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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Thessalonica</title><script src="https://dtyry4ejybx0.cloudfront.net/js/cmp/cleanmediacmp.js?ver=0104" async="true"></script><script defer data-domain="newadvent.org" src="https://plausible.io/js/script.js"></script><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14633a.htm"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="description" content="Titular metropolis in Macedonia"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="RSS" href="http://feeds.newadvent.org/bestoftheweb?format=xml"><link rel="icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><link rel="shortcut icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><meta name="robots" content="noodp"><link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="../utility/screen6.css" media="screen"></head> <body class="cathen" id="14633a.htm">  <br/> <div id="capitalcity"><table summary="Logo" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"><tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"><a href="../"><img height=36 width=153 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></td><td align="right"> <form id="searchbox_000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0" action="../utility/search.htm">  <input type="hidden" name="safe" value="active"> <input type="hidden" name="cx" value="000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0"/> <input type="hidden" name="cof" value="FORID:9"/>  <label for="searchQuery" id="searchQueryLabel">Search:</label> <input id="searchQuery" name="q" type="text" size="25" aria-labelledby="searchQueryLabel"/>  <label for="submitButton" id="submitButtonLabel" class="visually-hidden">Submit Search</label> <input id="submitButton" type="submit" name="sa" value="Search" aria-labelledby="submitButtonLabel"/> </form> <table summary="Spacer" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td height="2"></td></tr></table> <table summary="Tabs" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../"> Home </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_white_on_color" href="../cathen/index.html"> Encyclopedia </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../summa/index.html"> Summa </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../fathers/index.html"> Fathers </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../bible/gen001.htm"> Bible </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../library/index.html"> Library </a></td> </tr></table> </td> </tr></table><table summary="Alphabetical index" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"> <a href="../cathen/a.htm"> A </a><a href="../cathen/b.htm"> B </a><a href="../cathen/c.htm"> C </a><a href="../cathen/d.htm"> D </a><a href="../cathen/e.htm"> E </a><a href="../cathen/f.htm"> F </a><a href="../cathen/g.htm"> G </a><a href="../cathen/h.htm"> H </a><a href="../cathen/i.htm"> I </a><a href="../cathen/j.htm"> J </a><a href="../cathen/k.htm"> K </a><a href="../cathen/l.htm"> L </a><a href="../cathen/m.htm"> M </a><a href="../cathen/n.htm"> N </a><a href="../cathen/o.htm"> O </a><a href="../cathen/p.htm"> P </a><a href="../cathen/q.htm"> Q </a><a href="../cathen/r.htm"> R </a><a href="../cathen/s.htm"> S </a><a href="../cathen/t.htm"> T </a><a href="../cathen/u.htm"> U </a><a href="../cathen/v.htm"> V </a><a href="../cathen/w.htm"> W </a><a href="../cathen/x.htm"> X </a><a href="../cathen/y.htm"> Y </a><a href="../cathen/z.htm"> Z </a> </td></tr></table></div> <div id="mobilecity" style="text-align: center; "><a href="../"><img height=24 width=102 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></div>  <div id="mi5"><span class="breadcrumbs"><a href="../">Home</a> > <a href="../cathen">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> > <a href="../cathen/t.htm">T</a> > Thessalonica</span></div> <div id="springfield2"> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-top' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <h1>Thessalonica</h1> <p><em><a href="https://gumroad.com/l/na2"><strong>Please help support the mission of New Advent</strong> and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more  all for only $19.99...