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class="comp article-header-block mntl-block "><ul id="breadcrumbs_1-0" class="comp breadcrumbs mntl-universal-breadcrumbs mntl-block type--squirrel breadcrumbs" data-tracking-container="true"><li id="mntl-breadcrumbs__item_1-0" class="comp mntl-breadcrumbs__item mntl-block"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/humanities-4133358" rel="nocaes" id="mntl-text-link_5-0" class="mntl-text-link mntl-breadcrumbs__link" data-tracking-container="true" ><span class="link__wrapper">Humanities</span></a> <span id="breadcrumbs__separator_1-0" class="comp breadcrumbs__separator mntl-text-block">›</span></li> <li id="mntl-breadcrumbs__item_2-0" class="comp mntl-breadcrumbs__item mntl-block"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/history-and-culture-4133356" rel="nocaes" id="mntl-text-link_6-0" class="mntl-text-link mntl-breadcrumbs__link" data-tracking-container="true" ><span class="link__wrapper">History & Culture</span></a> <span id="breadcrumbs__separator_2-0" class="comp breadcrumbs__separator mntl-text-block">›</span></li> <li id="mntl-breadcrumbs__item_3-0" class="comp mntl-breadcrumbs__item mntl-block"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/american-history-4133354" rel="nocaes" id="mntl-text-link_7-0" class="mntl-text-link mntl-breadcrumbs__link" data-tracking-container="true" ><span class="link__wrapper">American History</span></a> <span id="breadcrumbs__separator_3-0" class="comp breadcrumbs__separator mntl-text-block">›</span></li></ul> <div id="article-heading_1-0" class="comp article-heading mntl-article-header"> <h1 class="article-heading type--lion">What Is a Literacy Test?</h1> <p class="article-subheading type--dog">Literacy Tests, Race, and Immigration in U.S. History</p> </div></div> </div><div class="loc article-post-header"><div id="post-header-social-block_1-0" class="comp post-header-social-block mntl-block"><div id="social-share-block_1-0" class="comp social-share-block mntl-block"><ul id="social-share_1-0" class="comp social-share mntl-social-share share" data-title="What Is a Literacy Test?" document="StructuredContentDocumentEx{parent=BaseDocumentEx{templateType=STRUCTUREDCONTENT, documentId=4137422, bestTitle='What Is a Literacy Test?'}}" data-description="Literacy tests measure a person’s proficiency in reading and writing and have been used in the U.S. to disenfranchise voters and discourage immigration." data-tracking-container="true"> <li class="share-item share-item-facebook"> <span data-href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fliteracy-test-definition-4137422%3Futm_source%3Dfacebook.com%26utm_medium%3Dsocial%26utm_campaign%3Dsocial-share-article" data-network="facebook" data-click-tracked="true" class="share-link share-link-facebook" tabindex="0" title="Share on Facebook" aria-label="Share on Facebook" role="link"> <svg class="icon icon-facebook " > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-facebook" href="#icon-facebook"></use> </svg> </span> </li> <li 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url('data:image/gif;charset=utf-8;base64,R0lGODlhCQAHAPUAAA8PDxERERMTExUVFRYWFhoaGhsbGxwcHB0dHR8fHyEhISIiIiMjIyQkJCUlJSYmJicnJygoKCoqKisrKywsLDExMTIyMjMzMzY2NkZGRlBQUFRUVFlZWWpqanZ2dn5+fqmpqa+vr7i4uLy8vMDAwMvLy9fX19jY2N3d3d7e3ujo6O7u7vDw8PHx8fLy8vPz8/z8/A8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDw8PDywAAAAACQAHAEUISgBdDBDw4sCAFjBKJAhAgASCBRYYOEiR4EMDEwlOhKhAgEKBDhlWcMAwgQWIFCpQeNggQsWDBwYAjEigwQACAAUULIgg4QIFCAEBADs=')" /> <noscript> <img src="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/pem7pS04dB2ellC9x-Bqr9sZkzo=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/lbj-hands-pen-to-mlk-1749781-b1987f69c7d74712a7f8b6c0a2d75e26.jpg" width="4074" height="3195" class="loaded primary-img--noscript primary-image__image mntl-primary-image--blurry" srcset="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/pem7pS04dB2ellC9x-Bqr9sZkzo=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/lbj-hands-pen-to-mlk-1749781-b1987f69c7d74712a7f8b6c0a2d75e26.jpg 1500w" sizes="750px" alt="LBJ hands pen to MLK" /> </noscript> </div> </div> <figcaption id="primary-image__figcap_1-0" class="comp primary-image__figcap mntl-figure-caption figure-article-caption"> <svg class="icon icon-camera figure-article-caption-icon" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-camera" href="#icon-camera"></use> </svg> <span class="figure-article-caption-text">US President Lyndon B Johnson hands a pen to Reverend Martin Luther King Jr during the the signing of the Voting Rights Act, which declared literacy tests unconstitutional, August 6, 1965.</span> <span class="figure-article-caption-owner">Washington Bureau / Getty Images</span> </figcaption></figure> </div><div class="loc article-left-rail"> <div id="breadcrumbs-list_2-0" class="comp breadcrumbs-list hide-toplevel-small" data-tracking-container="true"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/history-and-culture-4133356" rel="nocaes" class="breadcrumbs-list-image" ><div class="loc image"><img 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xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-caret-right" href="#icon-caret-right"></use> </svg> </a> </li> </ul> <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/history-and-culture-4133356" rel="nocaes" class="text-btn" > <span class="text-btn__text-label">View More</span> <svg class="icon icon-caret-right text-btn-icon" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-caret-right" href="#icon-caret-right"></use> </svg> </a></div> </div><div class="loc article-pre-content"><div id="article-meta_1-0" class="comp article-meta mntl-block" data-tracking-container="true"><div id="reference-bylines_1-0" class="comp reference-bylines mntl-bylines right-rail__offset"><div id="mntl-bylines__group_1-0" class="comp mntl-bylines__group mntl-block mntl-bylines__group--author"><div