotopes of americium">isotopes of americium</a> are known with mass numbers from 229 to 247 (with the exception of 231).<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> The most important are 241Am and 243Am, which are alpha-emitters and also emit soft, but intense γ-rays; both of them can be obtained in an isotopically pure form. Chemical properties of americium were first studied with 241Am, but later shifted to 243Am, which is almost 20 times less radioactive. The disadvantage of 243Am is production of the short-lived daughter isotope 239Np, which has to be considered in the data analysis.<a href="#cite_note-m18-65">[63]</a> Among 19 <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_curium" title="Isotopes of curium">isotopes of curium</a>, ranging in mass number from 233 to 251,<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> the most accessible are 242Cm and 244Cm; they are α-emitters, but with much shorter lifetime than the americium isotopes. These isotopes emit almost no γ-radiation, but undergo <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> with the associated emission of neutrons. More long-lived isotopes of curium (245–248Cm, all α-emitters) are formed as a mixture during neutron irradiation of plutonium or americium. Upon short irradiation, this mixture is dominated by 246Cm, and then 248Cm begins to accumulate. Both of these isotopes, especially 248Cm, have a longer half-life (3.48×105 years) and are much more convenient for carrying out chemical research than 242Cm and 244Cm, but they also have a rather high rate of spontaneous fission. 247Cm has the longest lifetime among isotopes of curium (1.56×107 years), but is not formed in large quantities because of the strong fission induced by thermal neutrons. Seventeen <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_berkelium" title="Isotopes of berkelium">isotopes of berkelium</a> have been identified with mass numbers 233, 234, 236, 238, and 240–252.<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> Only 249Bk is available in large quantities; it has a relatively short half-life of 330 days and emits mostly soft <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">β-particles</a>, which are inconvenient for detection. Its <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">alpha radiation</a> is rather weak (1.45×10−3% with respect to β-radiation), but is sometimes used to detect this isotope. 247Bk is an alpha-emitter with a long half-life of 1,380 years, but it is hard to obtain in appreciable quantities; it is not formed upon neutron irradiation of plutonium because β-decay of curium isotopes with mass number below 248 is not known.<a href="#cite_note-m18-65">[63]</a> (247Cm would actually release energy by β-decaying to 247Bk, but this has never been seen.) The 20 <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_californium" title="Isotopes of californium">isotopes of californium</a> with mass numbers 237–256 are formed in nuclear reactors;<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> californium-253 is a β-emitter and the rest are α-emitters. The isotopes with even mass numbers (250Cf, 252Cf and 254Cf) have a high rate of spontaneous fission, especially 254Cf of which 99.7% decays by spontaneous fission. Californium-249 has a relatively long half-life (352 years), weak spontaneous fission and strong γ-emission that facilitates its identification. 249Cf is not formed in large quantities in a nuclear reactor because of the slow β-decay of the parent isotope 249Bk and a large cross section of interaction with neutrons, but it can be accumulated in the isotopically pure form as the β-decay product of (pre-selected) 249Bk. Californium produced by reactor-irradiation of plutonium mostly consists of 250Cf and 252Cf, the latter being predominant for large neutron fluences, and its study is hindered by the strong neutron radiation.<a href="#cite_note-m22-66">[64]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center;"> <caption>Properties of some transplutonium isotope pairs<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Parent isotope </th> <th>t1/2 </th> <th>Daughter isotope </th> <th>t1/2 </th> <th>Time to establish radioactive equilibrium </th></tr> <tr> <td>243Am</td> <td>7370 years</td> <td>239Np</td> <td>2.35 days</td> <td>47.3 days </td></tr> <tr> <td>245Cm</td> <td>8265 years</td> <td>241Pu</td> <td>14 years</td> <td>129 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>247Cm</td> <td>1.64×107 years</td> <td>243Pu</td> <td>4.95 hours</td> <td>7.2 days </td></tr> <tr> <td>254Es</td> <td>270 days</td> <td>250Bk</td> <td>3.2 hours</td> <td>35.2 hours </td></tr> <tr> <td>255Es</td> <td>39.8 days</td> <td>255Fm</td> <td>22 hours</td> <td>5 days </td></tr> <tr> <td>257Fm</td> <td>79 days</td> <td>253Cf</td> <td>17.6 days</td> <td>49 days </td></tr></tbody></table> Among the 18 known <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_einsteinium" title="Isotopes of einsteinium">isotopes of einsteinium</a> with mass numbers from 240 to 257,<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> the most affordable is 253Es. It is an α-emitter with a half-life of 20.47 days, a relatively weak γ-emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium. Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long-lived isotope 254Es (t1/2 = 275.5 days).<a href="#cite_note-m22-66">[64]</a> Twenty <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_fermium" title="Isotopes of fermium">isotopes of fermium</a> are known with mass numbers of 241–260. 254Fm, 255Fm and 256Fm are <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">α-emitters</a> with a short half-life (hours), which can be isolated in significant amounts. 257Fm (t1/2 = 100 days) can accumulate upon prolonged and strong irradiation. All these isotopes are characterized by high rates of spontaneous fission.<a href="#cite_note-m22-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tablitsa_izotopov-68">[66]</a> Among the 17 known <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_mendelevium" title="Isotopes of mendelevium">isotopes of mendelevium</a> (mass numbers from 244 to 260),<a href="#cite_note-tablitsa_MAGATE-59">[58]</a> the most studied is 256Md, which mainly decays through electron capture (α-radiation is ≈10%) with a half-life of 77 minutes. Another alpha emitter, 258Md, has a half-life of 53 days. Both these isotopes are produced from rare einsteinium (253Es and 255Es respectively), that therefore limits their availability.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Long-lived <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_nobelium" title="Isotopes of nobelium">isotopes of nobelium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lawrencium" title="Isotopes of lawrencium">isotopes of lawrencium</a> (and of heavier elements) have relatively short half-lives. For nobelium, 13 isotopes are known, with mass numbers 249–260 and 262. The chemical properties of nobelium and lawrencium were studied with 255No (t1/2 = 3 min) and 256Lr (t1/2 = 35 s). The longest-lived nobelium isotope, 259No, has a half-life of approximately 1 hour.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-58">[57]</a> Lawrencium has 14 known isotopes with mass numbers 251–262, 264, and 266. The most stable of them is 266Lr with a half life of 11 hours. Among all of these, the only isotopes that occur in sufficient quantities in nature to be detected in anything more than traces and have a measurable contribution to the atomic weights of the actinides are the primordial 232Th, 235U, and 238U, and three long-lived decay products of natural uranium, 230Th, 231Pa, and 234U. Natural thorium consists of 0.02(2)% 230Th and 99.98(2)% 232Th; natural protactinium consists of 100% 231Pa; and natural uranium consists of 0.0054(5)% 234U, 0.7204(6)% 235U, and 99.2742(10)% 238U.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_in_nuclear_reactors">Formation in nuclear reactors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation in nuclear reactors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png/330px-Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png/495px-Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png/660px-Actinide_Buildup_Chart_03a.png 2x" data-file-width="3001" data-file-height="2251" /></a><figcaption>Table of nuclides: Buildup of actinides in a nuclear reactor, including radioactive decay</figcaption></figure> The figure buildup of actinides is a table of nuclides with the number of neutrons on the horizontal axis (isotopes) and the number of protons on the vertical axis (elements). The red dot divides the nuclides in two groups, so the figure is more compact. Each nuclide is represented by a square with the mass number of the element and its half-life.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Naturally existing actinide isotopes (Th, U) are marked with a bold border, alpha emitters have a yellow colour, and beta emitters have a blue colour. Pink indicates electron capture (236Np), whereas white stands for a long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">metastable state</a> (242Am). The formation of actinide nuclides is primarily characterised by:<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Neutron capture</a> reactions (n,γ), which are represented in the figure by a short right arrow.</li> <li>The (n,2n) reactions and the less frequently occurring (γ,n) reactions are also taken into account, both of which are marked by a short left arrow.</li> <li>Even more rarely and only triggered by fast neutrons, the (n,3n) reaction occurs, which is represented in the figure with one example, marked by a long left arrow.</li></ul> In addition to these neutron- or gamma-induced <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a>, the radioactive conversion of actinide nuclides also affects the nuclide inventory in a reactor. These decay types are marked in the figure by diagonal arrows. The <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta-minus decay</a>, marked with an arrow pointing up-left, plays a major role for the balance of the particle densities of the nuclides. Nuclides decaying by <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">positron emission</a> (beta-plus decay) or <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a> (ϵ) do not occur in a nuclear reactor except as products of knockout reactions; their decays are marked with arrows pointing down-right. Due to the long half-lives of the given nuclides, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> plays almost no role in the formation and decay of the actinides in a power reactor, as the residence time of the nuclear fuel in the reactor core is rather short (a few years). Exceptions are the two relatively short-lived nuclides 242Cm (T1/2 = 163 d) and 236Pu (T1/2 = 2.9 y). Only for these two cases, the α decay is marked on the nuclide map by a long arrow pointing down-left. A few long-lived actinide isotopes, such as 244Pu and 250Cm, cannot be produced in reactors because neutron capture does not happen quickly enough to bypass the short-lived beta-decaying nuclides 243Pu and 249Cm; they can however be generated in nuclear explosions, which have much higher neutron fluxes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_in_nature">Distribution in nature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Distribution in nature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranium_ore_square.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Uranium_ore_square.jpg/220px-Uranium_ore_square.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Uranium_ore_square.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="238" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>Unprocessed <a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">uranium ore</a></figcaption></figure> Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the mineral <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">uraninite</a>, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other <a href="/wiki/Category:Uranium_minerals" title="Category:Uranium minerals">uranium minerals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Carnotite" title="Carnotite">carnotite</a> (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and <a href="/wiki/Autunite" title="Autunite">autunite</a> (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238U</a> (relative abundance 99.2742%), <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">235U</a> (0.7204%) and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234U</a> (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51×109 years.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>, of which 27.3% was mined in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> (9.1%), <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (7.0%), and <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> (6.4%).<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center;"> <caption>Content of plutonium in uranium and thorium ores<a href="#cite_note-katz-76">[74]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Ore </th> <th>Location </th> <th>Uranium content, % </th> <th>Mass ratio 239Pu/ore </th> <th>Ratio 239Pu/U (×10−12) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">Uraninite</a></td> <td>Canada</td> <td>13.5</td> <td>9.1×10−12</td> <td>7.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uraninite</td> <td>Congo</td> <td>38</td> <td>4.8×10−12</td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uraninite</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, US</td> <td>50</td> <td>3.8×10−12</td> <td>7.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">Monazite</a></td> <td>Brazil</td> <td>0.24</td> <td>2.1×10−14</td> <td>8.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Monazite</td> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, US</td> <td>1.64</td> <td>5.9×10−14</td> <td>3.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fergusonite" title="Fergusonite">Fergusonite</a></td> <td>-</td> <td>0.25</td> <td><1×10−14</td> <td><4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carnotite" title="Carnotite">Carnotite</a></td> <td>-</td> <td>10</td> <td><4×10−14</td> <td><0.4 </td></tr></tbody></table> The most abundant <a href="/wiki/Category:Thorium_minerals" title="Category:Thorium minerals">thorium minerals</a> are <a href="/wiki/Thorianite" title="Thorianite">thorianite</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>ThO2), <a href="/wiki/Thorite" title="Thorite">thorite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">ThSiO4) and <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a>, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">(Th,Ca,Ce)PO4). Most thorium minerals contain uranium and vice versa; and they all have significant fraction of lanthanides. Rich deposits of thorium minerals are located in the United States (440,000 tonnes), Australia and India (~300,000 tonnes each) and Canada (~100,000 tonnes).<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5×10−15%.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a> Actinium is mostly present in uranium-containing, but also in other minerals, though in much smaller quantities. The content of actinium in most natural objects corresponds to the isotopic equilibrium of parent isotope 235U, and it is not affected by the weak Ac migration.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> Protactinium is more abundant (10−12%) in the Earth's crust than actinium. It was discovered in uranium ore in 1913 by Fajans and Göhring.<a href="#cite_note-fajans-35">[34]</a> As actinium, the distribution of protactinium follows that of 235U.