</a></em></p> <p>(SALONIKI)</p> <p>Titular <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">metropolis</a> in <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a>. It was at first a village called Alia, situated not far from Axius, the modern Vardar; it subsequently took the name of Therma, from the thermal springs east and south of it. The gulf on which it was situated was then called the Thermaic Gulf. After having sheltered the fleet of King Xerxes and having belonged to the Athenians during the Peloponnesian War, Therma passed to the kings of <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a> after the death of Alexander. Cassander, the son of Antipater, having enlarged the village and transported thither the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages, called it Thessalonica, in <a href="../cathen/07462a.htm">honour</a> of his wife. Thenceforth the city grew steadily in importance. Unsuccessfully besieged by Æmilius Paulus, it only opened its gates after the victory of Pydna which made the Romans masters of <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a> (168 B.C.). The kingdom was then divided into four districts, each of which had its capital and its <em>conventus</em>. Thessalonica was the capital of the second district. In 146 B.C. <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a> was made a single province with Thessalonica as capital. This was the arrangement until the third and fourth century of our era, when four provinces were again formed. The proconsul had his residence at Thessalonica, as did later the prefect of Illyricum Orientale, who first resided at <a href="../cathen/14027b.htm">Sirmium</a>. During the first civil <a href="../cathen/15546c.htm">war</a> Thessalonica was the principal headquarters of Pompey and the Roman senators; during the second it supported Anthony and Octavius against the Triumvirs, receiving from them after the battle of <a href="../cathen/12007c.htm">Philippi</a> the title of free city and other advantages, being allowed to administer its own affairs and obeying magistrates called politarchs.</p> <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <p>Thessalonica received the title of <em>colonia</em> under the <a href="../cathen/15256b.htm">Emperor Valerian</a>. <a href="../cathen/14577d.htm">Theodosius the Great</a> punished the revolt of its inhabitants (390) by a general massacre in which 7000 were slain. In 479 the <a href="../cathen/11347d.htm">Goths</a> attacked the city. Between 675 and 681 the <a href="../cathen/14042a.htm">Slavs</a> unsuccessfully besieged Thessalonica four times. On 31 July, 904, a <a href="../cathen/10424a.htm">Mussulman</a> corsair, Leo of Tripoli, came unexpectedly with his fleet and attacked the city, then the second in the empire, captured and pillaged it, and took away a great many <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">prisoners</a>. A dramatic account of the affair was written by a <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> of Thessalonica, John Cameniates, who was an eyewitness (Schlumberger, "Nicéphore Phocas", Paris, 1890, 35 sqq.). In 1083 Euthymius, Greek <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">Patriarch</a> of <a href="../cathen/08344a.htm">Jerusalem</a>, was commissioned by Alexius I Commenus to negotiate peace at Thessalonica with Tancred of <a href="../cathen/13772a.htm">Sicily</a>, who had conquered a portion of Epirus and <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a> and threatened to take possession of the rest. In August, 1185, Guillaume d'Hauterive, King of <a href="../cathen/13772a.htm">Sicily</a>, besieged Thessalonica by sea with a fleet of 200 ships and by land with an army of 80,000 men; the city was captured, and all resistance from the Greeks <a href="../cathen/12565a.htm">punished with death</a>. In the following year the city was recaptured by the <a href="../cathen/03096a.htm">Byzantines</a>; the <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">metropolitan</a> Eustathius wrote an account of the campaign in a <a href="../cathen/07448a.htm">homily</a>, which was read during the <a href="../cathen/09152a.htm">Lent</a> of 1186. In 1204, after the Latins had occupied Constantinople and a portion of the <a href="../cathen/03096a.htm">Byzantine Empire</a>, Boniface, Marquis of Monferrato, proclaimed himself King of Thessalonica, his Latin Kingdom depending on the Latin Empire of Byzantium. He defended it against the Bulgars, whose tsar, the terrible Calojan, was assassinated under the walls of Thessalonica in 1207, and against the Greeks from Epirus. In 1222 the latter put an end to the <a href="../cathen/06238a.htm">Frankish</a> Kingdom and took possession of Thessalonica, setting up an independent empire, the rival of that of Nicaea, with Theodore Comnenus as first sovereign. He was defeated in 1230 at Klokotinitza by the Bulgar Tsar, Assen II, and most of empire passed into the hands of the Bulgars. Thessalonica with the remaining cities was given to Theodore's brother, the Emperor Manuel.