id="mntl-bylines__item_1-0" class="comp mntl-bylines__item mntl-attribution__item mntl-attribution__item--has-date"> <span class="mntl-attribution__item-descriptor">By</span> <div data-tooltip="Lisa Marder is an artist and educator who studied drawing and painting at Harvard University. She is an instructor at the South Shore Art Center in Massachusetts when she is not working on her own art." tabindex="0" data-inline-tooltip="true"> <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/lisa-marder-5116652" rel="nocaes" data-trigger-link="true" class="mntl-attribution__item-name" tabindex="-1" >Lisa Marder</a> <div id="mntl-author-tooltip_1-0" class="comp mntl-author-tooltip mntl-tooltip mntl-group mntl-author-tooltip--no-job-title"> <div class="mntl-author-tooltip__top "> <div class="mntl-author-tooltip__image-wrapper"> <div class="img-placeholder" style="padding-bottom:119.7%;"> <img data-srcset="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/fKOEdv8cfohFfnWbbMhjUPWHDxg=/40x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 40w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/PYrpqsoH1ikXgb2AVfZngDsQcLI=/58x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 58w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/W45qONV_eHhpnPzlx5gZvyUccDs=/76x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 76w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/48K220IBgbRS7Al3e1QUT14Rlh0=/94x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 94w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/btaQTiZ2RFATiLx4kbLS2UJcetY=/112x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 112w" data-sizes="80px" data-src="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/bFsHwTw_wS7PFc6GCrR6Zu8oyf0=/200x200/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo" alt="about-copy.com-photo" class="lazyload mntl-author-tooltip__image" width="200" height="200" /> <noscript> <img src="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/bFsHwTw_wS7PFc6GCrR6Zu8oyf0=/200x200/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo" srcset="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/fKOEdv8cfohFfnWbbMhjUPWHDxg=/40x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 40w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/PYrpqsoH1ikXgb2AVfZngDsQcLI=/58x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 58w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/W45qONV_eHhpnPzlx5gZvyUccDs=/76x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 76w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/48K220IBgbRS7Al3e1QUT14Rlh0=/94x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 94w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/btaQTiZ2RFATiLx4kbLS2UJcetY=/112x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/about-copy-56a6e6df3df78cf77290d9dc.com-photo 112w" alt="about-copy.com-photo" width="200" height="200" class="img--noscript mntl-author-tooltip__image" /> </noscript> </div> </div> <div id="mntl-author-tooltip__name_1-0" class="comp mntl-author-tooltip__name mntl-attribution__item "> <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/lisa-marder-5116652" rel="nocaes" class="mntl-attribution__item-name" tabindex="0" >Lisa Marder</a> </div> <ul id="mntl-author-tooltip__education_1-0" class="comp mntl-author-tooltip__education mntl-block"><li id="mntl-author-tooltip__education-item_1-0" class="comp mntl-author-tooltip__education-item mntl-text-block">MLA, Harvard Graduate School of Design</li></ul> <div class="mntl-author-tooltip__bio"> Lisa Marder is an artist and educator who studied drawing and painting at Harvard University. She is an instructor at the South Shore Art Center in Massachusetts when she is not working on her own art. </div> </div> <div class="mntl-author-tooltip__bottom"> <span class="mntl-author-tooltip__learn-more-text">Learn about our</span> <a href="/about-us-4779650#toc-editorial-guidelines" rel="nocaes" class="mntl-author-tooltip__learn-more-link" >Editorial Process</a> </div> </div></div> </div> <div class="mntl-attribution__item-date">Updated on September 22, 2020</div></div> </div></div> </div><div class="loc article-content"><div id="article-content_1-0" class="comp article-content mntl-block"><div id="mntl-sc-page_1-0" class="comp mntl-sc-page mntl-block structured-content expert-content" data-sc-sticky-offset="85" data-sc-ad-label-height="24" data-sc-ad-track-spacing="100" data-sc-min-track-height="250" data-sc-max-track-height="600" data-sc-breakpoint="50em" data-sc-load-immediate="3" data-sc-content-positions="[1, 1050, 1250, 1550, 1950, 2350, 2750, 3150]" data-bind-scroll-on-start="true"><p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> A literacy test measures a person’s proficiency in reading and writing. Beginning in the 19th century, literacy tests were used in the voter registration process in southern states of the U.S. with the intent to disenfranchise Black voters. In 1917, with the passing of the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/us-immigration-act-of-1917-4125136" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">Immigration Act</a>, literacy tests were also included in the U.S. immigration process, and they are still used today. Historically, literacy tests have served to legitimize racial and ethnic marginalization in the U.S. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_2-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <span class="heading-toc" id="toc-history-of-reconstruction-and-jim-crow-era"></span><h2 id="mntl-sc-block_3-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"> <span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text"> History of Reconstruction and Jim Crow Era </span> </h2> <p id="mntl-sc-block_4-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Literacy tests were introduced into the voting process in the South with the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-jim-crow-45387" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jim Crow</a> laws. These were state and local laws and statutes enacted by Southern and border states in the late 1870s to deny Black Americans the right to vote in the South following <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/timeline-of-the-reconstruction-era-104856" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="2" rel="noopener noreferrer">Reconstruction</a> (1865–1877). They were designed to keep White and Black people segregated, to disenfranchise Black voters, and to keep Black people subjugated, undermining the 14th and 15th Amendments of the Constitution. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_5-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_6-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Despite the ratification of the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/us-constitution-14th-amendment-summary-105382" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">14th Amendment</a> in 1868, granting citizenship to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States," which included formerly enslaved people, and the ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870, which specifically gave Black Americans the right to vote, Southern and border states continued to find ways to keep racial minorities from voting. They used electoral fraud and violence to intimidate Black American voters and created <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-the-definition-of-jim-crow-laws-2834618" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="2" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jim Crow laws</a> to promote racial segregation. During the 20 years following Reconstruction, Black Americans lost many of the legal rights that had been gained during Reconstruction. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_7-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_8-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> With the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/plessy-v-ferguson-1773294" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896) case, the U.S. Supreme Court effectively undermined the protection of Black Americans by providing legitimacy to Jim Crow laws.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="3"></span> In this case, the Supreme Court maintained that public facilities for Black and White people could be “separate but equal.” Following this decision, it soon became the law throughout the South that public facilities had to be separate. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_9-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_10-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Many of the changes made during Reconstruction proved to be short-lived, with the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/racist-supreme-court-rulings-721615" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">Supreme Court</a> continuing to uphold racial discrimination and segregation in its decisions, thus giving southern states free rein to impose literacy tests and all manner of voting restrictions on prospective voters, discriminating against Black voters. But racism was not just recurring in the South. Although Jim Crow Laws were a Southern phenomenon, the sentiment behind them was a national one. There was a resurgence of racism in the North as well and a belief among White people across the country, and internationally, that <a href="http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/SupCtRec.html" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="2" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow">Reconstruction was a mistake</a>. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_11-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <span class="heading-toc" id="toc-literacy-tests-and-voting-rights"></span><h2 id="mntl-sc-block_12-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"> <span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text"> Literacy Tests and Voting Rights </span> </h2> <p id="mntl-sc-block_13-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Some states, such as Connecticut, used literacy tests in the mid-1800s to keep Irish immigrants from voting, but Southern states didn’t use literacy tests until after Reconstruction in 1890. Sanctioned by the federal government, these tests were used well into the 1960s. They were given ostensibly to test the voters' ability to read and write, but in reality they were designed to discriminate against Black American and sometimes poor White voters. Since, at that time, 40% to 60% of Black people were illiterate, compared to 8% to 18% of White people, these tests had a <a href="http://www.umich.edu/~lawrace/disenfranchise1.htm" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">large differential racial impact</a>. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_14-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_15-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Southern states also imposed other standards, all of which were arbitrarily set by the test administrator. Favored were those who owned property, or had grandfathers who had been able to vote (“<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/african-american-history-timeline-1890-1899-45425" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">grandfather clause</a>”); people with “good character,” and those who paid poll taxes. Because of these impossible standards, of the 130,334 registered Black voters in Louisiana in 1896, only 1% could pass the state's new rules eight years later.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="1"></span> Even in areas where the Black population was substantially greater, these standards kept the White voting population in the majority. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_16-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_17-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> The administration of literacy tests was unfair and discriminatory. If the administrator wanted a person to pass, they could ask an easy question—for example, "Who is the president of the United States?”<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="2"></span> While the same official could require a much higher standard of a Black person, even requiring that they answer every question correctly. It was up to the test administrator whether the prospective voter passed or failed, and even if a Black man was well-educated, he would most likely fail, because the test was created with failure as a goal.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="4"></span> Even if a potential Black voter knew all the answers to the questions, the official administering the test could still fail him. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_18-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_19-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Literacy tests were not declared unconstitutional in the South until 95 years after the 15th Amendment was ratified, by the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Five years later, in 1970, Congress abolished literacy tests and discriminatory voting practices nationwide, and as a result, the number of registered Black American voters increased dramatically. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_20-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <span class="heading-toc" id="toc-actual-literacy-tests"></span><h2 id="mntl-sc-block_21-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"> <span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text"> Actual Literacy Tests </span> </h2> <p id="mntl-sc-block_22-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> In 2014 a group of Harvard University students was asked to take the 1964 Louisiana Literacy Test to raise awareness about voting discrimination.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="5"></span> The test is similar to those given in other Southern states since Reconstruction to potential voters who could not prove they had a fifth-grade education. In order to be able to vote, a person had to pass all 30 questions in 10 minutes.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="5"></span> All of the students failed under those conditions because the test was meant to be failed. The questions have nothing at all to do with the U.S. Constitution and are completely nonsensical. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_23-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <span class="heading-toc" id="toc-literacy-tests-and-immigration"></span><h2 id="mntl-sc-block_24-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"> <span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text"> Literacy Tests and Immigration </span> </h2> <p id="mntl-sc-block_25-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> In the late 19th century, many people wanted to restrict the influx of immigrants to the U.S. due to increased problems of urbanization and industrialization such as crowding, lack of housing and jobs, and urban squalor. It was during this time that the idea of using literacy tests to control the number of immigrants able to enter the United States, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe, was formed. However, it took those who advocated for this approach many years to try to convince lawmakers and others that immigrants were the “cause” of many of America’s social and economic maladies. Finally, in 1917, Congress passed the Immigration Act, also known as the Literacy Act (and Asiatic Barred Zone Act), which included a <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/u-s-citizenship-test-questions-3321895" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">literacy test</a> that is <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/test-for-us-citizenship-3321584" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="internalLink" data-ordinal="2" rel="noopener noreferrer">still a requirement</a> for becoming a U.S. citizen today. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_26-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_27-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> The Immigration Act demanded that those who were over the age of 16 and could read some language must read 30–40 words to show they were capable of reading.<span class="ql-inline-citation" data-cite="7"></span> Those who were entering the U.S. to avoid religious persecution from their country of origin did not have to pass this test. The literacy test that is part of the Immigration Act of 1917 included only a few languages available to immigrants. This meant that if their native language was not included, they could not prove they were literate and were denied entry. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_28-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <p id="mntl-sc-block_29-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> Beginning in 1950, immigrants could legally only take the literacy test in English, further limiting those who could gain entry to the United States. Besides demonstrating the ability to read, write, and speak English, immigrants also have to display knowledge of U.S. history, government, and civics. </p> <div id="mntl-sc-block_30-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div> <span class="heading-toc" id="toc-additional-references"></span><h2 id="mntl-sc-block_31-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"> <span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text"> Additional References </span> </h2> <ul id="mntl-sc-block_32-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"> <li><cite>Foner, Eric., "<a href="http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/SupCtRec.html" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow">The Supreme Court and the History of Reconstruction -- and Vice-Versa</a>,<em><br>Columbia Law Review, </em>November 2012, 1585-1606.