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a> The half-life of the longest-lived isotope of neptunium, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-237">237Np</a>, is negligible compared to the age of the Earth. Thus neptunium is present in nature in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a> Traces of plutonium in uranium minerals were first found in 1942, and the more systematic results on 239Pu are summarized in the table (no other plutonium isotopes could be detected in those samples). The upper limit of abundance of the longest-living isotope of plutonium, 244Pu, is 3×10−20%. Plutonium could not be detected in samples of lunar soil. Owing to its scarcity in nature, most plutonium is produced synthetically.<a href="#cite_note-katz-76">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction">Extraction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Extraction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MonaziteUSGOV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/MonaziteUSGOV.jpg/260px-MonaziteUSGOV.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/MonaziteUSGOV.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">Monazite</a>: a major thorium mineral</figcaption></figure> Owing to the low abundance of actinides, their extraction is a complex, multistep process. <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">Fluorides</a> of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions. Fluorides are reduced with <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>:<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{}\\{\ce {2AmF3{}+3Ba->[{\ce {1150-1350^{\circ }C}}]3BaF2{}+2Am}}\\{\ce {PuF4{}+2Ba->[{\ce {1200^{\circ }C}}]2BaF2{}+Pu}}\\{\ce {UF4{}+2Mg->[{\ce {>500^{\circ }C}}]U{}+2MgF2}}\\{}\end{array}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="left" rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>AmF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Ba</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1150</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mn>1350</mn> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>BaF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Am</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>PuF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Ba</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1200</mn> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>BaF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mtext>Pu</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>UF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Mg</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>></mo> <mn>500</mn> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mtext>U</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>MgF</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{}\\{\ce {2AmF3{}+3Ba->[{\ce {1150-1350^{\circ }C}}]3BaF2{}+2Am}}\\{\ce {PuF4{}+2Ba->[{\ce {1200^{\circ }C}}]2BaF2{}+Pu}}\\{\ce {UF4{}+2Mg->[{\ce {>500^{\circ }C}}]U{}+2MgF2}}\\{}\end{array}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/057c8209f7427fca3331e574fa79f36c0e2a81db" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -9.505ex; width:44.009ex; height:20.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{}\\{\ce {2AmF3{}+3Ba->[{\ce {1150-1350^{\circ }C}}]3BaF2{}+2Am}}\\{\ce {PuF4{}+2Ba->[{\ce {1200^{\circ }C}}]2BaF2{}+Pu}}\\{\ce {UF4{}+2Mg->[{\ce {>500^{\circ }C}}]U{}+2MgF2}}\\{}\end{array}}}"></dd></dl> Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a>: thorium <a href="/wiki/Pyrophosphate" title="Pyrophosphate">pyrophosphate</a> (ThP2O7) is reacted with <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>, and the produced <a href="/wiki/Thorium_nitrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium nitrate">thorium nitrate</a> treated with <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">tributyl phosphate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth element">Rare-earth</a> impurities are separated by increasing the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> in sulfate solution.<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> In another extraction method, monazite is decomposed with a 45% aqueous solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> at 140 °C. Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first, filtered at 80 °C, washed with water and dissolved with concentrated <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>. Next, the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH = 5.8 that results in precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Thorium_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium hydroxide">thorium hydroxide</a> (Th(OH)4) contaminated with ~3% of rare-earth hydroxides; the rest of rare-earth hydroxides remains in solution. Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth element">rare earth elements</a>. An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid, because the resulting solution can be purified by <a href="/wiki/Liquid-liquid_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-liquid extraction">extraction</a> with organic solvents:<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg/350px-Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="395" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg/525px-Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg/700px-Plutonium_and_uranium_extraction_from_nuclear_fuel-eng.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>Separation of uranium and plutonium from <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a> using the <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> process<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>Th(OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → Th(NO3)4 + 4 H2O</dd></dl> Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous <a href="/wiki/Thorium_dioxide" title="Thorium dioxide">oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_chloride" title="Thorium(IV) chloride">chloride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_fluoride" title="Thorium(IV) fluoride">fluoride</a> by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:<a href="#cite_note-g1255-80">[78]</a> <dl><dd>ThO2 + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th</dd></dl> Sometimes thorium is extracted by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700–800 °C in a <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> crucible. Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_bar_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal bar process">crystal bar process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> transforms uranium into an organic form UO2(NO3)2(TBP)2. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_diuranate" title="Ammonium diuranate">(NH4)2U2O7</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> as <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_peroxide" title="Uranyl peroxide">UO4·2H2O</a>.<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesite" title="Magnesite">magnesite</a>, etc., those minerals consume much acid. In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction. Its main component is an aqueous solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a>, which converts uranium into a complex [UO2(CO3)3]4−, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions. The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosivity</a> (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution. The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well. Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure: <dl><dd>2 UO2 + O2 + 6 CO2− 3 → 2 [UO2(CO3)3]4−</dd></dl> This equation suggests that the best solvent for the <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_carbonate" title="Uranyl carbonate">uranyl carbonate</a> processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate. At high pH, this results in precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Diuranate" class="mw-redirect" title="Diuranate">diuranate</a>, which is treated with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate.<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a <a href="/wiki/Polyelectrolyte" title="Polyelectrolyte">polyelectrolyte</a>. Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium. Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a> or nitric acid that yields <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_nitrate" title="Uranyl nitrate">uranyl nitrate</a>, UO2(NO3)2·6H2O. When heated, it turns into <a href="/wiki/Uranium_trioxide" title="Uranium trioxide">UO3</a>, which is converted to <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">UO2</a> with hydrogen: <dl><dd>UO3 + H2 → UO2 + H2O</dd></dl> Reacting uranium dioxide with <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a> changes it to <a href="/wiki/Uranium_tetrafluoride" title="Uranium tetrafluoride">uranium tetrafluoride</a>, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal:<a href="#cite_note-g1255-80">[78]</a> <dl><dd>4 HF + UO2 → UF4 + 2 H2O</dd></dl> To extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (<a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">FeSO4</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">H2O2</a>) is added to the resulting solution. This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2). The solution is treated with a reducing agent and neutralized with <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate" title="Ammonium carbonate">ammonium carbonate</a> to pH = 8 that results in precipitation of Pu4+ compounds.<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> In another method, Pu4+ and UO2+ 2 are first extracted with tributyl phosphate, then reacted with <a href="/wiki/Hydrazine" title="Hydrazine">hydrazine</a> washing out the recovered plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-g215-78">[76]</a> The major difficulty in separation of actinium is the similarity of its properties with those of lanthanum. Thus actinium is either synthesized in nuclear reactions from isotopes of radium or separated using ion-exchange procedures.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Properties">edit</a>]</div> Actinides have similar properties to lanthanides. Just as the 4f electron shells are filled in the lanthanides, the 5f electron shells are filled in the actinides. Because the 5f, 6d, 7s, and 7p shells are close in energy, many irregular configurations arise; thus, in gas-phase atoms, just as the first 4f electron only appears in cerium, so the first 5f electron appears even later, in protactinium. However, just as lanthanum is the first element to use the 4f shell in compounds,<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton-82">[80]</a> so actinium is the first element to use the 5f shell in compounds.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> The f-shells complete their filling together, at ytterbium and nobelium.<a href="#cite_note-johnson-84">[82]</a> The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> As in lanthanides (see <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide_contraction" title="Lanthanide contraction">lanthanide contraction</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radius</a> of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also <a href="/wiki/Actinoid_contraction" title="Actinoid contraction">actinoid contraction</a>).<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> The shift of electron configurations in the gas phase does not always match the chemical behaviour. For example, the early-transition-metal-like prominence of the highest oxidation state, corresponding to removal of all valence electrons, extends up to uranium even though the 5f shells begin filling before that. On the other hand, electron configurations resembling the lanthanide congeners already begin at plutonium, even though lanthanide-like behaviour does not become dominant until the second half of the series begins at curium. The elements between uranium and curium form a transition between these two kinds of behaviour, where higher oxidation states continue to exist, but lose stability with respect to the +3 state.<a href="#cite_note-johnson-84">[82]</a> The +2 state becomes more important near the end of the series, and is the most stable oxidation state for nobelium, the last 5f element.<a href="#cite_note-johnson-84">[82]</a> Oxidation states rise again only after nobelium, showing that a new series of 6d transition metals has begun: <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">lawrencium</a> shows only the +3 oxidation state, and <a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">rutherfordium</a> only the +4 state, making them respectively congeners of lutetium and hafnium in the 5d row.<a href="#cite_note-johnson-84">[82]</a> <table class="wikitable collapsible" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Properties of actinides (the mass of the most long-lived isotope is in square brackets)<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-g1263-87">[85]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Element </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Core charge <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(Z) </th> <th>89</th> <th>90</th> <th>91</th> <th>92</th> <th>93</th> <th>94</th> <th>95</th> <th>96</th> <th>97</th> <th>98</th> <th>99</th> <th>100</th> <th>101</th> <th>102</th> <th>103 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Atomic mass </th> <td>[227]</td> <td>232.0377(4)</td> <td>231.03588(2)</td> <td>238.02891(3)</td> <td>[237]</td> <td>[244]</td> <td>[243]</td> <td>[247]</td> <td>[247]</td> <td>[251]</td> <td>[252]</td> <td>[257]</td> <td>[258]</td> <td>[259]</td> <td>[266] </td></tr> <tr> <th>Number of natural isotopes<a href="#cite_note-emsley-88">[86]</a> </th> <td>3</td> <td>8</td> <td>3</td> <td>8</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Natural isotopes<a href="#cite_note-emsley-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> </th> <td>225, 227, 228</td> <td>227–234</td> <td>231, 233, 234</td> <td>233–240</td> <td>237, 239, 240</td> <td>238–240, 244</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Natural quantity isotopes </th> <td>—</td> <td>230, 232</td> <td>231</td> <td>234, 235, 238</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Longest-lived isotope </th> <td>227</td> <td>232</td> <td>231</td> <td>238</td> <td>237</td> <td>244</td> <td>243</td> <td>247</td> <td>247</td> <td>251</td> <td>252</td> <td>257</td> <td>258</td> <td>259</td> <td>266 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> of the longest-lived isotope </th> <td>21.8 years</td> <td>14 billion years</td> <td>32,500 years</td> <td>4.47 billion years</td> <td>2.14 million years</td> <td>80.8 million years</td> <td>7,370 years</td> <td>15.6 million years</td> <td>1,380 years</td> <td>900 years</td> <td>1.29 years</td> <td>100.5 days</td> <td>52 days</td> <td>58 min</td> <td>11 hours </td></tr> <tr> <th>Most common isotope </th> <td>227</td> <td>232</td> <td>231</td> <td>238</td> <td>237</td> <td>239</td> <td>241</td> <td>244</td> <td>249</td> <td>252</td> <td>253</td> <td>255</td> <td>256</td> <td>255</td> <td>260 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Half-life of the most common isotope </th> <td>21.8 years</td> <td>14 billion years</td> <td>32,500 years</td> <td>4.47 billion years</td> <td>2.14 million years</td> <td>24,100 years</td> <td>433 years</td> <td>18.1 years</td> <td>320 days</td> <td>2.64 years</td> <td>20.47 days</td> <td>20.07 hours</td> <td>78 min</td> <td>3.1 min</td> <td>2.7 min </td></tr> <tr> <th>Electronic configuration in the ground state (gas phase) </th> <td>6d17s2</td> <td>6d27s2</td> <td>5f26d17s2</td> <td>5f36d17s2</td> <td>5f46d17s2</td> <td>5f67s2</td> <td>5f77s2</td> <td>5f76d17s2</td> <td>5f97s2</td> <td>5f107s2</td> <td>5f117s2</td> <td>5f127s2</td> <td>5f137s2</td> <td>5f147s2</td> <td>5f147s27p1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oxidation states </th> <td>2, 3</td> <td>2, 3, 4</td> <td>2, 3, 4, 5</td> <td>2, 3, 4, 5, 6</td> <td>3, 4, 5, 6, 7</td> <td>3, 4, 5, 6, 7</td> <td>2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7</td> <td>2, 3, 4, 6</td> <td>2, 3, 4</td> <td>2, 3, 4</td> <td>2, 3, 4</td> <td>2, 3</td> <td>2, 3</td> <td>2, 3</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Metallic radius (nm) </th> <td>0.203</td> <td>0.180</td> <td>0.162</td> <td>0.153</td> <td>0.150</td> <td>0.162</td> <td>0.173</td> <td>0.174</td> <td>0.170</td> <td>0.186</td> <td>0.186</td> <td>? 