</p> <p>In 1242 after a successful campaign against the Emperor of Thessalonica, John Vatatzes, Emperor of Nicaea, forced John Angelo to take only the title of despot and to declare himself the vassal. After the expedition of Vatatzes in 1246 Thessalonica lost all independence and was annexed to the Empire of Nicaea which in 1261 was once more removed to Constantinople. Unable to defend it against the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a>, the Greeks in 1423 sold Thessalonica to the <a href="../cathen/15333a.htm">Venetians</a>, the city being captured 28 March, 1430, by the Sultan Murad and definitively incorporated in the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Ottoman Empire</a>. It was the scene of unheard-of-cruelties on the part of the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a>. In order to weaken the Greek element, so powerful in the city and in that part of <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a>, the Sublime Porte offered a refuge about the end of the sixteenth century to the <a href="../cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a> driven from <a href="../cathen/14169b.htm">Spain</a> by Philip II. They now number 80,000 out of 120,000 inhabitants; the remainder of the population consists of <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a>, Greeks, Bulgars, <a href="../cathen/01736b.htm">Armenians</a>, and nearly 3000 <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a>. The <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parish</a> is directed by the <a href="../cathen/10357a.htm">Lazarists</a>, the <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> by the <a href="../cathen/08056a.htm">Christian Brothers</a>. Thessalonica, which is the capital of a vilayet, grows constantly in importance, owing to its situation and its commerce, as well as to the part it played in the two military revolutions of 1908 and 1909 which modified the authoritative régime of the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turkish</a> Empire.</p> <p>The establishment of <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christianity</a> in Thessalonica seems to date from <a href="../cathen/11567b.htm">St. Paul's</a> first journey to the city (<em>see</em> <a href="../cathen/14629d.htm">E<font size=-2>PISTLES TO THE</font> T<font size=-2>HESSALONIANS</font></a>). Secundus and Aristarchus, companions of <a href="../cathen/11567b.htm">St. Paul</a>, were natives of Thessalonica (<a href="../bible/act020.htm#vrs4">Acts 20:4</a>); Demas who abandoned the Apostle to go thither, seems likewise to have been born there (<a href="../bible/2ti004.htm#vrs9">2 Timothy 4:9</a>). According to <a href="../cathen/11306b.htm">Origen</a>, who repeats an ancient tradition ("Comment in Ep. ad Rom.", in P.G., XIV, 1289), Gaius was the first <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Thessalonica. Four <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">persons</a> of this name are mentioned in the <a href="../cathen/14530a.htm">New Testament</a>, but the Gaius of <a href="../cathen/11306b.htm">Origen</a> would be a native of <a href="../cathen/04363b.htm">Corinth</a> (<a href="../bible/1co001.htm#vrs14">1 Corinthians 1:14</a>). Melito of <a href="../cathen/13472a.htm">Sardes</a> relates that <a href="../cathen/01586a.htm">Antoninus Pius</a> wrote to the Thessalonians not to tolerate in their city the tumult against the <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christians</a> (<a href="../cathen/05617b.htm">Eusebius</a>, <a href="../fathers/250104.htm"><em>Church History</em> IV.26</a>). Alexander assisted at the <a href="../cathen/11044a.htm">Council of Nicaea</a> in 325, at <a href="../cathen/15109a.htm">Tyre</a> in 335, and at the <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> of the Holy Sepulchre in the same year. At the end of the same century Acholius <a href="../cathen/02258b.htm">baptized</a> <a href="../cathen/14577d.htm">Theodosius the Great</a>. <a href="../cathen/09187a.htm">Le Quien</a> has compiled a list of 74 Greek titulars of this city, some of whom do not belong to it. Father Petit continued his task and gives a biographical account of more than 130. The most famous were: Rufus, who in the early fifth century acted constantly as intermediary between the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papacy</a> and the <a href="../cathen/05230a.htm">Eastern Churches</a>; <a href="../cathen/05617b.htm">Eusebius</a>, the correspondent of <a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">St. Gregory the Great</a> and author of a work in ten books against the <a href="../cathen/10489b.htm">Monophysites</a>; John, who early in the seventh century compiled the first book on the <a href="../cathen/10338a.htm">miracles</a> of <a href="../cathen/04706b.htm">St. Demetrius</a>; St. Joseph, brother of St. Theodore the Studite, and the victim in 832 of the <a href="../cathen/07620a.htm">Iconoclast</a> persecutions; Leo the Philosopher, professor at the Magnaura, the master of Photius and of all the literary celebrities of the period; Michael Chumnos, the author of several canonical treatises in the twelfth century; Basil of <a href="../cathen/01103b.htm">Achrida</a>, who took part in the <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theological</a> discussions with the envoys of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> or of the Emperor of the West; Eustachius, the celebrated scholiast of Homer; Gregory Palamas, the defender of the <a href="../cathen/07301a.htm">Hesychast</a> theories and the bitter enemy of the <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> in the fourteenth century, who is still regarded as one of the greatest <a href="../cathen/05072b.htm">doctors</a> of the Schismatic Church; Isidore Glabas; Simeon, liturgist and canonist, d. in 1429, a year before the capture of the city by the <a href="../cathen/15097a.htm">Turks</a>.