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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Fission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fukushima_Daiichi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fukushima_Daiichi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Fukushima Daiichi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fukushima_Daiichi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helium-3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helium-3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Helium-3 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helium-3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_rays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_rays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Cosmic rays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_rays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Production history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-USA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#USA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 USA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-USA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Health risks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Environmental contamination </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_contamination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environmental contamination subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regulatory_limits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_limits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Regulatory limits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_limits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiometric_assays_in_biology_and_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiometric_assays_in_biology_and_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Radiometric assays in biology and medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiometric_assays_in_biology_and_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-powered_lighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-powered_lighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Self-powered lighting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-powered_lighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Nuclear weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neutron_initiator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutron_initiator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Neutron initiator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutron_initiator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boosting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boosting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Boosting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boosting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tritium_in_hydrogen_bomb_secondaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tritium_in_hydrogen_bomb_secondaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Tritium in hydrogen bomb secondaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tritium_in_hydrogen_bomb_secondaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controlled_nuclear_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controlled_nuclear_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Controlled nuclear fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controlled_nuclear_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_power_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_power_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Electrical power source </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_power_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_as_an_oceanic_transient_tracer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_as_an_oceanic_transient_tracer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Use as an oceanic transient tracer </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_as_an_oceanic_transient_tracer-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use as an oceanic transient tracer subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use_as_an_oceanic_transient_tracer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_Atlantic_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Atlantic_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 North Atlantic Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Atlantic_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_and_Indian_oceans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_and_Indian_oceans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Pacific and Indian oceans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_and_Indian_oceans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mississippi_River_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mississippi_River_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Mississippi River system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mississippi_River_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Tritium</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="تريتيوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تريتيوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiu" title="Tritiu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tritiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="ট্রিটিয়াম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ট্রিটিয়াম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Трытый – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трытый" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Трыт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Трыт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Тритий – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тритий" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricij" title="Tricij – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tricij" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiom" title="Tritiom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tritiom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triti" title="Triti – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Triti" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Тритий – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тритий" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiwm" title="Tritiwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tritiwm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="تريسيوم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تريسيوم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triitium" title="Triitium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Triitium" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Τρίτιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τρίτιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritio" title="Tritio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tritio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricio" title="Tricio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tricio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritio" title="Tritio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tritio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85" title="تریتیوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تریتیوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiam" title="Tritiam – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tritiam" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricio" title="Tricio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tricio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%9A" title="氚 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="氚" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%BC%EC%A4%91%EC%88%98%EC%86%8C" title="삼중수소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="삼중수소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Տրիտիում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տրիտիում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="ट्राइटियम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ट्राइटियम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricij" title="Tricij – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tricij" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeno-3" title="Hydrogeno-3 – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Hydrogeno-3" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trizio" title="Trizio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trizio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="טריטיום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טריטיום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ტრიტიუმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტრიტიუმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Тритий – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тритий" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triti" title="Triti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Triti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritijs" title="Tritijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tritijs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritis" title="Tritis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tritis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%ADcium" title="Trícium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Trícium" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ട്രീറ്റിയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ട്രീറ്റിയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="ट्रिटियम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ट्रिटियम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E9%87%8D%E6%B0%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="三重水素 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="三重水素" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triti" title="Triti – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Triti" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ٹریٹیم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹریٹیم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryt" title="Tryt – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tryt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%ADtio" title="Trítio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Trítio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiu" title="Tritiu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tritiu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Тритий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тритий" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A" title="ට්‍රිටියම් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ට්‍රිටියම්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%ADcium" title="Trícium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Trícium" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritij" title="Tritij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tritij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Трицијум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трицијум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricijum" title="Tricijum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tricijum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tritium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="டிரிட்டியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="டிரிட்டியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ทริเทียม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทริเทียม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trityum" title="Trityum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Trityum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Тритій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тритій" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%A6%D9%85" title="ٹرائیٹیئم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹرائیٹیئم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triti" title="Triti – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triti" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tritium_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tritium (disambiguation)">Tritium (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"3H" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/3H_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="3H (disambiguation)">3H (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Tritium, 3H</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg/220px-Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg/330px-Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg/440px-Tritium-Glowring_-_320s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#eee">General</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Table_of_nuclides" title="Table of nuclides">Symbol</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3H</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclides" title="List of nuclides">Names</a></th><td class="infobox-data">tritium, 3H, H-3, hydrogen-3, T, 3T</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Protons</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(Z)</th><td class="infobox-data">1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number">Neutrons</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(N)</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Table_of_nuclides" title="Table of nuclides">Nuclide data</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">Natural abundance</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">10−18</a> in hydrogen<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(t1/2)</th><td class="infobox-data">12.32 years</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">Isotope mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3.01604928 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">Da</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin (particle physics)">Spin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠1/2⁠</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Excess_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Excess energy">Excess energy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">14949.794±0.001 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding energy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">8481.7963±0.0009 keV</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay products</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3He</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#eee">Decay modes</th></tr><tr style="font-weight:bold"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Decay_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay mode">Decay mode</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Beta_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta emission">Beta emission</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0.018590</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">Isotopes of hydrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Table_of_nuclides" title="Table of nuclides">Complete table of nuclides</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Tritium (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> τρίτος (trítos) 'third') or hydrogen-3 (symbol T or 3H) is a rare and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope_of_hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope of hydrogen">isotope of hydrogen</a> with half-life ~12.3 years. The tritium <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> (t, sometimes called a triton) contains one <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, whereas the nucleus of the common isotope <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen#Hydrogen-1_(Protium)" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">hydrogen-1</a> (protium) contains one proton and no neutrons, and that of non-radioactive hydrogen-2 (<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>) contains one proton and one neutron. Tritium is the heaviest <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">particle-bound</a> isotope of hydrogen. It is one of the few nuclides with a distinct name. The use of the name hydrogen-3, though more systematic, is much less common. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of its gases with <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>. It can be produced artificially by irradiation of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> or lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles in a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> and is a low-abundance byproduct in normal operations of nuclear reactors. Tritium is used as the energy source in <a href="/wiki/Radioluminescence" title="Radioluminescence">radioluminescent</a> lights for watches, <a href="/wiki/Iron_sights#Contrast_enhancements" title="Iron sights">night sights</a> for firearms, numerous instruments and tools, and novelty items such as self-illuminating key chains. It is used in a medical and scientific setting as a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">radioactive tracer</a>. Tritium is also used as a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> fuel, along with more abundant <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">tokamak</a> reactors and in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bombs</a>. Tritium has also been used commercially in <a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">Betavoltaic devices</a> such as <a href="/wiki/NanoTritium_batteries" title="NanoTritium batteries">NanoTritium batteries</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Tritium was first detected in 1934 by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Harteck" title="Paul Harteck">Paul Harteck</a> after bombarding <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> with deuterons (deuterium nuclei). Deuterium is another isotope of hydrogen, which occurs naturally with an abundance of 0.015%.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Their experiment could not isolate tritium, which was first accomplished in 1939 by <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cornog" title="Robert Cornog">Robert Cornog</a>, who also realized tritium's radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> recognized in 1954 that tritium could be used for <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> of water and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decay">Decay</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Decay">edit</a>]</div> The half life of tritium is listed by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> as 4,500 ± 8 days (12.32 ± 0.02 years)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> – an annualized rate of approximately 5.5% per year. Tritium decays into <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> by <a href="/wiki/Beta-minus_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-minus decay">beta-minus decay</a> as shown in this nuclear equation: <dl><dd><table border="0"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td>3 1H  </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"> e− </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino"> ν e</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> releasing 18.6 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a> of energy in the process. The <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>'s kinetic energy varies, with an average of 5.7 keV, while the remaining energy is carried off by the nearly undetectable <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino#Electron_antineutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron antineutrino</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particles</a> from tritium can penetrate only about 6.0 millimetres (0.24 in) of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Because of their low energy compared to other beta particles, the amount of <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> generated is also lower. The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_rhenium" title="Isotopes of rhenium">rhenium-187</a>) useful for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory. The low energy of tritium's radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using <a href="/wiki/Liquid_scintillation_counting" title="Liquid scintillation counting">liquid scintillation counting</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithium">Lithium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lithium">edit</a>]</div> Tritium is most often produced in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">lithium-6</a>. The release and diffusion of tritium and helium produced by the fission of lithium can take place within ceramics known as <a href="/wiki/Breeding_blanket" title="Breeding blanket">breeder ceramics</a>. Production of tritium from lithium-6 in such breeder ceramics is possible with neutrons of any energy, though the cross section is higher when the incident neutrons have lower energy, reaching more than 900 <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">barns</a> for <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a>. This is an <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> reaction, yielding 4.8 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-t-breeding-9">[9]</a> In comparison, <a href="/wiki/Deuterium%E2%80%93tritium_fusion" title="Deuterium–tritium fusion">fusion of deuterium with tritium</a> releases about 17.6 MeV. For applications in proposed fusion energy reactors, such as <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a>, pebbles consisting of lithium bearing ceramics including Li2TiO3 and Li4SiO4, are being developed for tritium breeding within a helium-cooled pebble bed, also known as a breeder blanket.