0.198</td> <td>? 0.194</td> <td>? 0.197</td> <td>? 0.171 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ionic radius (nm): An4+ An3+ </th> <td> — 0.126</td> <td> 0.114 —</td> <td> 0.104 0.118</td> <td> 0.103 0.118</td> <td> 0.101 0.116</td> <td> 0.100 0.115</td> <td> 0.099 0.114</td> <td> 0.099 0.112</td> <td> 0.097 0.110</td> <td> 0.096 0.109</td> <td> 0.085 0.098</td> <td> 0.084 0.091</td> <td> 0.084 0.090</td> <td> 0.084 0.095</td> <td> 0.083 0.088 </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:bottom"> <th>Temperature (°C): melting boiling </th> <td>1050 3198</td> <td>1842 4788</td> <td>1568 ? 4027</td> <td>1132.2 4131</td> <td>639 ? 4174</td> <td>639.4 3228</td> <td>1176 ? 2607</td> <td>1340 3110</td> <td>986 2627</td> <td> 900 ? 1470</td> <td>860 ? 996</td> <td>1530 —</td> <td>830 —</td> <td>830 —</td> <td>1630 — </td></tr> <tr> <th>Density, g/cm3 </th> <td>10.07</td> <td>11.78</td> <td>15.37</td> <td>19.06</td> <td>20.45</td> <td>19.84</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>13.51</td> <td>14.78</td> <td>15.1</td> <td>8.84</td> <td>? 9.7</td> <td>? 10.3</td> <td>? 9.9</td> <td>? 14.4 </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:bottom"> <th>Standard electrode potential (V): E° (An4+/An0) E° (An3+/An0) </th> <td>— −2.13</td> <td> −1.83 —</td> <td> −1.47 —</td> <td> −1.38 −1.66</td> <td> −1.30 −1.79</td> <td> −1.25 −2.00</td> <td> −0.90 −2.07</td> <td> −0.75 −2.06</td> <td> −0.55 −1.96</td> <td> −0.59 −1.97</td> <td> −0.36 −1.98</td> <td> −0.29 −1.96</td> <td> — −1.74</td> <td> — −1.20</td> <td> — −2.10 </td></tr> <tr style="font-size:95%;"> <th style="font-size:110%;">Color: [M(H2O)n]4+ [M(H2O)n]3+ </th> <td> — Colorless</td> <td> Colorless Blue</td> <td> Yellow Dark blue</td> <td> Green Purple</td> <td> Yellow-green Purple</td> <td> Brown Violet</td> <td> Red Rose</td> <td> Yellow Colorless</td> <td> Beige Yellow-green</td> <td> Green Green</td> <td> — Pink</td> <td> — —</td> <td> — —</td> <td> — —</td> <td> — — </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:white"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="16">Approximate colors of actinide ions in aqueous solution Colors for the actinides 100–103 are unknown as sufficient quantities have not yet been synthesized. The colour of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CmO2+2 was likewise not recorded. <a href="#cite_note-g1265-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right">Actinide (Z)</th> <th>89</th> <th>90</th> <th>91</th> <th>92</th> <th>93</th> <th>94</th> <th>95</th> <th>96</th> <th>97</th> <th>98</th> <th>99</th> <th>100</th> <th>101</th> <th>102</th> <th>103 </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left">Oxidation state</th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>+2 </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Fm2+</td> <td>Md2+</td> <td>No2+</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>+3 </th> <td>Ac3+ </td> <td style="background:#00f;">Th3+ </td> <td style="background:#007;">Pa3+ </td> <td style="background:#c0b;">U3+ </td> <td style="background:#b0d;">Np3+ </td> <td style="background:#50f;">Pu3+ </td> <td style="background:#fa9;">Am3+ </td> <td>Cm3+ </td> <td style="background:#cf0;">Bk3+ </td> <td style="background:#0c0;">Cf3+ </td> <td style="background:#fdd;">Es3+ </td> <td>Fm3+ </td> <td>Md3+ </td> <td>No3+ </td> <td>Lr3+ </td></tr> <tr> <th>+4 </th> <td></td> <td>Th4+ </td> <td style="background:#ffd;">Pa4+ </td> <td style="background:#0f0;">U4+ </td> <td style="background:#cf0;">Np4+ </td> <td style="background:#d60;">Pu4+ </td> <td style="background:#fd0;">Am4+ </td> <td style="background:#ffd;">Cm4+ </td> <td style="background:#ffa;">Bk4+ </td> <td style="background:#0c0;">Cf4+ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>+5 </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>PaO+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#ff88ff;">UO+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#0c0;">NpO+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#d17;">PuO+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#ff0;">AmO+ 2 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>+6 </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#ff0;">UO2+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#fbb;">NpO2+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#fa7;">PuO2+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#ff5;">AmO2+ 2 </td> <td>CmO2+ 2 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>+7 </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#4a4;">NpO3+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#44aa88;">PuO3+ 2 </td> <td style="background:#4a4;">AmO3− 5 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:ActinidesLattice.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/ActinidesLattice.png/400px-ActinidesLattice.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/ActinidesLattice.png/600px-ActinidesLattice.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/ActinidesLattice.png/800px-ActinidesLattice.png 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="714" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:ACTIION.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/ACTIION.PNG/400px-ACTIION.PNG" decoding="async" width="400" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/ACTIION.PNG/600px-ACTIION.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/ACTIION.PNG/800px-ACTIION.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="940" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Major crystal structures of some actinides vs. temperature </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">Metallic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic</a> radii of actinides<a href="#cite_note-g1263-87">[85]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/220px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/330px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/440px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="884" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>A pellet of 238PuO2 to be used in a <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a> for either the <a href="/wiki/Cassini_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassini spacecraft">Cassini</a> or <a href="/wiki/Galileo_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo spacecraft">Galileo</a> mission. The pellet produces 62 watts of heat and glows because of the heat generated by the radioactive decay (primarily α). Photo is taken after insulating the pellet under a <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> blanket for minutes and removing the blanket.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Californium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Californium.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="176" data-file-height="158" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a></figcaption></figure> Actinides are typical metals. All of them are soft and have a silvery color (but tarnish in air),<a href="#cite_note-g1264-92">[90]</a> relatively high <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and plasticity. Some of them can be cut with a knife. Their <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a> varies between 15 and 150 μΩ·cm.<a href="#cite_note-g1263-87">[85]</a> The hardness of thorium is similar to that of soft steel, so heated pure thorium can be rolled in sheets and pulled into wire. Thorium is nearly half as dense as uranium and plutonium, but is harder than either of them. All actinides are radioactive, <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetic</a>, and, with the exception of actinium, have several crystalline phases: plutonium has seven, and uranium, neptunium and californium three. The <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structures</a> of protactinium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3d-<a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> All actinides are <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoric</a>, especially when finely divided, that is, they spontaneously ignite upon reaction with air at room temperature.<a href="#cite_note-g1264-92">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of f-electrons. The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium (~640 °C) is explained by <a href="/wiki/Hybridization_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridization (chemistry)">hybridization</a> of 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin-left: 1em; width:75%;"> <caption>Comparison of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radii</a> of lanthanides and actinides<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">Lanthanides</a> </th> <th>Ln3+, Å </th> <th>Actinides </th> <th>An3+, Å </th> <th>An4+, Å </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a></td> <td>1.061</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a></td> <td>1.11</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a></td> <td>1.034</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></td> <td>1.08</td> <td>0.99 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a></td> <td>1.013</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a></td> <td>1.05</td> <td>0.93 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a></td> <td>0.995</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></td> <td>1.03</td> <td>0.93 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a></td> <td>0.979</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a></td> <td>1.01</td> <td>0.92 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a></td> <td>0.964</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></td> <td>1.00</td> <td>0.90 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a></td> <td>0.950</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a></td> <td>0.99</td> <td>0.89 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a></td> <td>0.938</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a></td> <td>0.98</td> <td>0.88 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a></td> <td>0.923</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a></td> <td>0.908</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a></td> <td>0.894</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a></td> <td>0.881</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a></td> <td>0.869</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a></td> <td>0.858</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a></td> <td>0.848</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a></td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_properties">Chemical properties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chemical properties">edit</a>]</div> Like the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogens</a>; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5f-electrons, are prone to <a href="/wiki/Hybridization_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridization (chemistry)">hybridization</a>. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f, 7s and 6d shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Actinium is chemically similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structures. Like lanthanum, actinium almost always has an oxidation state of +3 in compounds, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a> properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac3+ is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> Thorium is rather active chemically. Owing to lack of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> on 6d and 5f orbitals, tetravalent thorium compounds are colorless. At pH < 3, solutions of thorium salts are dominated by the cations [Th(H2O)8]4+. The Th4+ ion is relatively large, and depending on the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a> can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 Å. As a result, thorium salts have a weak tendency to hydrolyse. The distinctive ability of thorium salts is their high solubility both in water and polar organic solvents.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> Protactinium exhibits two valence states; the +5 is stable, and the +4 state easily oxidizes to protactinium(V). Thus tetravalent protactinium in solutions is obtained by the action of strong reducing agents in a hydrogen atmosphere. Tetravalent protactinium is chemically similar to uranium(IV) and thorium(IV). <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">Fluorides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypophosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypophosphate">hypophosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodate" title="Iodate">iodates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenylarsonate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenylarsonate">phenylarsonates</a> of protactinium(IV) are insoluble in water and dilute acids. Protactinium forms soluble <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>. The hydrolytic properties of pentavalent protactinium are close to those of <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>(V) and <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>(V). The complex chemical behavior of protactinium is a consequence of the start of the filling of the 5f shell in this element.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a> Uranium has a valence from 3 to 6, the last being most stable. In the hexavalent state, uranium is very similar to the <a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">group 6 elements</a>. Many compounds of uranium(IV) and uranium(VI) are <a href="/wiki/Non-stoichiometric_compound" title="Non-stoichiometric compound">non-stoichiometric</a>, i.e. have variable composition. For example, the actual chemical formula of uranium dioxide is UO2+x, where x varies between −0.4 and 0.32. Uranium(VI) compounds are weak <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidants</a>. Most of them contain the linear "<a href="/wiki/Uranyl" title="Uranyl">uranyl</a>" group, UO2+ 2. Between 4 and 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group. The uranyl group acts as a <a href="/wiki/Hard_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard acid">hard acid</a> and forms stronger complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. NpO2+ 2 and PuO2+ 2 are also the common form of Np and Pu in the +6 oxidation state. Uranium(IV) compounds exhibit reducing properties, e.g., they are easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Uranium(III) is a very strong reducing agent. Owing to the presence of d-shell, uranium (as well as many other actinides) forms <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic compound">organometallic compounds</a>, such as UIII(C5H5)3 and UIV(C5H5)4.