</p> <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <p>When Illyricum Orientale, comprising the two civil <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> of Dacia and <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a>, was ceded by Gratian in 379 to the Empire of the East, Pope St. Damasus in order to retain <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> over these distant provinces appointed the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Thessalonica his <a href="../cathen/15401b.htm">vicar Apostolic</a>. In this capacity the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> resided at the local councils of the various provinces, judging and solving difficulties, save in more serious matters, wherein the decision was reserved to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. He also confirmed the election of <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">metropolitans</a> and simple <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and granted authorization to proceed to <a href="../cathen/11279a.htm">ordination</a>. Finally, he occupied a privileged place at the oecumenical councils and signed their decisions immediately after the <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">patriarchs</a>. He thus enjoyed the prerogatives of a patriarch, even to bearing the title, but was subject to the <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">Patriarch</a> of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Constantinople sought to modify this organization by inducing Theodosius II to pass a law (14 July, 421) which attached all the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/07663a.htm">Illyria</a> to the <a href="../cathen/04312d.htm">Byzantine Church</a>, and by having this <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> inserted in the Code (439); but the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a> protested against this <a href="../cathen/08010c.htm">injustice</a> and prevented the application of the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a>. Until 535 the <a href="../cathen/15401b.htm">Vicar Apostolic </a> of Thessalonica exercised <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> over all the provinces of Illyricum Orientale, but subsequent to Novel xi of Justinian the authority was divided between him and the new <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">Archbishop</a> of Justiniana Prima. The latter, likewise appointed <a href="../cathen/15401b.htm">vicar Apostolic</a> of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, directed the seven provinces of the north while the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Thessalonica continued to occupy the six others: <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a> Prima, Thessalia, <a href="../cathen/01101c.htm">Achaia</a>, Creta, Nova and Vetus Epirus. Matters remained so until 732 when the Emperor Leo the Isaurian, after his <a href="../cathen/05678a.htm">excommunication</a> by the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, connected all the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> of <a href="../cathen/07663a.htm">Illyria</a> with the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Thenceforth, despite the protests of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, Thessalonica was dependent on the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> of Byzantium.