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> + <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a> → <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> (2.05 MeV) + 3 1H (2.75 MeV)</dd></dl> High-energy neutrons can also produce tritium from <a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">lithium-7</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a> reaction, consuming 2.466 MeV. This was discovered when the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo#High_yield" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> nuclear test produced an unexpectedly high yield.<a href="#cite_note-ieer-11">[11]</a> Prior to this test, it was incorrectly assumed that 7 3Li would absorb a neutron to become 8 3Li , which would beta-decay to <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-8" title="Beryllium-8">8 4Be </a>, which in turn would decay to two 4 2He nuclei on a total timeframe much longer than the duration of the explosion. <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> + <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a> → <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> (2.05 MeV) + 3 1H (2.75 MeV) + <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boron">Boron</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Boron">edit</a>]</div> High-energy neutrons irradiating <a href="/wiki/Boron#Enriched_boron_(boron-10)" title="Boron">boron-10</a>, also occasionally produce tritium:<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Boron-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-10">10 5B </a> + n → 2 4 2He + 3 1H </dd></dl> A more common result of boron-10 neutron capture is 7Li and a single <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Especially in <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactors</a> which only partially <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermalize</a> neutrons, the interaction between relatively fast neutrons and the <a href="/wiki/Boric_acid" title="Boric acid">boric acid</a> added as a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_shim" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical shim">chemical shim</a> produces small but non-negligible quantities of tritium. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deuterium">Deuterium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Deuterium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water#Tritium_production" title="Heavy water">Heavy water § Tritium production</a></div> Tritium is also produced in <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">heavy water-moderated reactors</a> whenever a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nucleus captures a neutron. This reaction has a small absorption <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a>, making <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> a good <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>, and relatively little tritium is produced. Even so, cleaning tritium from the moderator may be desirable after several years to reduce the risk of its escaping to the environment. <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Power_Generation" title="Ontario Power Generation">Ontario Power Generation</a>'s "Tritium Removal Facility" is capable of processing up to 2,500 tonnes (2,500 long tons; 2,800 short tons) of heavy water a year, and it separates out about 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of tritium, making it available for other uses.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU reactors</a> typically produce 130 grams (4.6 oz) of tritium per year, which is recovered at the Darlington Tritium Recovery Facility (DTRF) attached to the 3,512 MWelectric <a href="/wiki/Darlington_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Darlington Nuclear Generating Station">Darlington Nuclear Generating Station</a> in Ontario. The total production at DTRF between 1989 and 2011 was 42.5 kilograms (94 lb) – with an activity of 409 megacuries (15,100 PBq): an average of about 2 kilograms (4.4 lb) per year.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Deuterium's absorption cross section for <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a> is about 0.52 <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">millibarn</a>, whereas that of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-16" title="Oxygen-16">oxygen-16</a> (16O) is about 0.19 millibarn and that of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-17" title="Oxygen-17">oxygen-17</a> (17O) is about 240 millibarns. While 16O is by far the most common <a href="/wiki/Isotope_of_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope of oxygen">isotope of oxygen</a> in both natural oxygen and heavy water; depending on the method of <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a>, heavy water may be slightly richer in 17O and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">18O</a>. Due to both <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> and (n,<a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">α</a>) reactions (the latter of which produce <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">14C</a>, an undesirable long-lived beta emitter, from 17O) they are net "neutron consumers" and are thus undesirable in a moderator of a natural uranium reactor which needs to keep neutron absorption outside the fuel as low as feasible. Some facilities that remove tritium also remove (or at least reduce the content of) 17O and 18O, which can – at least in principle – be used for <a href="/wiki/Isotope_labeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope labeling">isotope labeling</a>. India, which also has a large fleet of <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurized heavy water reactor">pressurized heavy water reactors</a> (initially CANDU technology but since indigenized and further developed <a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> technology), also removes at least some of the tritium produced in the moderator/coolant of its reactors but due to the dual use nature of tritium and the Indian nuclear bomb program, less information about this is publicly available than for Canada. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fission">Fission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fission">edit</a>]</div> Tritium is an uncommon product of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a>, with a production of about one atom per 104 fissions.<a href="#cite_note-anl-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The main pathways of tritium production include <a href="/wiki/Ternary_fission" title="Ternary fission">ternary fission</a>. The release or recovery of tritium needs to be considered in the operation of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing of nuclear fuel</a> and storage of <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a>. The production of tritium is not a goal, but a side-effect. It is discharged to the atmosphere in small quantities by some nuclear power plants.<a href="#cite_note-National_Academies_Press-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing#Voloxidation" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Voloxidation</a> is an optional additional step in nuclear reprocessing that removes volatile fission products (such as all isotopes of hydrogen) before an aqueous process begins. This would in principle enable economic recovery of the produced tritium but even if the tritium is only disposed and not used, it has the potential to reduce tritium contamination in the water used, reducing radioactivity released when the water is discharged since <a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">tritiated water</a> cannot be removed from "ordinary" water except by isotope separation. <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities<a href="#cite_note-Policy-19">[19]</a><div class="floatright"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Annual_discharge_of_tritium_from_nuclear_facilities" title="Template:Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Annual_discharge_of_tritium_from_nuclear_facilities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Annual_discharge_of_tritium_from_nuclear_facilities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Location</th> <th>Nuclear facility</th> <th>Closest waters</th> <th>Liquid (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">TBq</a>)</th> <th>Steam (TBq)</th> <th>Total (TBq)</th> <th>Total (<a href="/wiki/Milligram" class="mw-redirect" title="Milligram">mg</a>)</th> <th>year </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Heysham_nuclear_power_station" title="Heysham nuclear power station">Heysham nuclear power station</a> B</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a></td> <td>396</td> <td>2.1</td> <td>398</td> <td>1,115</td> <td>2019 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a> reprocessing facility</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a></td> <td>423</td> <td>56</td> <td>479</td> <td>1,342</td> <td>2019 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant">Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant</a> Unit 1</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></td> <td>140</td> <td>152</td> <td>292</td> <td>872</td> <td>2018 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/La_Hague_site" title="La Hague site">La Hague reprocessing plant</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a></td> <td>11,400</td> <td>60</td> <td>11,460</td> <td>32,100</td> <td>2018 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Wolseong_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant">Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a></td> <td>107</td> <td>80.9</td> <td>188</td> <td>671</td> <td>2020<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Maanshan_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant">Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Luzon_Strait" title="Luzon Strait">Luzon Strait</a></td> <td>35</td> <td>9.4</td> <td>44</td> <td>123</td> <td>2015 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant">Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a></td> <td>52</td> <td>0.8</td> <td>52</td> <td>146</td> <td>2020 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Sanmen_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Sanmen Nuclear Power Station">Sanmen Nuclear Power Station</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a></td> <td>20</td> <td>0.4</td> <td>20</td> <td>56</td> <td>2020 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Bruce Nuclear Generating Station">Bruce Nuclear Generating Station</a> A, B</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></td> <td>756</td> <td>994</td> <td>1,750</td> <td>4,901</td> <td>2018 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Darlington_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Darlington Nuclear Generating Station">Darlington Nuclear Generating Station</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></td> <td>220</td> <td>210</td> <td>430</td> <td>1,204</td> <td>2018 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Pickering_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Pickering Nuclear Generating Station">Pickering Nuclear Generating Station</a> Units 1-4</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></td> <td>140</td> <td>300</td> <td>440</td> <td>1,232</td> <td>2015 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Diablo_Canyon_Power_Plant" title="Diablo Canyon Power Plant">Diablo Canyon Power Plant</a> Units1, 2</td> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></td> <td>82</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>84</td> <td>235</td> <td>2019 </td></tr></tbody></table> Given the <a href="/wiki/Specific_activity" title="Specific activity">specific activity</a> of tritium at 9,650 curies per gram (357 TBq/g), one <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">TBq</a> is equivalent to roughly 2.8 milligrams (0.043 gr). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fukushima_Daiichi">Fukushima Daiichi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fukushima Daiichi">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_disaster_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima disaster cleanup">Fukushima disaster cleanup</a></div> In June 2016 the Tritiated Water Task Force released a report<a href="#cite_note-TWTFR-21">[21]</a> on the status of tritium in tritiated water at <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant</a>, as part of considering options for final disposal of the stored contaminated cooling water. This identified that the March 2016 holding of tritium on-site was 760 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">TBq</a> (equivalent to 2.1 g of tritium or 14 mL of pure tritiated water) in a total of 860,000 m3 of stored water. This report also identified the reducing concentration of tritium in the water extracted from the buildings etc. for storage, seeing a factor of ten decrease over the five years considered (2011–2016), 3.3 MBq/L to 0.3 MBq/L (after correction for the 5% annual decay of tritium). According to a report by an expert panel considering the best approach to dealing with this issue, "<a href="/wiki/Heavy_water#Production" title="Heavy water">Tritium could be separated theoretically</a>, but there is no practical separation technology on an industrial scale. Accordingly, a controlled environmental release is said to be the best way to treat low-tritium-concentration water."<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> After a public information campaign sponsored by the Japanese government, the gradual release into the sea of the tritiated water began on 24 August 2023 and is the first of four releases through March 2024.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The entire process will take "decades" to complete.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> China reacted with protest.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The IAEA has endorsed the plan. The water released is diluted to reduce the tritium concentration to less than 1500 Bq/L, far below the limit recommended in drinking water by the WHO.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helium-3">Helium-3</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Helium-3">edit</a>]</div> Tritium's <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay product</a> <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> has a very large cross section (5330 barns) for reacting with <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature#Thermal" title="Neutron temperature">thermal neutrons</a>, expelling a proton; hence, it is rapidly converted back to tritium in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> + n → 1 1H + 3 1H </dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_rays">Cosmic rays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cosmic rays">edit</a>]</div> Tritium occurs naturally due to <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> interacting with atmospheric gases. In the most important reaction for natural production, a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature#Fast" title="Neutron temperature">fast neutron</a> (which must have energy greater than 4.0 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>) interacts with atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">14 7N </a> + n → <a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" title="Carbon-12">12 6C </a> + 3 1H </dd></dl> Worldwide, the production of tritium from natural sources is 148 peta<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerels</a> per year. The global equilibrium inventory of tritium created by natural sources remains approximately constant at 2,590 petabecquerels. This is due to a fixed production rate, and losses proportional to the inventory.<a href="#cite_note-physics.isu.edu-RIN-Tritium-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_history">Production history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Production history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="USA">USA</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: USA">edit</a>]</div> Tritium for American <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> was produced in special <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy water reactor">heavy water reactors</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River_Site" title="Savannah River Site">Savannah River Site</a> until their closures in 1988. With the <a href="/wiki/START_I" title="START I">Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty</a> (START) after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the existing supplies were sufficient for the new, smaller number of nuclear weapons for some time. 225 kg (496 lb) of tritium was produced in the United States from 1955 to 1996.<a href="#cite_note-32">[a]</a> Since it continually decays into helium-3, the total amount remaining was about 75 kg (165 lb) at the time of the report,<a href="#cite_note-IEER_Production-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-ieer-11">[11]</a> and about 16 kg (35 lb) as of 2023.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Tritium production was resumed with <a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">irradiation</a> of rods containing <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> (replacing the usual <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>), at the reactors of the commercial <a href="/wiki/Watts_Bar_Nuclear_Plant" title="Watts Bar Nuclear Plant">Watts Bar Nuclear Plant</a> from 2003 to 2005 followed by extraction of tritium from the rods at the Tritium Extraction Facility at the <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River_Site" title="Savannah River Site">Savannah River Site</a> beginning in November 2006.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Tritium leakage from the rods during reactor operations limits the number that can be used in any reactor without exceeding the maximum allowed tritium levels in the coolant.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Properties">edit</a>]</div> Tritium has an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic mass</a> of 3.01604928 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">Da</a>. Diatomic tritium (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>T2 or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">3H2) is a gas at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature and pressure</a>. Combined with <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, it forms <a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">tritiated water</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">3H2O). Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, tritium has a higher <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> (20.62 K vs. 13.99 K), a higher <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> (25.04 K vs. 20.27 K), a higher <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical temperature</a> (40.59 K vs. 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.8317 MPa vs. 1.2858 MPa).<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> Tritium's <a href="/wiki/Specific_activity" title="Specific activity">specific activity</a> is 9,650 <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> per <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">gram</a> (3.57×1014 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Bq</a>/g).<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> Tritium figures prominently in studies of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> due to its favorable reaction <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a> and the large amount of energy (17.6 MeV) produced through its reaction with deuterium: <dl><dd>3 1H + 2 1H → 4 2He + <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></dd></dl> All atomic nuclei contain protons as their only charged particles. They therefore repel one another because like charges repel (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a>). However, if the atoms have a high enough temperature and pressure (for example, in the core of the Sun), then their random motions can overcome such repulsion, and they can come close enough for the <a href="/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong nuclear force">strong nuclear force</a> to take effect, fusing them into heavier atoms. A tritium nucleus (triton), containing one proton and two neutrons, has the same charge as any hydrogen nucleus, and it experiences the same electrostatic repulsion when close to another nucleus. However, the neutrons in the triton increase the attractive strong nuclear force when close enough to another nucleus. As a result, tritium can fuse more easily with other light atoms, than ordinary hydrogen can. The same is true, albeit to a lesser extent, of deuterium. This is why <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarfs</a> ("failed" <a href="/wiki/Fusor_(astronomy)" title="Fusor (astronomy)">stars</a>) cannot fuse normal hydrogen, but they do fuse a small minority of deuterium nuclei. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg/220px-Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg/330px-Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg/440px-Gaseous_tritium_light_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2602" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radioluminescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioluminescent">Radioluminescent</a> 1.8 <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> (67 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">GBq</a>) 6 by 0.2 inches (152.4 mm × 5.1 mm) tritium vials are thin, tritium-gas-filled glass vials whose inner surfaces are coated with a <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a>. The vial shown here is brand-new.