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-g1278-96">[94]</a> Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of <a href="/wiki/Coordination_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordination compound">coordination compounds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a> Plutonium also exhibits valence states between 3 and 7 inclusive, and thus is chemically similar to neptunium and uranium. It is highly reactive, and quickly forms an oxide film in air. Plutonium reacts with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> even at temperatures as low as 25–50 °C; it also easily forms <a href="/wiki/Halide" title="Halide">halides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intermetallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermetallic compound">intermetallic compounds</a>. Hydrolysis reactions of plutonium ions of different oxidation states are quite diverse. Plutonium(V) can enter <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> reactions.<a href="#cite_note-Plutoniy-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_plutoniya-98">[96]</a> The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (<a href="/wiki/Acetonitrile" title="Acetonitrile">acetonitrile</a>). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (<a href="/wiki/Americium_dioxide" title="Americium dioxide">dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Americium(IV)_fluoride" title="Americium(IV) fluoride">fluoride</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Americium(IV)_hydroxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Americium(IV) hydroxide (page does not exist)">hydroxide</a>) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in aqueous solution and 3 or 4 in solid compounds.<a href="#cite_note-m25-99">[97]</a> Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (<a href="/wiki/Curium(IV)_fluoride" title="Curium(IV) fluoride">fluoride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curium(IV)_oxide" title="Curium(IV) oxide">dioxide</a>). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid <a href="/wiki/Berkelium_tetrafluoride" title="Berkelium tetrafluoride">fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berkelium(IV)_oxide" title="Berkelium(IV) oxide">dioxide</a>. The stability of Bk4+ in aqueous solution is close to that of <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a>4+.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids.<a href="#cite_note-m25-99">[97]</a> The redox potential <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {E}}_{\frac {M^{4}+}{AnO2^{2}+}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">E</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mtext>M</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msubsup> <mtext>AnO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {E}}_{\frac {M^{4}+}{AnO2^{2}+}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/49c490aee3c9bd86d93f554e321e25380e853680" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:7.264ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {E}}_{\frac {M^{4}+}{AnO2^{2}+}}}}}"> increases from −0.32 V in uranium, through 0.34 V (Np) and 1.04 V (Pu) to 1.34 V in americium revealing the increasing reduction ability of the An4+ ion from americium to uranium. All actinides form AnH3 hydrides of black color with salt-like properties. Actinides also produce <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a> with the general formula of AnC or AnC2 (<a href="/wiki/Uranium_carbide" title="Uranium carbide">U2C3</a> for uranium) as well as sulfides An2S3 and AnS2.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2)"><img alt="Uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg/240px-Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg/360px-Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg/480px-Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2659" data-file-height="1994" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Uranyl_nitrate" title="Uranyl nitrate">Uranyl nitrate</a> (UO2(NO3)2)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 136px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 134px;"><a href="/wiki/File:U_Oxstufen.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aqueous solutions of uranium III, IV, V, VI salts"><img alt="Aqueous solutions of uranium III, IV, V, VI salts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/U_Oxstufen.jpg/201px-U_Oxstufen.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/U_Oxstufen.jpg/302px-U_Oxstufen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/U_Oxstufen.jpg/402px-U_Oxstufen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="403" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aqueous solutions of uranium III, IV, V, VI salts</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Np_ox_st.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aqueous solutions of neptunium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts"><img alt="Aqueous solutions of neptunium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Np_ox_st.jpg/257px-Np_ox_st.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Np_ox_st.jpg/385px-Np_ox_st.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Np_ox_st.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="328" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aqueous solutions of neptunium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_in_solution.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aqueous solutions of plutonium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts"><img alt="Aqueous solutions of plutonium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/231px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/346px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/461px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="470" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aqueous solutions of plutonium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162px;"><a href="/wiki/File:UCl4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Uranium tetrachloride"><img alt="Uranium tetrachloride" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/UCl4.jpg/243px-UCl4.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/UCl4.jpg/364px-UCl4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/UCl4.jpg/486px-UCl4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="436" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Uranium_tetrachloride" title="Uranium tetrachloride">Uranium tetrachloride</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 306px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 304px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranium_hexafluoride_crystals_sealed_in_an_ampoule.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Uranium hexafluoride"><img alt="Uranium hexafluoride" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Uranium_hexafluoride_crystals_sealed_in_an_ampoule.jpg/456px-Uranium_hexafluoride_crystals_sealed_in_an_ampoule.jpg" decoding="async" width="304" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Uranium_hexafluoride_crystals_sealed_in_an_ampoule.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="270" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">Uranium hexafluoride</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 209.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 207.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellowcake.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="U3O8 (yellowcake)"><img alt="U3O8 (yellowcake)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yellowcake.jpg/311px-Yellowcake.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Yellowcake.jpg/467px-Yellowcake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Yellowcake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Triuranium_octoxide" title="Triuranium octoxide">U3O8</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yellowcake" title="Yellowcake">yellowcake</a>)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compounds">Compounds</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Compounds">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxides_and_hydroxides">Oxides and hydroxides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Oxides and hydroxides">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Oxides of actinides<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tablitsa_soedineniy-102">[100]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical compounds">Compound</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Color </th> <th rowspan="2">Crystal symmetry, type </th> <th colspan="3">Lattice constants, Å </th> <th rowspan="2">Density, g/cm3 </th> <th rowspan="2">Temperature, °C </th></tr> <tr> <th>a </th> <th>b </th> <th>c </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ac2O3</td> <td>White</td> <td>Hexagonal, La2O3</td> <td>4.07</td> <td>-</td> <td>6.29</td> <td>9.19</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>PaO2</td> <td>-</td> <td>Cubic, CaF2</td> <td>5.505</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pa2O5</td> <td>White</td> <td>cubic, CaF2 Cubic Tetragonal Hexagonal Rhombohedral Orthorhombic</td> <td>5.446 10.891 5.429 3.817 5.425 6.92</td> <td>- - - - - 4.02</td> <td>- 10.992 5.503 13.22 - 4. 18</td> <td>-</td> <td>700 700–1100 1000 1000–1200 1240–1400 – </td></tr> <tr> <td>ThO2</td> <td>Colorless</td> <td>Cubic</td> <td>5.59</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>9.87</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>UO2</td> <td>Black-brown</td> <td>Cubic</td> <td>5.47</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>10.9</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>NpO2</td> <td>Greenish-brown</td> <td>Cubic, CaF2</td> <td>5.424</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>11.1</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>PuO</td> <td>Black</td> <td>Cubic, NaCl</td> <td>4.96</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>13.9</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>PuO2</td> <td>Olive green</td> <td>Cubic</td> <td>5.39</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>11.44</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Am2O3</td> <td>Red-brown Red-brown</td> <td>Cubic, Mn2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3</td> <td>11.03 3.817</td> <td>-</td> <td>- 5.971</td> <td>10.57 11.7</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>AmO2</td> <td>Black</td> <td>Cubic, CaF2</td> <td>5.376</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cm2O3</td> <td>White<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> - -</td> <td>Cubic, Mn2O2 Hexagonal, LaCl3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3</td> <td>11.01 3.80 14.28</td> <td>- - 3.65</td> <td>- 6 8.9</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>CmO2</td> <td>Black</td> <td>Cubic, CaF2</td> <td>5.37</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bk2O3</td> <td>Light brown</td> <td>Cubic, Mn2O3</td> <td>10.886</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>BkO2</td> <td>Red-brown</td> <td>Cubic, CaF2</td> <td>5.33</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cf2O3<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a></td> <td>Colorless Yellowish -</td> <td>Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3</td> <td>10.79 14.12 3.72</td> <td>- 3.59 -</td> <td>- 8.80 5.96</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>CfO2</td> <td>Black</td> <td>Cubic</td> <td>5.31</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Es2O3</td> <td>-</td> <td>Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic Hexagonal, La2O3</td> <td>10.07 14.1 3.7</td> <td>- 3.59 -</td> <td>- 8.80 6</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Approximate colors of actinide oxides (most stable are bolded)<a href="#cite_note-g1268-105">[103]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Oxidation state </th> <td>89</td> <td>90</td> <td>91</td> <td>92</td> <td>93</td> <td>94</td> <td>95</td> <td>96</td> <td>97</td> <td>98</td> <td>99 </td></tr> <tr> <td>+3</td> <td>Ac2O3</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td bgcolor="black">Pu2O3 </td> <td style="background:#fa7;">Am2O3 </td> <td>Cm2O3 </td> <td style="background:#dfe111;">Bk2O3 </td> <td style="background:#cf0;">Cf2O3 </td> <td>Es2O3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>+4</td> <td></td> <td>ThO2 </td> <td bgcolor="black">PaO2 </td> <td style="background:#765538;">UO2 </td> <td style="background:#616639;">NpO2 </td> <td style="background:#e1bb11;">PuO2 </td> <td bgcolor="black">AmO2 </td> <td bgcolor="black">CmO2 </td> <td bgcolor="brown">BkO2 </td> <td bgcolor="black">CfO2 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>+5</td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>Pa2O5 </td> <td bgcolor="black">U2O5 </td> <td style="background:#765538;">Np2O5 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>+5,+6</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#0d5e35;">U3O8 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>+6</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#f89d1a;">UO3 </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable collapsible" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Dioxides of some actinides </caption> <tbody><tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thorium_dioxide" title="Thorium dioxide">ThO2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protactinium(IV)_oxide" title="Protactinium(IV) oxide">PaO2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">UO2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neptunium(IV)_oxide" title="Neptunium(IV) oxide">NpO2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_oxide" title="Plutonium(IV) oxide">PuO2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Americium_dioxide" title="Americium dioxide">AmO2</a></td> <td>CmO2</td> <td>BkO2</td> <td>CfO2 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="CAS Number">CAS Number</a> </td> <td>1314-20-1</td> <td>12036-03-2</td> <td>1344-57-6</td> <td>12035-79-9</td> <td>12059-95-9</td> <td>12005-67-3</td> <td>12016-67-0</td> <td>12010-84-3</td> <td>12015–10–0 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </td> <td>264.04</td> <td>263.035</td> <td>270.03</td> <td>269.047</td> <td>276.063</td> <td>275.06</td> <td>270–284**</td> <td>279.069</td> <td>283.078 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> </td> <td>3390 °C</td> <td></td> <td>2865 °C</td> <td>2547 °C</td> <td>2400 °C</td> <td>2175 °C</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;">Crystal structure </td> <td colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/File:CaF2_polyhedra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/250px-CaF2_polyhedra.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/375px-CaF2_polyhedra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/500px-CaF2_polyhedra.png 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="945" /></a> An4+: __  /  O2−: __ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Space_group" title="Space group">Space group</a> </td> <td colspan="9">Fm3m </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">Coordination number</a> </td> <td colspan="9">An[8], O[4] </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>An – actinide **Depending on the isotopes</dd></dl> Some actinides can exist in several oxide forms such as An2O3, AnO2, An2O5 and AnO3. For all actinides, oxides AnO3 are <a href="/wiki/Amphoterism" title="Amphoterism">amphoteric</a> and An2O3, AnO2 and An2O5 are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases:<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> <dl><dd>An2O3 + 3 H2O → 2 An(OH)3.</dd></dl> These bases are poorly soluble in water and by their activity are close to the <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxides</a> of rare-earth metals.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Np(OH)3 has not yet been synthesized, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium(III)_hydroxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plutonium(III) hydroxide (page does not exist)">Pu(OH)3</a> has a blue color while <a href="/wiki/Americium(III)_hydroxide" title="Americium(III) hydroxide">Am(OH)3</a> is pink and <a href="/wiki/Curium(III)_hydroxide" title="Curium(III) hydroxide">Cm(OH)3</a> is colorless.