</p> <p>After the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica in 1205 Nivelo de Chérisy, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/14130c.htm">Soissons</a>, who had taken an active part in the <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm#section4">Fourth Crusade</a>, was appointed by <a href="../cathen/08013a.htm">Innocent III</a> (10 December, 1206) first Latin <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishop</a> of the city. He died in the following year; his successors were at first residential and afterwards titular (see list in <a href="../cathen/09187a.htm">Le Quien</a>, "Oriens Christ.", III, 1089-96; Eubel, "Hierarchia catholica medii aevi", I, 510; II, 275). From a letter of <a href="../cathen/08013a.htm">Innocent III</a> written in 1212 we learn that Thessalonica had then eleven suffragans. Apart from the saintly <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> mentioned above Thessalonica had other <a href="../cathen/04171a.htm">saints</a>: Agape, Irene, and Chionia, <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyred</a> under <a href="../cathen/05007b.htm">Diocletian</a>; Agothopodus, <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>, and Theodulus, <a href="../cathen/12676c.htm">rector</a>, <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyred</a> under <a href="../cathen/05007b.htm">Diocletian</a>; Anysia, <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyred</a> under <a href="../cathen/10074c.htm">Maximian</a>; Demetrius, <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyr</a>, the protector of the city, from whose <a href="../cathen/14773b.htm">tomb</a> flowed an oil which worked <a href="../cathen/10338a.htm">miracles</a>, and whose superb basilica has been converted into a mosque; David, solitary (sixth century); Theodora, d. in 892; etc. The Vicariate Apostolic of <a href="../cathen/12174a.htm">Macedonia</a>, for the Bulgars, whose titular resides at Thessalonica, was established in 1883. It has upwards of 6000 <a href="../cathen/03449a.htm">Catholics</a> 26 residential stations, 33 <a href="../cathen/13675a.htm">secular priests</a>, most of them married, 10 <a href="../cathen/10357a.htm">Lazarist</a> <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a>, 21 <a href="../cathen/03041a.htm">churches</a> and <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapels</a>, 27 primary <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> for boys and girls with 1110 pupils. The <a href="../cathen/13694a.htm">seminary</a>, directed by the <a href="../cathen/10357a.htm">Lazarists</a>, is at Zeitenlik, near Thessalonica. The Sisters of Charity and the <a href="../cathen/03046a.htm">Bulgarian</a> Eucharistine Sisters also have <a href="../cathen/13554b.htm">schools</a> and <a href="../cathen/11322b.htm">orphanages</a>.</p> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-bottom' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <div class="cenotes"><h2>Sources</h2><p class="cenotes">LE QUIEN, Oriens christ., II, 27-66; TAFEL, De Thessalonica eiusque agro (Berlin, 1839); BELLEY, Observations sur l'histoire et sur les monuments de la ville de Thessalonique in Histoire de l'Academie des Inscriptions, XXXVIII (Paris), 125 sq.; VIGOUROUX, Le Nouveau Testament et les decouvertes archeologiques modernes (Paris, 1890), 215-38; SPATA, I Siciliani in Salonico nell'anno MCLXXXV (Palermo, 1892); PETIT, Les eveques de Thessalonique in Echos d'Orient, IV, V, VI, and VIII; DUCHESNE, L'Illyricum ecclesiastique in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, I, 531-50; VAILHE, Annexion d'Illyricum au patriarcat aecumenique in Echos d'Orient, XIV, 29-36; Missiones catholicae (Rome, 1907), 798; CHEYNE, Encyclopaedia biblica, s.v.</p></div> <div class="pub"><h2>About this page</h2><p id="apa"><strong>APA citation.</strong> <span id="apaauthor">Vailhé, S.</span> <span id="apayear">(1912).</span> <span id="apaarticle">Thessalonica.</span> In <span id="apawork">The Catholic Encyclopedia.</span> <span id="apapublisher">New York: Robert Appleton Company.</span> <span id="apaurl">http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14633a.htm</span></p><p id="mla"><strong>MLA citation.</strong> <span id="mlaauthor">Vailhé, Siméon.</span> <span id="mlaarticle">"Thessalonica."</span> <span id="mlawork">The Catholic Encyclopedia.</span> <span id="mlavolume">Vol. 14.</span> <span id="mlapublisher">New York: Robert Appleton Company,</span> <span id="mlayear">1912.</span> <span id="mlaurl"><http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14633a.htm>.</span></p><p id="transcription"><strong>Transcription.</strong> <span id="transcriber">This article was transcribed for New Advent by Thomas M. Barrett.</span> <span id="dedication">Dedicated to the Christian Community of Thessalonica.</span></p><p id="approbation"><strong>Ecclesiastical approbation.</strong> <span id="nihil"><em>Nihil Obstat.</em> July 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.</span> <span id="imprimatur"><em>Imprimatur.</em> +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.</span></p><p id="contactus"><strong>Contact information.</strong> The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster <em>at</em> newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.</p></div> </div> <div id="ogdenville"><table summary="Bottom bar" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"><center><strong>Copyright © 2023 by <a href="../utility/contactus.htm">New Advent LLC</a>. 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