</figcaption></figure> Like the other isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, tritium is difficult to confine. Rubber, plastic, and some kinds of steel are all somewhat permeable. This has raised concerns that if tritium were used in large quantities, in particular for <a href="/wiki/Fusion_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion reactor">fusion reactors</a>, it might contribute to <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>, though its short half-life should prevent significant long-term accumulation in the atmosphere. The high levels of atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a> that took place prior to the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> proved to be unexpectedly useful to oceanographers. The high levels of tritium oxide introduced into upper layers of the oceans have been used in the years since then to measure the rate of mixing of the upper layers of the oceans with their lower levels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_risks">Health risks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Health risks">edit</a>]</div> Since tritium is a low energy <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta (β) emitter</a>, it is not dangerous externally (its β particles cannot penetrate the skin),<a href="#cite_note-physics.isu.edu-RIN-Tritium-30">[30]</a> but it can be a radiation hazard if inhaled, ingested via food or water, or absorbed through the skin.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-US-NRC-Trit-Bkg-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> Organisms can take up H3HO, as they would H2O.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> Plants convert H3HO into organically bound tritium (OBT), and are consumed by animals. H3HO is retained in humans for around 12 days, with a small portion of it remaining in the body.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[44]</a> Tritium can be passed along the food chain as one organism feeds on another, though the metabolism of OBT is less understood than that of H3HO.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[44]</a> Tritium can incorporate to <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> molecules within organisms which can lead to somatic and genetic impacts. These can emerge in later generations.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> H3HO has a short <a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life#Water" title="Biological half-life">biological half-life</a> in the human body of 7 to 14 days, which both reduces the total effects of single-incident ingestion and precludes long-term <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulation</a> of H3HO from the environment.<a href="#cite_note-US-NRC-Trit-Bkg-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-j1-47">[46]</a> The biological half-life of tritiated water in the human body, which is a measure of body water turn-over, varies with the season. Studies on the biological half-life of occupational radiation workers for free water tritium in a coastal region of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, India, show that the biological half-life in winter is twice that of the summer.<a href="#cite_note-j1-47">[46]</a> If tritium exposure is suspected or known, drinking uncontaminated water will help replace the tritium from the body. Increasing sweating, urination or breathing can help the body expel water and thereby the tritium contained in it. However, care should be taken that neither <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a> nor a depletion of the body's <a href="/wiki/Electrolytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolytes">electrolytes</a> results, as the <a href="/wiki/Water_intoxication" title="Water intoxication">health consequences of those things</a> (particularly in the short term) can be more severe than those of tritium exposure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_contamination">Environmental contamination</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Environmental contamination">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit">improve this </a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Tritium" title="Talk:Tritium">talk page</a>, or create a new, as appropriate. (January 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Tritium has leaked from 48 of 65 nuclear sites in the US. In one case, leaking water contained 7.5 microcuries (280 kBq) of tritium per liter, which is 375 times the current EPA limit for drinking water, and 28 times the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s recommended limit.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> This is equivalent to 0.777 nanograms per litre (5.45×10−8 gr/imp gal) or roughly 0.8 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_trillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per trillion">parts per trillion</a>. The US <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> states that in normal operation in 2003, 56 <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactors</a> released 40,600 curies (1,500,000 GBq) of tritium (maximum: 2,080 Ci (77,000 GBq); minimum: 0.1 Ci (3.7 GBq); average: 725 Ci (26,800 GBq)) and 24 <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">boiling water reactors</a> released 665 Ci (24.6 TBq) (maximum: 174 Ci (6,400 GBq); minimum: 0 Ci; average: 27.7 Ci (1,020 GBq)), in liquid effluents.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> 40,600 Ci (1,500,000 GBq) of tritium weigh about 4.207 grams (0.1484 oz). According to the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>, self-illuminating exit signs improperly disposed in municipal landfills have been found to contaminate waterways.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulatory_limits">Regulatory limits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Regulatory limits">edit</a>]</div> The legal limits for tritium in <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> vary widely from country to country. Some figures are given below: <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>Tritium drinking water limits by country<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th valign="bottom">Country </th> <th valign="bottom">Tritium limit (Bq/L) </th> <th valign="bottom">Equivalent dose (<a href="/wiki/Microsievert" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsievert">μSv</a>/year)<a href="#cite_note-53">[b]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Australia </td> <td align="right">76,103<a href="#cite_note-55">[c]</a> </td> <td>1,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japan </td> <td align="right">60,000 </td> <td>788.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Finland </td> <td align="right">30,000 </td> <td>394.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>World Health Organization </td> <td align="right">10,000 </td> <td>131.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switzerland </td> <td align="right">10,000 </td> <td>131.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Russia </td> <td align="right">7,700 </td> <td>101.18 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canada (Ontario) </td> <td align="right">7,000 </td> <td>91.98 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United States </td> <td align="right">740 </td> <td>9.72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Norway </td> <td align="right">100<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> </td> <td>1.31 </td></tr> </tbody></table></dd></dl> The American limit results in a dose of 4.0 <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">millirems</a> (or 40 micro<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sieverts</a> in <a href="/wiki/SI_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI units">SI units</a>) per year per EPA regulation 40CFR141, and is based on outdated dose calculation standards of National Bureau of Standards Handbook 69 circa 1963. Four millirem per year is about 1.3% of the natural background radiation (~3 mSv). For comparison, the <a href="/wiki/Banana_equivalent_dose" title="Banana equivalent dose">banana equivalent dose</a> (BED) is set at 0.1 μSv, so the statutory limit in the US is set at 400 BED. Updated dose calculation standards based on International Commission on Radiological Protection Report 30 and used in the NRC Regulation 10CFR20 results in a dose of 0.9 millirem (9 μSv) per year at 740 Bq/L (20 nCi/L).<a href="#cite_note-US-NRC-Trit-Bkg-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Use">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tritium" title="Special:EditPage/Tritium">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiometric_assays_in_biology_and_medicine">Radiometric assays in biology and medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Radiometric assays in biology and medicine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TritiationPyridine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TritiationPyridine.svg/268px-TritiationPyridine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="268" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TritiationPyridine.svg/402px-TritiationPyridine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TritiationPyridine.svg/536px-TritiationPyridine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="69" /></a><figcaption>Partial tritiation of <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">C5H5N). The catalyst is not shown.</figcaption></figure> Tritiation of drug candidates allows detailed analysis of their absorption and <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Tritium has also been used for biological radiometric assays, in a process akin to <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>. For example, [3H] <a href="/wiki/Retinyl_acetate" title="Retinyl acetate">retinyl acetate</a> was traced through the bodies of rats.<a href="#cite_note-green20-58">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-powered_lighting">Self-powered lighting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Self-powered lighting">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tritium-watch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tritium-watch.jpg/170px-Tritium-watch.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tritium-watch.jpg/255px-Tritium-watch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tritium-watch.jpg/340px-Tritium-watch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hanowa" title="Hanowa">Swiss Military watch</a> with tritium-illuminated face</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tritium_radioluminescence" title="Tritium radioluminescence">Tritium radioluminescence</a></div> The beta particles from small amounts of tritium cause chemicals called <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphors</a> to glow. This <a href="/wiki/Radioluminescence" title="Radioluminescence">radioluminescence</a> is used in self-powered lighting devices called betalights, which are used for night illumination of firearm sights, watches, <a href="/wiki/Exit_sign" title="Exit sign">exit signs</a>, map lights, navigational compasses (such as current-use <a href="/wiki/Cammenga#U.S._M-1950_3H_Lensatic_Compass" title="Cammenga">M-1950 U.S. military compasses</a>), knives and a variety of other devices.