<a href="#cite_note-Tananaev-107">[105]</a> Bk(OH)3 and Cf(OH)3 are also known, as are tetravalent hydroxides for Np, Pu and Am and pentavalent for Np and Am.<a href="#cite_note-Tananaev-107">[105]</a> The strongest base is of actinium. All compounds of actinium are colorless, except for black <a href="/wiki/Actinium_sulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium sulfide">actinium sulfide</a> (Ac2S3).<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Dioxides of tetravalent actinides crystallize in the <a href="/wiki/Cubic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubic system">cubic system</a>, same as in <a href="/wiki/Calcium_fluoride" title="Calcium fluoride">calcium fluoride</a>. Thorium reacting with oxygen exclusively forms the dioxide: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Th{}+O2->[{\ce {1000^{\circ }C}}]\overbrace {ThO2} ^{Thorium~dioxide}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Th</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1000</mn> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <mover> <msubsup> <mtext>ThO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>⏞</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Thorium</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mtext>dioxide</mtext> </mrow> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Th{}+O2->[{\ce {1000^{\circ }C}}]\overbrace {ThO2} ^{Thorium~dioxide}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/13e4a27b9ed3d03fc5420ed4a04020bf77562406" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.031ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Th{}+O2->[{\ce {1000^{\circ }C}}]\overbrace {ThO2} ^{Thorium~dioxide}}}}"></dd></dl> Thorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide (3390 °C).<a href="#cite_note-g1268-105">[103]</a> Adding 0.8–1% ThO2 to tungsten stabilizes its structure, so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations. To dissolve ThO2 in acids, it is heated to 500–600 °C; heating above 600 °C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO2. Small addition of fluoride ions <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyses</a> dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids. Two protactinium oxides have been obtained: PaO2 (black) and Pa2O5 (white); the former is isomorphic with ThO2 and the latter is easier to obtain. Both oxides are basic, and Pa(OH)5 is a weak, poorly soluble base.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Decomposition of certain salts of uranium, for example UO2(NO3)·6H2O in air at 400 °C, yields orange or yellow UO3.<a href="#cite_note-g1268-105">[103]</a> This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides, the most stable being <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_hydroxide" title="Uranyl hydroxide">uranyl hydroxide</a> UO2(OH)2. Reaction of uranium(VI) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide, which is similar in its properties with ThO2. This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide U(OH)4.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Plutonium, neptunium and americium form two basic oxides: An2O3 and AnO2. Neptunium trioxide is unstable; thus, only Np3O8 could be obtained so far. However, the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO2 and An2O3 are well characterized.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salts">Salts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Salts">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable collapsible" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Trichlorides of some actinides<a href="#cite_note-g1270-108">[106]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a> </th> <td>AcCl3</td> <td>UCl3</td> <td>NpCl3</td> <td>PuCl3</td> <td>AmCl3</td> <td>CmCl3</td> <td>BkCl3</td> <td>CfCl3 </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/CAS-number" class="mw-redirect" title="CAS-number">CAS-number</a> </th> <td>22986-54-5</td> <td>10025-93-1</td> <td>20737-06-8</td> <td>13569-62-5</td> <td>13464-46-5</td> <td>13537-20-7</td> <td>13536-46-4</td> <td>13536–90–8 </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </th> <td>333.386</td> <td>344.387</td> <td>343.406</td> <td>350.32</td> <td>349.42</td> <td>344–358**</td> <td>353.428</td> <td>357.438 </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a> </th> <td></td> <td>837 °C</td> <td>800 °C</td> <td>767 °C</td> <td>715 °C</td> <td>695 °C</td> <td>603 °C</td> <td>545 °C </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a> </th> <td></td> <td>1657 °C</td> <td></td> <td>1767 °C</td> <td>850 °C</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;">Crystal structure </th> <td colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/File:UCl3_without_caption.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The crystal structure of uranium trichloride"><img alt="The crystal structure of uranium trichloride" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/UCl3_without_caption.png/250px-UCl3_without_caption.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/UCl3_without_caption.png/375px-UCl3_without_caption.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/UCl3_without_caption.png/500px-UCl3_without_caption.png 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1890" /></a> An3+: __  /  Cl−: __ </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Space_group" title="Space group">Space group</a> </th> <td colspan="8">P63/m </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">Coordination number</a> </th> <td colspan="8">An*[9], Cl [3] </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:lightblue; text-align:left;">Lattice constants </th> <td>a = 762 <a href="/wiki/Picometres" class="mw-redirect" title="Picometres">pm</a> c = 455 pm</td> <td>a = 745.2 pm c = 432.8 pm</td> <td></td> <td>a = 739.4 pm c = 424.3 pm</td> <td>a = 738.2 pm c = 421.4 pm</td> <td>a = 726 pm c = 414 pm</td> <td>a = 738.2 pm c = 412.7 pm</td> <td>a = 738 pm c = 409 pm </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd> *An – actinide **Depending on the isotopes</dd></dl> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Actinide fluorides<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tablitsa_soedineniy-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-g1270-108">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Compound </th> <th rowspan="2">Color </th> <th rowspan="2">Crystal symmetry, type </th> <th colspan="3">Lattice constants, Å </th> <th rowspan="2">Density, g/cm3 </th></tr> <tr> <th>a </th> <th>b </th> <th>c </th></tr> <tr> <td>AcF3</td> <td>White</td> <td>Hexagonal, LaF3</td> <td>4.27</td> <td>-</td> <td>7.53</td> <td>7.88 </td></tr> <tr> <td>PaF4</td> <td>Dark brown</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monoclinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoclinic">Monoclinic</a></td> <td>12.7</td> <td>10.7</td> <td>8.42</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>PaF5</td> <td>Black</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetragonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetragonal">Tetragonal</a>, β-UF5</td> <td>11.53</td> <td>-</td> <td>5.19</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>ThF4</td> <td>Colorless</td> <td>Monoclinic</td> <td>13</td> <td>10.99</td> <td>8.58</td> <td>5.71 </td></tr> <tr> <td>UF3</td> <td>Reddish-purple</td> <td>Hexagonal</td> <td>7.18</td> <td>-</td> <td>7.34</td> <td>8.54 </td></tr> <tr> <td>UF4</td> <td>Green</td> <td>Monoclinic</td> <td>11.27</td> <td>10.75</td> <td>8.40</td> <td>6.72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>α-UF5</td> <td>Bluish</td> <td>Tetragonal</td> <td>6.52</td> <td>-</td> <td>4.47</td> <td>5.81 </td></tr> <tr> <td>β-UF5</td> <td>Bluish</td> <td>Tetragonal</td> <td>11.47</td> <td>-</td> <td>5.20</td> <td>6.45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>UF6</td> <td>Yellowish</td> <td>Orthorhombic</td> <td>9.92</td> <td>8.95</td> <td>5.19</td> <td>5.06 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NpF3</td> <td>Black or purple</td> <td>Hexagonal</td> <td>7.129</td> <td>-</td> <td>7.288</td> <td>9.12 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NpF4</td> <td>Light green</td> <td>Monoclinic</td> <td>12.67</td> <td>10.62</td> <td>8.41</td> <td>6.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>NpF6</td> <td>Orange</td> <td>Orthorhombic</td> <td>9.91</td> <td>8.97</td> <td>5.21</td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>PuF3</td> <td>Violet-blue</td> <td>Trigonal</td> <td>7.09</td> <td>-</td> <td>7.25</td> <td>9.32 </td></tr> <tr> <td>PuF4</td> <td>Pale brown</td> <td>Monoclinic</td> <td>12.59</td> <td>10.57</td> <td>8.28</td> <td>6.96 </td></tr> <tr> <td>PuF6</td> <td>Red-brown</td> <td>Orthorhombic</td> <td>9.95</td> <td>9.02</td> <td>3.26</td> <td>4.86 </td></tr> <tr> <td>AmF3</td> <td>Pink or light beige</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hexagonal_crystal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal crystal system">hexagonal</a>, LaF3</td> <td>7.04<a href="#cite_note-katz-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a></td> <td>-</td> <td>7.255</td> <td>9.53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>AmF4</td> <td>Orange-red</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monoclinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoclinic">Monoclinic</a></td> <td>12.53</td> <td>10.51</td> <td>8.20</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>CmF3</td> <td>From brown to white</td> <td>Hexagonal</td> <td>4.041</td> <td>-</td> <td>7.179</td> <td>9.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>CmF4</td> <td>Yellow</td> <td>Monoclinic, UF4</td> <td>12.51</td> <td>10.51</td> <td>8.20</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>BkF3</td> <td>Yellow-green</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trigonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonal">Trigonal</a>, LaF3 <a href="/wiki/Orthorhombic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthorhombic">Orthorhombic</a>, YF3</td> <td>6.97 6.7</td> <td>- 7.09</td> <td>7.14 4.41</td> <td>10.15 9.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>BkF4</td> <td>-</td> <td>Monoclinic, UF4</td> <td>12.47</td> <td>10.58</td> <td>8.17</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>CfF3</td> <td>- -</td> <td>Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3</td> <td>6. 94 6.65</td> <td>- 7.04</td> <td>7.10 4.39</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>CfF4</td> <td>- -</td> <td>Monoclinic, UF4 Monoclinic, UF4</td> <td>1.242 1.233</td> <td>1.047 1.040</td> <td>8.126 8.113</td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg/220px-Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg/330px-Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg/440px-Einsteinium_triiodide_by_transmitted_light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium_triiodide" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium triiodide">Einsteinium triiodide</a> glowing in the dark</figcaption></figure> Actinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX3 and MX4 (X = <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogen</a>). So the first berkelium compound, <a href="/wiki/Berkelium(III)_chloride" title="Berkelium(III) chloride">BkCl3</a>, was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms. Like the halogens of rare earth elements, actinide <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chlorides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">bromides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iodide" title="Iodide">iodides</a> are water-soluble, and <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluorides</a> are insoluble. Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride, which <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimates</a> at a temperature of 56.5 °C; because of its volatility, it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with <a href="/wiki/Gas_centrifuge" title="Gas centrifuge">gas centrifuge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a>. Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to <a href="/wiki/Anhydride" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhydride">anhydrides</a>. They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO2F2.<a href="#cite_note-g1269-111">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Uranium_pentachloride" title="Uranium pentachloride">pentachloride</a> and black <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexachloride" title="Uranium hexachloride">hexachloride</a> of uranium were synthesized, but they are both unstable.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Action of acids on actinides yields salts, and if the acids are non-oxidizing then the actinide in the salt is in low-valence state: <dl><dd>U + 2 <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H2SO4</a> → <a href="/wiki/Uranium(IV)_sulfate" title="Uranium(IV) sulfate">U(SO4)2</a> + 2 H2</dd> <dd>2 Pu + 6 <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">HCl</a> → 2 <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_chloride" title="Plutonium(III) chloride">PuCl3</a> + 3 H2</dd></dl> However, in these reactions the regenerating hydrogen can react with the metal, forming the corresponding hydride. Uranium reacts with acids and water much more easily than thorium.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Actinide salts can also be obtained by dissolving the corresponding hydroxides in acids. Nitrates, chlorides, sulfates and perchlorates of actinides are water-soluble. When crystallizing from aqueous solutions, these salts form hydrates, such as <a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_nitrate" title="Thorium(IV) nitrate">Th(NO3)4·6H2O</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Th(SO4)2·9H2O</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plutonium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Pu2(SO4)3·7H2O</a>. Salts of high-valence actinides easily hydrolyze. So, colorless sulfate, chloride, perchlorate and nitrate of thorium transform into basic salts with formulas Th(OH)2SO4 and Th(OH)3NO3. The solubility and insolubility of trivalent and tetravalent actinides is like that of lanthanide salts. So <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluorides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxalate" title="Oxalate">oxalates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodate" title="Iodate">iodates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> of actinides are weakly soluble in water; they precipitate as hydrates, such as <a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_fluoride" title="Thorium(IV) fluoride">ThF4·3H2O</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_chromate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium(IV) chromate (page does not exist)">Th(CrO4)2·3H2O</a>.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> Actinides with oxidation state +6, except for the AnO22+-type cations, form [AnO4]2−, [An2O7]2− and other complex anions. For example, uranium, neptunium and plutonium form salts of the Na2UO4 (<a href="/wiki/Uranate" title="Uranate">uranate</a>) and (NH4)2U2O7 (diuranate) types. In comparison with lanthanides, actinides more easily form <a href="/wiki/Coordination_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordination compound">coordination compounds</a>, and this ability increases with the actinide valence. Trivalent actinides do not form fluoride coordination compounds, whereas tetravalent thorium forms K2ThF6, KThF5, and even K5ThF9 complexes. Thorium also forms the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a> (for example Na2SO4·Th(SO4)2·5H2O), <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thiocyanate" title="Thiocyanate">thiocyanates</a>. Salts with the general formula An2Th(NO3)6·nH2O are of coordination nature, with the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a> of thorium equal to 12. Even easier is to produce complex salts of pentavalent and hexavalent actinides. The most stable coordination compounds of actinides – tetravalent thorium and uranium – are obtained in reactions with diketones, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Acetylacetone" title="Acetylacetone">acetylacetone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-g222-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InsideSmokeDetector.