</cite></li> <li><cite><em>,"<a href="http://www.umich.edu/~lawrace/disenfranchise1.htm" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="2" rel="noopener noreferrer">Techniques of Direct Disenfranchisement 1880-1965</a>"</em> University of Michigan.</cite></li> <li><cite>Onion, Rebecca, "<em><a href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/06/voting-rights-and-the-supreme-court-the-impossible-literacy-test-louisiana-used-to-give-black-voters.html" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="3" rel="noopener noreferrer">Take the Impossible 'Literacy' Test Louisiana Gave Black Voters in the 1960s</a>, Slate.com.</em></cite></li> <li><cite>Schwartz, Jeff, "<em><a href="https://www.crmvet.org/nars/schwartz.htm" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="4" rel="noopener noreferrer">CORE’s Freedom Summer, 1964 - My Experiences in Louisiana</a>."</em></cite></li> </ul></div> <div id="sources-and-citation_1-0" class="comp sources-and-citation mntl-block has-sources"><div id="mntl-article-sources_1-0" class="comp mntl-article-sources mntl-expandable-block" data-scroll-offset="65"><div class="loc toggle-content"><div id="mntl-article-sources__wrapper_1-0" class="comp mntl-article-sources__wrapper mntl-block" data-click-tracked="true"><span id="mntl-article-sources__heading_1-0" class="comp mntl-article-sources__heading mntl-text-block">View Article Sources</span> <svg class="icon icon-sources-show show-icon" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-sources-show" href="#icon-sources-show"></use> </svg> <svg class="icon icon-sources-hide hide-icon" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-sources-hide" href="#icon-sources-hide"></use> </svg></div> </div><div class="loc expandable-content"> <div id="mntl-article-sources__citation-sources_1-0" class="comp mntl-article-sources__citation-sources mntl-citation-sources mntl-sources" data-tracking-container="true"> <ol class="mntl-sources__content"> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-3"><p>“<a href="https://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/what.htm" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">What Was Jim Crow</a>.” <em>Ferris State University</em>, ferris.edu.</p></li> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-1"><p>“<a href="https://www.crf-usa.org/black-history-month/a-brief-history-of-jim-crow" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">A Brief History of Jim Crow</a>.” <em>Constitutional Rights Foundation</em>, crf-usa.org.</p></li> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-2"><p>“<a href="https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/jimcrow/voting_literacy.html" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. Tools and Activities: PBS</a>.” thirteen.org.</p></li> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-4"><p>“<a href="http://www.openculture.com/2014/07/literacy-test-louisiana-used-to-suppress-the-black-vote.html" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow">Take The Near Impossible Literacy Test Louisiana Used to Suppress the Black Vote (1964)</a>.” <em>Open Culture</em>, 23 July 2014.</p></li> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-5"><p>Miller, Carl L. and Ojogho, Dennis O. “<a href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2015/1/26/voter-id-laws-louisiana/" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer">A Sacred Right Remains Threatened</a>.” <em>Opinion | The Harvard Crimson</em>, thecrimson.com. 26 Jan. 2015.</p></li> <li class="mntl-sources__source" id="citation-7"><p>Powell, John. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA137&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false" data-component="link" data-source="inlineLink" data-type="externalLink" data-ordinal="1" rel="noopener noreferrer"><em>Encyclopedia of North American Immigration</em></a>. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009.</p></li> </ol> </div> </div></div> <div id="citation-widget_1-0" class="comp citation-widget js-citation-widget" data-tracking-container="true"> <div class="citation-widget__container js-container"> <button class="citation-widget__button js-button"> <span class="citation-widget__cite-label">Cite this Article </span> <svg class="icon icon-cite citation-widget__icon-cite" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-cite" href="#icon-cite"></use> </svg> </button> <div class="citation-widget__window js-window"> <svg class="icon icon-close citation-widget__icon-close js-icon-close" > <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-close" href="#icon-close"></use> </svg> <div class="citation-widget__heading">Format</div> <a href="#" class="citation-widget__format-link citation-widget__format-link--active js-format-link">mla</a> <a href="#" class="citation-widget__format-link js-format-link">apa</a> <a href="#" class="citation-widget__format-link js-format-link">chicago</a> <div class="citation-widget__heading">Your Citation</div> <div class="citation-widget__content js-content"> <span class="citation-widget__citation citation-widget__citation--active js-active" data-citation-format="mla">Marder, Lisa. "What Is a Literacy Test?" ThoughtCo, Jul. 13, 2023, thoughtco.com/literacy-test-definition-4137422.</span> <span class="citation-widget__citation" data-citation-format="apa">Marder, Lisa. (2023, July 13). What Is a Literacy Test? Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/literacy-test-definition-4137422</span> <span class="citation-widget__citation" data-citation-format="chicago">Marder, Lisa. "What Is a Literacy Test?" 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