<a href="#cite_note-59">[d]</a> As of 2000<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit">[update]</a>, commercial demand for tritium is 400 grams (0.88 lb) per year<a href="#cite_note-ieer-11">[11]</a> and the cost is $30,000 per gram ($850,000/oz)<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> or more.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons">edit</a>]</div> Tritium is an important component in nuclear weapons; it is used to enhance the efficiency and yield of <a href="/wiki/Fission_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission bomb">fission bombs</a> and the fission stages of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bombs</a> in a process known as "<a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">boosting</a>" as well as in <a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">external neutron initiators</a> for such weapons. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neutron_initiator">Neutron initiator</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Neutron initiator">edit</a>]</div> These are devices incorporated in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> which produce a pulse of neutrons when the bomb is detonated to initiate the <a href="/wiki/Fission_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission reaction">fission reaction</a> in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a <a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">krytron</a>, a small <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> drives <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a> or so needed for deuterium-tritium fusion and directs them into a metal target where the tritium and deuterium are <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbed</a> as <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydrides</a>. High-energy <a href="/wiki/Fusion_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion neutron">fusion neutrons</a> from the resulting fusion radiate in all directions. Some of these strike plutonium or uranium nuclei in the primary's pit, initiating a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. The quantity of neutrons produced is large in absolute numbers, allowing the pit to quickly achieve neutron levels that would otherwise need many more generations of chain reaction, though still small compared to the total number of nuclei in the pit. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Boosting">Boosting</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Boosting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">Boosted fission weapon</a></div> Before detonation, a few grams of tritium–deuterium gas are injected into the hollow "<a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">pit</a>" of fissile material. The early stages of the fission chain reaction supply enough heat and compression to start deuterium–tritium fusion; then both fission and fusion proceed in parallel, the fission assisting the fusion by continuing heating and compression, and the fusion assisting the fission with highly energetic (14.1-<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>) neutrons. As the fission fuel depletes and also explodes outward, it falls below the density needed to stay critical by itself, but the fusion neutrons make the fission process progress faster and continue longer than it would without boosting. Increased yield comes overwhelmingly from the increased fission. The energy from the fusion itself is much smaller because the amount of fusion fuel is much smaller. Effects of boosting include: <ul><li>increased yield (for the same amount of fission fuel, compared to unboosted)</li> <li>the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Variable_yield" title="Variable yield">variable yield</a> by varying the amount of fusion fuel</li> <li>allowing the bomb to require a smaller amount of the very expensive fissile material</li> <li>eliminating the risk of predetonation by nearby nuclear explosions</li> <li>not so stringent requirements on the implosion setup, allowing for a smaller and lighter amount of high explosives to be used</li></ul> The tritium in a <a href="/wiki/Warhead" title="Warhead">warhead</a> is continually undergoing radioactive decay, becoming unavailable for fusion. Also, its <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay product</a>, helium-3, absorbs neutrons. This can offset or reverse the intended effect of the tritium, which was to generate many free neutrons, if too much helium-3 has accumulated. Therefore, boosted bombs need fresh tritium periodically. The estimated quantity needed is 4 grams (0.14 oz) per warhead.<a href="#cite_note-ieer-11">[11]</a> To maintain constant levels of tritium, about 0.20 grams (0.0071 oz) per warhead per year must be supplied to the bomb. One <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a> of deuterium-tritium gas contains about 3.0 grams (0.11 oz) of tritium and 2.0 grams (0.071 oz) of deuterium. In comparison, the 20 moles of plutonium in a nuclear bomb consists of about 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb) of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tritium_in_hydrogen_bomb_secondaries">Tritium in hydrogen bomb secondaries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Tritium in hydrogen bomb secondaries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Nuclear weapon design</a></div> Since tritium undergoes radioactive decay, and is also difficult to confine physically, the much larger secondary charge of heavy hydrogen isotopes needed in a true <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> uses solid <a href="/wiki/Lithium_hydride#Lithium_deuteride" title="Lithium hydride">lithium deuteride</a> as its source of deuterium and tritium, producing the tritium in situ during secondary ignition. During the detonation of the primary <a href="/wiki/Fission_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission bomb">fission bomb</a> stage in a thermonuclear weapon (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">Teller–Ulam staging</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">sparkplug</a>, a cylinder of 235U/239Pu at the center of the fusion stage(s), begins to fission in a chain reaction, from excess neutrons channeled from the primary. The neutrons released from the fission of the sparkplug split <a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">lithium-6</a> into tritium and helium-4, while lithium-7 is split into helium-4, tritium, and one neutron. As these reactions occur, the fusion stage is compressed by photons from the primary and fission of the 238U or 238U/235U jacket surrounding the fusion stage. Therefore, the fusion stage breeds its own tritium as the device detonates. In the extreme heat and pressure of the explosion, some of the tritium is then forced into fusion with deuterium, and that reaction releases even more neutrons. Since this fusion process requires an extremely high temperature for ignition, and it produces fewer and less energetic neutrons (only fission, deuterium-tritium fusion, and 7 3Li splitting are net neutron producers), <a href="/wiki/Lithium_deuteride" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium deuteride">lithium deuteride</a> is not used in boosted bombs, but rather for multi-stage hydrogen bombs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controlled_nuclear_fusion">Controlled nuclear fusion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Controlled nuclear fusion">edit</a>]</div> Tritium is an important fuel for controlled nuclear fusion in both <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">magnetic confinement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">inertial confinement fusion</a> reactor designs. The <a href="/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility" title="National Ignition Facility">National Ignition Facility</a> (NIF) uses deuterium–tritium fuel, and the experimental fusion reactor <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a> will also do so. The <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power#Deuterium,_tritium" title="Fusion power">deuterium–tritium reaction</a> is favorable since it has the largest fusion cross section (about 5.0 <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">barns</a>) and it reaches this maximum cross section at the lowest energy (about 65 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a> center-of-mass) of any potential fusion fuel. As tritium is very rare on earth, concepts for fusion reactors often include the breeding of tritium. During the operation of envisioned breeder fusion reactors, <a href="/wiki/Breeding_blanket" title="Breeding blanket">Breeding blankets</a>, often containing lithium as part of ceramic pebbles, are subjected to neutron fluxes to generate tritium to complete the fuel cycle.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tritium_Systems_Test_Assembly" title="Tritium Systems Test Assembly">Tritium Systems Test Assembly</a> (TSTA) was a facility at the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> dedicated to the development and demonstration of technologies required for fusion-relevant deuterium–tritium processing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_power_source">Electrical power source</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Electrical power source">edit</a>]</div> Tritium can be used in a <a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">betavoltaic device</a> to create an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">atomic battery</a> to generate <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_as_an_oceanic_transient_tracer">Use as an oceanic transient tracer</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Use as an oceanic transient tracer">edit</a>]</div> Aside from <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">chlorofluorocarbons</a>, tritium can act as a transient tracer and can "outline" the biological, chemical, and physical paths throughout the world's oceans because of its evolving distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> Tritium has thus been used as a tool to examine ocean circulation and ventilation and, for such purposes, is usually measured in tritium units, where 1 TU is defined as 1 tritium atom per 1018 hydrogen atoms,<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> equal to about 0.118 Bq/liter.<a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eawag_3H-65">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Phillips2014-66">[62]</a> As noted earlier, nuclear tests, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere at high latitudes, throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s introduced lots of tritium into the atmosphere, especially the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>. Before these nuclear tests, there were only about 3-4 kg of tritium on the Earth's surface; but these amounts rose by 2-3 orders of magnitude during the post-test period.