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/InsideSmokeDetector.jpg/220px-InsideSmokeDetector.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/InsideSmokeDetector.jpg/330px-InsideSmokeDetector.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/InsideSmokeDetector.jpg/440px-InsideSmokeDetector.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Interior of a <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detector</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">americium-241</a>.</figcaption></figure> While actinides have some established daily-life applications, such as in smoke detectors (americium)<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-g1262-113">[111]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas mantles</a> (thorium),<a href="#cite_note-g1255-80">[78]</a> they are mostly used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">fuel</a> in nuclear reactors.<a href="#cite_note-g1255-80">[78]</a> The last two areas exploit the property of actinides to release enormous energy in nuclear reactions, which under certain conditions may become self-sustaining <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">chain reactions</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerenkov_Effect.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Cerenkov_Effect.jpg/170px-Cerenkov_Effect.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Cerenkov_Effect.jpg/255px-Cerenkov_Effect.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Cerenkov_Effect.jpg/340px-Cerenkov_Effect.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="2850" /></a><figcaption>Self-illumination of a nuclear reactor by <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a>.</figcaption></figure> The most important isotope for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> applications is <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>. It is used in the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal reactor">thermal reactor</a>, and its concentration in natural uranium does not exceed 0.72%. This isotope strongly absorbs <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a> releasing much energy. One fission act of 1 gram of 235U converts into about 1 MW·day. Of importance, is that 235 92U emits more neutrons than it absorbs;<a href="#cite_note-g220-114">[112]</a> upon reaching the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a>, 235 92U enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a> Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2–3 neutrons, for example: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/U-235" class="mw-redirect" title="U-235">235 92U </a> + <a href="/wiki/Neutronium-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutronium-1">1 0n </a> ⟶ 115 45Rh + 118 47Ag + 31 0n </dd></dl> Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">thorium-232</a> and its product from the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a>. <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:40%;"> <tbody><tr style="background:lightblue; text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactor</a><a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> The core of most <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">Generation II nuclear reactors</a> contains a set of hollow metal rods, usually made of <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> alloys, filled with solid <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> pellets – mostly oxide, carbide, nitride or monosulfide of uranium, plutonium or thorium, or their mixture (the so-called <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">MOX fuel</a>). The most common fuel is oxide of uranium-235. <figure class="mw-halign-left mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Nuclear reactor scheme"><img alt="Nuclear reactor scheme" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png/150px-Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png/225px-Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png/300px-Heterogeneous_reactor_scheme.png 2x" data-file-width="329" data-file-height="371" /></a><figcaption>Nuclear reactor scheme</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Fast neutrons</a> are slowed by <a href="/wiki/Moderator_(Nuclear_Reactor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moderator (Nuclear Reactor)">moderators</a>, which contain water, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutrons">thermal neutrons</a> to increase the efficiency of their interaction with uranium-235. The rate of nuclear reaction is controlled by introducing additional rods made of <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> or a liquid absorbent, usually <a href="/wiki/Boric_acid" title="Boric acid">boric acid</a>. Reactors for plutonium production are called <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">breeder reactor</a> or breeders; they have a different design and use fast neutrons. </td></tr></tbody></table> Emission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction, but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides. <a href="/wiki/Uranium-239" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium-239">Uranium-239</a> converts via <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">β-decay</a> into plutonium-239, which, like uranium-235, is capable of spontaneous fission. The world's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy, but for producing plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons. About half of produced thorium is used as the light-emitting material of gas mantles.<a href="#cite_note-g1255-80">[78]</a> Thorium is also added into multicomponent <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>. Mg-Th alloys are light and strong, but also have high melting point and ductility and thus are widely used in the aviation industry and in the production of <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a>. Thorium also has good <a href="/wiki/Electron_emission" title="Electron emission">electron emission</a> properties, with long lifetime and low potential barrier for the emission.<a href="#cite_note-g220-114">[112]</a> The relative content of thorium and uranium isotopes is widely used to estimate the age of various objects, including stars (see <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiometric_dating" title="Category:Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>).<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> The major application of plutonium has been in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, where the isotope plutonium-239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium-based designs allow reducing the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(nuclear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical mass (nuclear)">critical mass</a> to about a third of that for uranium-235.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>"-type plutonium bombs produced during the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was needed for an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">explosive yield</a> equivalent to 20 kilotons of <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> (See also <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Nuclear weapon design</a>.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">Plutonium-238</a> is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors, since it has smaller critical mass than uranium-235, but it continues to release much thermal energy (0.56 W/g)<a href="#cite_note-g1262-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods. Its application is limited by its high price (about US$1000/g). This isotope has been used in <a href="/wiki/Thermopile" title="Thermopile">thermopiles</a> and water <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> systems of some space satellites and stations. The <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> spacecraft (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Apollo_14" title="Apollo 14">Apollo 14</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a>) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium-238 oxide; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles. The decay of plutonium-238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>. Therefore, this isotope (~160 mg) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries.<a href="#cite_note-g1262-113">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Actinium-227" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-227">Actinium-227</a> is used as a neutron source. Its high specific energy (14.5 W/g) and the possibility of obtaining significant quantities of thermally stable compounds are attractive for use in long-lasting thermoelectric generators for remote use. 228Ac is used as an indicator of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> in chemical research, as it emits high-energy electrons (2.18 MeV) that can be easily detected. <a href="/wiki/Actinium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-228">228Ac</a>-<a href="/wiki/Radium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-228">228Ra</a> mixtures are widely used as an intense gamma-source in industry and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> Development of self-glowing actinide-doped materials with durable crystalline matrices is a new area of actinide utilization as the addition of alpha-emitting radionuclides to some glasses and crystals may confer luminescence.<a href="#cite_note-burakov-123">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Toxicity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg/220px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg/330px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg/440px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation_penetration.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Schematic illustration of penetration of radiation through sheets of paper, aluminium and lead brick</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/450px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="386" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/675px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/900px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Elements which contain at least one stable isotope.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Slightly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope is very long-lived, with a half-life of over two million years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between 800 and 34,000 years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Significantly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between one day and 130 years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Highly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between several minutes and one day.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Extremely radioactive elements: the most stable known isotope has half-life less than several minutes.</div></figcaption></figure> Radioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">β-activity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">γ-radiation</a>. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">α-activity</a>. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletons</a>. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">Adsorption</a> from the digestive tract is much smaller (~0.05%) for actinium than radium.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_aktiniya-31">[30]</a> Protactinium in the body tends to accumulate in the kidneys and bones. The maximum safe dose of protactinium in the human body is 0.03 <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">μCi</a> that corresponds to 0.5 micrograms of 231Pa. This isotope, which might be present in the air as <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosol</a>, is 2.5×108 times more toxic than <a href="/wiki/Hydrocyanic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocyanic acid">hydrocyanic acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Himiya_protaktiniya-63">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Plutonium, when entering the body through air, food or blood (e.g. a wound), mostly settles in the lungs, liver and bones with only about 10% going to other organs, and remains there for decades. The long residence time of plutonium in the body is partly explained by its poor solubility in water. Some isotopes of plutonium emit ionizing α-radiation, which damages the surrounding cells. The <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">median lethal dose</a> (LD50) for 30 days in dogs after intravenous injection of plutonium is 0.32 milligram per kg of body mass, and thus the lethal dose for humans is approximately 22 mg for a person weighing 70 kg; the amount for respiratory exposure should be approximately four times greater. Another estimate assumes that plutonium is 50 times less toxic than <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>, and thus permissible content of plutonium in the body should be 5 μg or 0.3 μCi. Such amount is nearly invisible under microscope. After trials on animals, this maximum permissible dose was reduced to 0.65 μg or 0.04 μCi. Studies on animals also revealed that the most dangerous plutonium exposure route is through inhalation, after which 5–25% of inhaled substances is retained in the body. Depending on the particle size and solubility of the plutonium compounds, plutonium is localized either in the lungs or in the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, or is absorbed in the blood and then transported to the liver and bones. Contamination via food is the least likely way. In this case, only about 0.05% of soluble and 0.01% of insoluble compounds of plutonium absorbs into blood, and the rest is excreted. Exposure of damaged skin to plutonium would retain nearly 100% of it.<a href="#cite_note-Plutoniy-97">[95]</a> Using actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases.<a href="#cite_note-burakov-123">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanides">Lanthanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Major actinides">Major actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor actinides">Minor actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transuranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranium">Transuranics</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Nobelium and lawrencium were almost simultaneously discovered by Soviet and American scientists </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Specific activity is calculated by given in the table half-lives and the probability of spontaneous fission </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gray-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gray_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gray_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gray_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTheodore_Gray2009" class="citation book cs1">Theodore Gray (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementsvisualex0000gray/page/240">The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe</a>. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-814-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-814-2"><bdi>978-1-57912-814-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements%3A+A+Visual+Exploration+of+Every+Known+Atom+in+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Black+Dog+%26+Leventhal+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-57912-814-2&rft.au=Theodore+Gray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementsvisualex0000gray%2Fpage%2F240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorssAsprey2018" class="citation web cs1">Morss, Lester; Asprey, Larned B. 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Physical Review. 57 (12): 1185–1186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1940PhRv...57.1185M">1940PhRv...57.1185M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.57.1185.2">10.1103/PhysRev.57.1185.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Radioactive+Element+93&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1185-1186&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.57.1185.2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1940PhRv...57.1185M&rft.au=Edwin+McMillan&rft.au=Abelson%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.57.1185.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Himiya_neptuniya-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himiya_neptuniya_39-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV.A._Mikhailov1971" class="citation book cs1">V.A. 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G.; <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ghiorso" title="Albert Ghiorso">Ghiorso, A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Seaborg, G. T.</a> (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.77.838.2">"Element 97"</a>. Phys. Rev. 77 (6): 838–839. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...77..838T">1950PhRv...77..838T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.77.838.2">10.1103/PhysRev.77.838.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Element+97&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=838-839&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.77.838.2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...77..838T&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft.au=Ghiorso%2C+A.&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+G.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.77.838.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonGhiorsoSeaborg1950" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, S. G.; <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ghiorso" title="Albert Ghiorso">Ghiorso, A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Seaborg, G. T.</a> (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc894817/">"The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97)"</a>. Phys. Rev. 80 (5): 781–789. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...80..781T">1950PhRv...80..781T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.80.781">10.1103/PhysRev.80.781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.&rft.atitle=The+New+Element+Berkelium+%28Atomic+Number+97%29&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=781-789&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.80.781&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...80..781T&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft.au=Ghiorso%2C+A.&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+G.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc894817%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Wallace W. 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Physical Review. 77 (6): 838–839. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...77..838T">1950PhRv...77..838T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.77.838.2">10.1103/PhysRev.77.838.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Element+97&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=838-839&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.77.838.2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...77..838T&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Ghiorso%2C+A.&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.77.838.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonGhiorsoSeaborg1950" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, S.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc894817/">"The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97)"</a>. Physical Review. 80 (5): 781–789. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...80..781T">1950PhRv...80..781T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.80.781">10.1103/PhysRev.80.781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+New+Element+Berkelium+%28Atomic+Number+97%29&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=781-789&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.80.781&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...80..781T&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Ghiorso%2C+A.&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc894817%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._G._ThompsonK._Street_Jr.A._GhiorsoG._T._Seaborg1950" class="citation journal cs1">S. 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G. Thompson; K. Street Jr.; A. Ghiorso; G. T. Seaborg (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0050.pdf">"The New Element Californium (Atomic Number 98)"</a> (PDF). 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LibreTexts. 22 May 2015. <q>Many actinide metals, hydrides, carbides, alloys and other compounds may ignite at room temperature in a finely divided state.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Properties+and+Reactions+of+the+Actinides&rft.pub=LibreTexts&rft.date=2015-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FInorganic_Chemistry%2FModules_and_Websites_%28Inorganic_Chemistry%29%2FDescriptive_Chemistry%2FElements_Organized_by_Block%2F4_f-Block_Elements%2FThe_Actinides%2F1General_Properties_and_Reactions_of_The_Actinides&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Myasoedov, pp. 30–31 </li> <li id="cite_note-g222-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g222_95-11">l</a> Golub, pp. 222–227 </li> <li id="cite_note-g1278-96"><a href="#cite_ref-g1278_96-0">^</a> Greenwood, p. 1278 </li> <li id="cite_note-Plutoniy-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plutoniy_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plutoniy_97-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB.A._NadyktoL.F.Timofeeva2003" class="citation book cs1">B.A. Nadykto; L.F.Timofeeva, eds. 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Nature Chemistry. 9 (9): 843–849. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCh...9..843D">2017NatCh...9..843D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnchem.2759">10.1038/nchem.2759</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1755-4349">1755-4349</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1436161">1436161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28837177">28837177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Chelation+and+stabilization+of+berkelium+in+oxidation+state+%2BIV&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=843-849&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1436161%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatCh...9..843D&rft.issn=1755-4349&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnchem.2759&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28837177&rft.aulast=Deblonde&rft.aufirst=Gauthier+J.-P.&rft.au=Sturzbecher-Hoehne%2C+Manuel&rft.au=Jong%2C+Wibe+A.+de&rft.au=Brabec%2C+Jiri&rft.au=Corie+Y.+Ralston&rft.au=Illy%2C+Marie-Claire&rft.au=An%2C+Dahlia+D.&rft.au=Rupert%2C+Peter+B.&rft.au=Strong%2C+Roland+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F9zn3q96n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Myasoedov, p. 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tablitsa_soedineniy-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tablitsa_soedineniy_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tablitsa_soedineniy_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chemanalytica.com/book/novyy_spravochnik_khimika_i_tekhnologa/01_osnovnye_svoystva_neorganicheskikh_organicheskikh_i_elementoorganicheskikh_soedineniy">"Таблица Inorganic and Coordination compounds"</a> (in Russian). Retrieved 11 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0+Inorganic+and+Coordination+compounds&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchemanalytica.com%2Fbook%2Fnovyy_spravochnik_khimika_i_tekhnologa%2F01_osnovnye_svoystva_neorganicheskikh_organicheskikh_i_elementoorganicheskikh_soedineniy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> According to other sources, cubic sesquioxide of curium is olive-green. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xumuk.ru/encyklopedia/2248.html">"Соединения curium site XuMuK.ru"</a> (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100818211138/http://www.xumuk.ru/encyklopedia/2248.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2010. 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Vokrug Sveta (in Russian). 2811 (4).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vokrug+Sveta&rft.atitle=Universal+Alchemy&rft.volume=2811&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Sergey+Popov&rft.au=Alexander+Sergeev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vokrugsveta.ru%2Fvs%2Farticle%2F6214%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_L._Heiserman1992" class="citation book cs1">David L. Heiserman (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis/page/338">"Element 94: Plutonium"</a>. Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. New York: TAB Books. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8306-3018-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8306-3018-9"><bdi>978-0-8306-3018-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Element+94%3A+Plutonium&rft.btitle=Exploring+Chemical+Elements+and+their+Compounds&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=TAB+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8306-3018-9&rft.au=David+L.+Heiserman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexploringchemica01heis%2Fpage%2F338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Malik1985" class="citation book cs1">John Malik (September 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00313791.pdf">The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Explosions</a> (PDF). Los Alamos. p. Table VI. LA-8819. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224204106/https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00313791.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yields+of+the+Hiroshima+and+Nagasaki+Explosions&rft.pages=Table+VI&rft.pub=Los+Alamos&rft.date=1985-09&rft.au=John+Malik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Fdocs1%2F00313791.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226091803/https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/design.htm">"Nuclear Weapon Design"</a>. Federation of American Scientists. 1998. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/design.htm">the original</a> on 26 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Weapon+Design&rft.pub=Federation+of+American+Scientists&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fnuke%2Fintro%2Fnuke%2Fdesign.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> John Holdren and Matthew Bunn <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101105035505/http://www.nti.org/e_research/cnwm/overview/technical2.asp">Nuclear Weapons Design & Materials</a>. Project on Managing the Atom (MTA) for NTI. 25 November 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/A14_PressKit.pdf">Apollo 14 Press Kit – 01/11/71</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190721143247/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/A14_PressKit.pdf">Archived</a> 21 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, NASA, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-burakov-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-burakov_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-burakov_123-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB.E._BurakovM.I_OjovanW.E._Lee2010" class="citation book cs1">B.E. Burakov; M.I Ojovan; W.E. Lee (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BWriuXxa7CYC">Crystalline Materials for Actinide Immobilisation</a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-418-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84816-418-5"><bdi>978-1-84816-418-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crystalline+Materials+for+Actinide+Immobilisation&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84816-418-5&rft.au=B.E.+Burakov&rft.au=M.I+Ojovan&rft.au=W.E.+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBWriuXxa7CYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._I._OjovanW.E._Lee2005" class="citation book cs1">M. I. Ojovan; W.E. Lee (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vQkQnmo_bE0C">An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation</a>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044462-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044462-8"><bdi>978-0-08-044462-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Nuclear+Waste+Immobilisation&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044462-8&rft.au=M.+I.+Ojovan&rft.au=W.E.+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvQkQnmo_bE0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolub,_A._M.1971" class="citation book cs1">Golub, A. M. (1971). Общая и неорганическая химия (General and Inorganic Chemistry). Vol. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F+%28General+and+Inorganic+Chemistry%29&rft.date=1971&rft.au=Golub%2C+A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</a>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8"><bdi>978-0-08-037941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-037941-8&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Norman+N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyasoedov,_B.1972" class="citation book cs1">Myasoedov, B. (1972). <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">Analytical chemistry of transplutonium elements</a>. Moscow: Nauka. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-62715-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-62715-0"><bdi>978-0-470-62715-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytical+chemistry+of+transplutonium+elements&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Nauka&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-470-62715-0&rft.au=Myasoedov%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AActinide" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinide&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Names_for_sets_of_chemical_elements" title="Names for sets of chemical elements">Sets of elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By periodic table structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1 (Hydrogen and alkali metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2 (Alkaline earth metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13 (Triels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14 (Tetrels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15 (Pnictogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16 (Chalcogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17 (Halogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18 (Noble gases)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">8+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Aufbau_model" title="Extended periodic table">Aufbau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Fricke" title="Extended periodic table">Fricke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Pyykkö" title="Extended periodic table">Pyykkö</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Blocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aufbau_principle" title="Aufbau principle">Aufbau principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_metals,_metalloids_and_nonmetals" title="Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals">metallicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">Lanthanides</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">Post-transition metals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids" title="Lists of metalloids">Lists of metalloids by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_line_between_metals_and_nonmetals" title="Dividing line between metals and nonmetals">Dividing line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal" title="Nonmetal">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">Noble gases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">Other sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">Platinum-group metals (PGM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">Refractory metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals" title="Coinage metals">Coinage metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">Noble metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_element" title="Heavy metal element">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">Native metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">Transuranium elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">Superheavy elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_actinide" title="Major actinide">Major actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements" title="List of chemical elements">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">Abundance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_human_body" title="Composition of the human body">in humans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_atomic_properties" title="List of elements by atomic properties">Atomic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_stability_of_isotopes" title="List of elements by stability of isotopes">Nuclear stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">Symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Properties" title="Chemical element">Properties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueous_ions_by_element" title="List of aqueous ions by element">Aqueous chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(crystal_structure)" title="Periodic table (crystal structure)">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(electron_configurations)" title="Periodic table (electron configurations)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_symbol" title="Term symbol">Term symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Data pages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">Atomic radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Boiling points of the elements (data page)">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Critical points of the elements (data page)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Densities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Densities of the elements (data page)">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_properties_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Elastic properties of the elements (data page)">Elasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)">Electrical resistivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">Electron affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_configurations_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electron configurations of the elements (data page)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardnesses_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Hardnesses of the elements (data page)">Hardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heat capacities of the elements (data page)">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_fusion_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)">Heat of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_vaporization_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)">Heat of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energies_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Ionization energies of the elements (data page)">Ionization energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Melting points of the elements (data page)">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speeds_of_sound_of_the_elements" title="Speeds of sound of the elements">Speed of sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)">Thermal conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansivities_of_the_elements" title="Thermal expansivities of the elements">Thermal expansion coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressures_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)">Vapor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">Element discoveries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev#Periodic_table" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">1871 table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">1869 predictions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_of_chemical_elements" title="Naming of chemical elements">Naming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_name_etymologies" title="List of chemical element name etymologies">etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_naming_controversies" title="List of chemical element naming controversies">controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places" title="List of chemical elements named after places">for places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">for people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements_in_East_Asian_languages" title="Chemical elements in East Asian languages">in East Asian languages</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_element_name" title="Systematic element name">systematic element name</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivial_name" title="Trivial name">Trivial name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Periodic_table" title="Category:Periodic table">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Elements">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Periodic_table" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Template:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Template talk:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Periodic_table" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="table-layout:fixed; width:100%;" aria-describedby="periodic-table-legend"> <tbody><tr> <td style="line-height:100%;"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <td colspan="14"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td title="H, Hydrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a> </td> <td colspan="30"> </td> <td title="He, Helium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a> </td> <td title="Be, Beryllium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="B, Boron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a> </td> <td title="C, Carbon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a> </td> <td title="N, Nitrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a> </td> <td title="O, Oxygen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> </td> <td title="F, Fluorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a> </td> <td title="Ne, Neon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> </td> <td title="Mg, Magnesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="Al, Aluminium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a> </td> <td title="Si, Silicon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a> </td> <td title="P, Phosphorus" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a> </td> <td title="S, Sulfur" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a> </td> <td title="Cl, Chlorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a> </td> <td title="Ar, Argon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a> </td> <td title="Ca, Calcium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a> </td> <td title="Ti, Titanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a> </td> <td title="V, Vanadium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a> </td> <td title="Cr, Chromium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a> </td> <td title="Mn, Manganese" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a> </td> <td title="Fe, Iron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a> </td> <td title="Co, Cobalt" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a> </td> <td title="Ni, Nickel" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a> </td> <td title="Cu, Copper" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> </td> <td title="Zn, Zinc" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a> </td> <td title="Ga, Gallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a> </td> <td title="Ge, Germanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a> </td> <td title="As, Arsenic" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a> </td> <td title="Se, Selenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> </td> <td title="Br, Bromine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a> </td> <td title="Kr, Krypton" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a> </td> <td title="Sr, Strontium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a> </td> <td title="Zr, Zirconium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a> </td> <td title="Nb, Niobium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a> </td> <td title="Mo, Molybdenum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a> </td> <td title="Tc, Technetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a> </td> <td title="Ru, Ruthenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a> </td> <td title="Rh, Rhodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a> </td> <td title="Pd, Palladium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a> </td> <td title="Ag, Silver" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a> </td> <td title="Cd, Cadmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a> </td> <td title="In, Indium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a> </td> <td title="Sn, Tin" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> </td> <td title="Sb, Antimony" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a> </td> <td title="Te, Tellurium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a> </td> <td title="I, Iodine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a> </td> <td title="Xe, Xenon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a> </td> <td title="Ba, Barium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a> </td> <td title="La, Lanthanum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a> </td> <td title="Ce, Cerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> </td> <td title="Pr, Praseodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a> </td> <td title="Nd, Neodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a> </td> <td title="Pm, Promethium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a> </td> <td title="Sm, Samarium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> </td> <td title="Eu, Europium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a> </td> <td title="Gd, Gadolinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a> </td> <td title="Tb, Terbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a> </td> <td title="Dy, Dysprosium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a> </td> <td title="Ho, Holmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a> </td> <td title="Er, Erbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a> </td> <td title="Tm, Thulium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a> </td> <td title="Yb, Ytterbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a> </td> <td title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a> </td> <td title="Hf, Hafnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a> </td> <td title="Ta, Tantalum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> </td> <td title="W, Tungsten" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a> </td> <td title="Re, Rhenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a> </td> <td title="Os, Osmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a> </td> <td title="Ir, Iridium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a> </td> <td title="Pt, Platinum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a> </td> <td title="Au, Gold" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> </td> <td title="Hg, Mercury" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a> </td> <td title="Tl, Thallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a> </td> <td title="Pb, Lead" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a> </td> <td title="Bi, Bismuth" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a> </td> <td title="Po, Polonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a> </td> <td title="At, Astatine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a> </td> <td title="Rn, Radon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> </td> <td title="Ra, Radium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a> </td> <td title="Ac, Actinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a> </td> <td title="Th, Thorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a> </td> <td title="Pa, Protactinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a> </td> <td title="U, Uranium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a> </td> <td title="Np, Neptunium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a> </td> <td title="Pu, Plutonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a> </td> <td title="Am, Americium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a> </td> <td title="Cm, Curium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a> </td> <td title="Bk, Berkelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a> </td> <td title="Cf, Californium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a> </td> <td title="Es, Einsteinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a> </td> <td title="Fm, Fermium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a> </td> <td title="Md, Mendelevium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a> </td> <td title="No, Nobelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a> </td> <td title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </td> <td title="Rf, Rutherfordium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a> </td> <td title="Db, Dubnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a> </td> <td title="Sg, Seaborgium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a> </td> <td title="Bh, Bohrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a> </td> <td title="Hs, Hassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a> </td> <td title="Mt, Meitnerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a> </td> <td title="Ds, Darmstadtium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a> </td> <td title="Rg, Roentgenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a 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