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> Some sources reported natural background levels were exceeded by about 1,000 TU in 1963 and 1964 and the isotope is used in the northern hemisphere to estimate the age of groundwater and construct hydrogeologic simulation models.<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> Estimated atmospheric levels at the height of weapons testing to approach 1,000 TU and pre-fallout levels of rainwater to be between 5 and 10 TU.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a> In 1963 <a href="/wiki/Valentia_Island" title="Valentia Island">Valentia Island</a> Ireland recorded 2,000 TU in precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Atlantic_Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: North Atlantic Ocean">edit</a>]</div> While in the stratosphere (post-test period), the tritium interacted with and oxidized to water molecules and was present in much of the rapidly produced rainfall, making tritium a prognostic tool for studying the evolution and structure of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> as well as the ventilation and formation of water masses in the North Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> Bomb-tritium data were used from the Transient Tracers in the Ocean (TTO) program in order to quantify the replenishment and overturning rates for deep water located in the North Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium-70">[66]</a> Bomb-tritium also enters the deep ocean around the Antarctic.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium_Antarctic-71">[67]</a> Most of the bomb tritiated water (H3HO) throughout the atmosphere can enter the ocean through the following processes: <ul><li>precipitation</li> <li>vapor exchange</li> <li>river runoff</li></ul> These processes make H3HO a great tracer for time scales of up to a few decades.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium-70">[66]</a> Using the data from these processes for 1981, the 1-TU isosurface lies between 500 and 1,000 meters deep in the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical">subtropical</a> regions and then extends to 1,500–2,000 meters south of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> due to recirculation and ventilation in the upper portion of the Atlantic Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> To the north, the isosurface deepens and reaches the floor of the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a> which is directly related to the ventilation of the ocean floor over 10–20 year time-scales.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> Also evident in the Atlantic Ocean is the tritium profile near <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> between the late 1960s and late 1980s. There is a downward propagation of the tritium maximum from the surface (1960s) to 400 meters (1980s), which corresponds to a deepening rate of about 18 meters per year.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> There are also tritium increases at 1,500 m depth in the late 1970s and 2,500 m in the middle of the 1980s, both of which correspond to cooling events in the deep water and associated deep water ventilation.<a href="#cite_note-Oceanus-63">[59]</a> From a study in 1991, the tritium profile was used as a tool for studying the mixing and spreading of newly formed <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Deep_Water" title="North Atlantic Deep Water">North Atlantic Deep Water</a> (NADW), corresponding to tritium increases to 4 TU.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium-70">[66]</a> This NADW tends to spill over sills that divide the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Sea" title="Norwegian Sea">Norwegian Sea</a> from the North Atlantic Ocean and then flows to the west and equatorward in deep boundary currents. This process was explained via the large-scale tritium distribution in the deep North Atlantic between 1981 and 1983.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium-70">[66]</a> The sub-polar gyre tends to be freshened (ventilated) by the NADW and is directly related to the high tritium values (>1.5 TU). Also evident was the decrease in tritium in the deep western boundary current by a factor of 10 from the <a href="/wiki/Labrador_Sea" title="Labrador Sea">Labrador Sea</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropics</a>, which is indicative of loss to ocean interior due to turbulent mixing and recirculation.<a href="#cite_note-Bomb_Tritium-70">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_and_Indian_oceans">Pacific and Indian oceans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Pacific and Indian oceans">edit</a>]</div> In a 1998 study, tritium concentrations in surface seawater and atmospheric water vapor (10 meters above the surface) were sampled at the following locations: the <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Sea" title="Sulu Sea">Sulu Sea</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fremantle_Bay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fremantle Bay (page does not exist)">Fremantle Bay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penang_Bay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penang Bay (page does not exist)">Penang Bay</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tritium-72">[68]</a> Results indicated that the tritium concentration in surface seawater was highest at the Fremantle Bay (about 0.40 Bq/liter), which could be accredited to the mixing of runoff of freshwater from nearby lands due to large amounts found in coastal waters.<a href="#cite_note-Tritium-72">[68]</a> Typically, lower concentrations were found between <a href="/wiki/35th_parallel_south" title="35th parallel south">35</a> and <a href="/wiki/45th_parallel_south" title="45th parallel south">45</a>° south, and near the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>. Results also indicated that (in general) tritium has decreased over the years (up to 1997) due to the physical decay of bomb tritium in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. As for water vapor, the tritium concentration was about one order of magnitude greater than surface seawater concentrations (ranging from 0.46 to 1.15 Bq/L).<a href="#cite_note-Tritium-72">[68]</a> Therefore, the water vapor tritium is not affected by the surface seawater concentration; thus, the high tritium concentrations in the vapor were concluded to be a direct consequence of the downward movement of natural tritium from the stratosphere to the troposphere (therefore, the ocean air showed a dependence on latitudinal change).<a href="#cite_note-Tritium-72">[68]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="North Pacific Ocean">North Pacific Ocean</a>, the tritium (introduced as bomb tritium in the Northern Hemisphere) spread in three dimensions. There were subsurface maxima in the middle and low latitude regions, which is indicative of lateral mixing (advection) and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> processes along lines of constant <a href="/wiki/Potential_density" title="Potential density">potential density</a> (<a href="/wiki/Isopycnal" title="Isopycnal">isopycnals</a>) in the upper ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a> Some of these maxima even correlate well with <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> extrema.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a> In order to obtain the structure for ocean circulation, the tritium concentrations were mapped on 3 surfaces of constant potential density (23.90, 26.02, and 26.81).<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a> Results indicated that the tritium was well-mixed (at 6 to 7 TU) on the 26.81 isopycnal in the subarctic cyclonic gyre and there appeared to be a slow exchange of tritium (relative to shallower isopycnals) between this gyre and the anticyclonic gyre to the south; also, the tritium on the 23.90 and 26.02 surfaces appeared to be exchanged at a slower rate between the central gyre of the North Pacific and the equatorial regions.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a> The depth penetration of bomb tritium can be separated into three distinct layers: <dl><dt>Layer 1</dt> <dd>Layer 1 is the shallowest layer and includes the deepest, ventilated layer in winter; it has received tritium via radioactive fallout and lost some due to advection and/or vertical diffusion and contains about 28% of the total amount of tritium.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a></dd> <dt>Layer 2</dt> <dd>Layer 2 is below the first layer but above the 26.81 <a href="/wiki/Isopycnal" title="Isopycnal">isopycnal</a> and is no longer part of the mixed layer. Its two sources are diffusion downward from the mixed layer and lateral expansions outcropping strata (poleward); it contains about 58% of the total tritium.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a></dd> <dt>Layer 3</dt> <dd>Layer 3 is representative of waters that are deeper than the outcrop isopycnal and can only receive tritium via vertical diffusion; it contains the remaining 14% of the total tritium.<a href="#cite_note-Circulation-73">[69]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mississippi_River_system">Mississippi River system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mississippi River system">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> weapons testing settled in the United States throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River_System" title="Mississippi River System">Mississippi River System</a>. Tritium concentrations can be used to understand the <a href="/wiki/Residence_time" title="Residence time">residence times</a> of continental hydrologic systems (as opposed to the usual oceanic hydrologic systems) which include surface waters such as lakes, streams, and rivers.<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> Studying these systems can also provide societies and municipals with information for agricultural purposes and overall river water quality. In a 2004 study, several rivers were taken into account during the examination of tritium concentrations (starting in the 1960s) throughout the Mississippi River Basin: <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> (largest input to the Mississippi River flow), <a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri River</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> The largest tritium concentrations were found in 1963 at all the sampled locations throughout these rivers and correlate well with the peak concentrations in precipitation due to the nuclear bomb tests in 1962. The overall highest concentrations occurred in the Missouri River (1963) and were greater than 1,200 TU while the lowest concentrations were found in the Arkansas River (never greater than 850 TU and less than 10 TU in the mid-1980s).<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> Several processes can be identified using the tritium data from the rivers: direct runoff and outflow of water from groundwater reservoirs.<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> Using these processes, it becomes possible to model the response of the river basins to the transient tritium tracer. Two of the most common models are the following: <dl><dt>Piston-flow approach</dt> <dd>tritium signal appears immediately; and</dd> <dt>Well-mixed reservoir approach</dt> <dd>outflow concentration depends upon the residence time of the basin water<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a></dd></dl> For the Ohio River, the tritium data indicated that about 40% of the flow was composed of precipitation with residence times of less than one year (in the Ohio basin) and older waters consisted of residence times of about ten years.<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> Thus, the short residence times (less than one year) corresponded to the "prompt-flow" component of the two-member mixing model. As for the Missouri River, results indicated that residence times were approximately four years with the prompt-flow component being around 10% (these results are due to the series of dams in the area of the Missouri River).<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> As for the mass flux of tritium through the main stem of the Mississippi River into the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, data indicated that approximately 780 grams of tritium has flowed out of the River and into the Gulf between 1961 and 1997,<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> an average of 21.7 grams/yr and 7.7 PBq/yr. Current fluxes through the Mississippi River are 1 to 2 grams, per year as opposed to the pre-bomb period fluxes of roughly 0.4 grams per year.<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-74">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypertriton" title="Hypertriton">Hypertriton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_facing_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="List of elements facing shortage">List of elements facing shortage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Total U.S. tritium production since 1955 has been about 225 kilograms, an estimated 150 kilograms of which have decayed into helium-3, leaving a current inventory of about 75 kg of tritium. — Zerriffi & Scoville (1996)<a href="#cite_note-IEER_Production-31">[31]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Based on ICRP Report 30 calculation: 1.8×10−11 Sv/Bq, 730 L/a, 1×106 μSv/Sv; quoted in <a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> This figure is derived from the guideline dose of 1 mSv per year from all sources of radiation in drinking water in The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 6, assuming that tritium is the only radionuclide present in the water.<a href="#cite_note-The_Australian_Drinking_Water_Guidelines_6-54">[52]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Tritium has replaced <a href="/wiki/Radioluminescent_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioluminescent paint">radioluminescent paint</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> in this application. Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Bone_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone cancer">bone cancer</a>, and its casual use has been banned in most countries for decades. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tritium">Tritium</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tritium&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ftritium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliphantHarteckRutherford1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant, M.L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Harteck" title="Paul Harteck">Harteck, P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford, L.</a> (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.html">"Transmutation effects observed with heavy hydrogen"</a>. Nature. 133 (3359): 413. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Natur.133..413O">1934Natur.133..413O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F133413a0">10.1038/133413a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4078529">4078529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Transmutation+effects+observed+with+heavy+hydrogen&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=3359&rft.pages=413&rft.date=1934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4078529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F133413a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934Natur.133..413O&rft.aulast=Oliphant&rft.aufirst=M.L.&rft.au=Harteck%2C+P.&rft.au=Rutherford%2C+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemteam.info%2FChem-History%2FRutherford-1934a%2FRutherford-1934a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliphantHarteckRutherford1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant, M.L.E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Harteck" title="Paul Harteck">Harteck, P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford, L.</a> (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1934.0077">"Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen"</a>. 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"Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3". Physical Review. 56 (6): 613. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...56..613A">1939PhRv...56..613A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.613">10.1103/PhysRev.56.613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Helium+and+Hydrogen+of+Mass+3&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=613&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.613&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...56..613A&rft.aulast=Alvarez&rft.aufirst=Luis&rft.au=Cornog%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlvarezTrower1987" class="citation book cs1">Alvarez, Luis W.; Trower, W. 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Hydrological Processes. 18 (7): 1255. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004HyPr...18.1255M">2004HyPr...18.1255M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhyp.1403">10.1002/hyp.1403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130033605">130033605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrological+Processes&rft.atitle=Tritium+hydrology+of+the+Mississippi+River+basin&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1255&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130033605%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhyp.1403&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004HyPr...18.1255M&rft.aulast=Michel&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1229196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tritium&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tritium" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tritium">Tritium</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060514063237/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science%2FTritium">"Annotated bibliography for tritium"</a>. Alsos Digital Library. Washington and Lee University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science/Tritium">the original</a> on 14 May 2006. Retrieved 3 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alsos+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Annotated+bibliography+for+tritium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falsos.wlu.edu%2Fqsearch.aspx%3Fbrowse%3Dscience%2FTritium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/">"Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Data+Evaluation+Lab&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatom.kaeri.re.kr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130517093153/http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb%26HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1197382220012">Review of Risks from Tritium</a> (Report). London, UK: Health Protection Agency. November 2007. RCE-4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1197382220012">the original</a> on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Review+of+Risks+from+Tritium&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Health+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2007-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hpa.org.uk%2Fweb%2FHPAweb%26HPAwebStandard%2FHPAweb_C%2F1197382220012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergeron2004" class="citation book cs1">Bergeron, Kenneth D. (17 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sYKYZaxg0RUC">Tritium on Ice: The dangerous new alliance of nuclear weapons and nuclear power</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-26172-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-26172-2"><bdi>978-0-262-26172-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tritium+on+Ice%3A+The+dangerous+new+alliance+of+nuclear+weapons+and+nuclear+power&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2004-09-17&rft.isbn=978-0-262-26172-2&rft.aulast=Bergeron&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsYKYZaxg0RUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fissilematerials.org/blog/2010/02/tritium_production_and_re.html">"Tritium production and recovery in the United States in FY2011"</a>. Fissile Materials. February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fissile+Materials&rft.atitle=Tritium+production+and+recovery+in+the+United+States+in+FY2011&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fissilematerials.org%2Fblog%2F2010%2F02%2Ftritium_production_and_re.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ans.org/pubs/journals/fst/article-1828/">"Tritium removal mass transfer coefficient"</a>. ans.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ans.org&rft.atitle=Tritium+removal+mass+transfer+coefficient&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ans.org%2Fpubs%2Fjournals%2Ffst%2Farticle-1828%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATritium" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align: center;"> <td style="width:35%;">Lighter: <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> </td> <td style="width:30%;">Tritium is an <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">isotope</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> </td> <td style="width:35%;">Heavier: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-4" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-4">hydrogen-4</a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td style="width:35%;"><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a> of: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-4" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-4">hydrogen-4</a> </td> <td style="width:30%;"><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a> of tritium </td> <td style="width:35%;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Decays</a> to: <a 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