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i,o,s,a,u,l,c,f=[n||j],p=h.call(e,"type")?e.type:e,d=h.call(e,"namespace")?e.namespace.split("."):[];if(o=s=n=n||j,3!==n.nodeType&&8!==n.nodeType&&!wt.test(p+k.event.triggered)&&(-1<p.indexOf(".")&&(p=(d=p.split(".")).shift(),d.sort()),u=p.indexOf(":")<0&&"on"+p,(e=e[k.expando]?e:new k.Event(p,"object"==typeof e&&e)).isTrigger=r?2:3,e.namespace=d.join("."),e.rnamespace=e.namespace?new RegExp("(^|\\.)"+d.join("\\.(?:.*\\.|)")+"(\\.|$)"):null,e.result=void 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href="https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AQ-intro.htm">introduction</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AQ-economy.htm">economy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AQ-history.htm">history</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AQ-religion.htm">religion</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="clear-both"></div> </div> </aside> <div class="col-sm-10 omega mobile-no-padding"> <div class="guide-text-content"> <h1>The Economic Activity of Antarctica</h1> <div style="border-top:1px solid #E5E5E5; padding-top:4px; font-size:12px;"> You are here: <a href='/international-study/'>Countries</a> / <a href='/guide/AQ-intro.htm'>Antarctica</a> </div> <div style="margin-bottom:12px;"></div> Antarctica is the highest, driest, coldest and most desolate place on earth.  The world’s fifth-largest continent, with a total area of approximately 5.5 million square miles, Antarctica is perpetually covered by a sheet of ice, one that covers all but 2.5 percent of its 5.5 million square miles.  The mean annual temperature in Antarctica is minus 56 degrees F.  Consequently, there is no permanent population on the continent, save for approximately 4,000 researchers that reside there during the summer and 1,000 researchers during the winter.  In the area of the Antarctic below 60 degrees south, winters are completely dark, with no sunshine, while during the summer it is perpetually light, with no nighttime at all to speak of.  </p><p> </p><p> Penguins, whales, seals, krill (the main food for whales) and other fish species are all plentiful in the Antarctic waters.  All of the warm-blooded animals living on the continent and the surrounding waters—whales, seals, sea birds, penguins—rely on thick layers of blubber to insulate them from the cold. The layer of blubber on a Weddell Seal, for example, can be up to 4 inches thick. The only warm-blooded animal that lives on Antarctica during the winter season is the Emperor Penguin. Many people tend to confuse the Antarctic with the Arctic—a northern region known for its native Eskimo people, polar bears, etc.  However, in the Antarctic, there are no land mammals whatsoever, nor are there any native people.</p><p> </p><p> <span class='pull-right wrap-image'><a href='/images/guides/Antarctica emperor penguin.jpg' target='_blank'><img src='https://www.studycountry.com/includes/resize.php?src=/images/guides/Antarctica emperor penguin.jpg&w=220&h=' /></a><span class='caption'>Emperor pinguin of Antarctica </span></span>In the following article we will take a closer look at Antarctica from an economic perspective.  Naturally, with no permanent population and virtually uninhabitable conditions, the economic activity on the continent is exceedingly limited.  However, there are a few activities that take place in the region that do add some measure of economic value to the world, as well as to the 30+ nations that conduct them.  We will also go over the economic history of Antarctica, albeit brief, and explain why many of the activities that make up this history have now been suspended due to environmental concerns.</p><p> <h3> The Economy of Antarctica:  History</h3> In terms of economics, there were essentially two activities that dominated Antarctica’s past:  Whaling and Sealing. Below we will examine both of these activities a bit more closely, as well as their impact on Antarctica’s bio-system.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>History of Whaling in Antarctica</strong></p><p> </p><p> The history of whaling in Antarctic waters is a tale of greed and excess; an activity that has been described as being “more like mining than a sustainable fishery.”  Once the most profitable species of whales had been hunted to a point of great scarcity, the focus shifted to the next most profitable species until it too was very rare, and then to the next and so on.</p><p> </p><p> Whaling began in the Antarctic waters in the 1800s, with humpback whales being the primary target of most commercial fishing vessels.  Within ten years, the humpback species became extremely rare in these waters, and the development of new technologies allowed fishermen to go after the much faster-swimming blue whales.  By 1930, nearly 30,000 blue whales had been caught off the coast of Antarctica. By 1940, blue whales also became scarce, and the focus shifted, first to the Fin whales (27,000 caught during the 1940s), followed in order by the sperm whale and Sei whale.  When these, too, became endangered, fishermen even went after the smaller Minke whale species.</p><p> </p><p> Fearing that commercial whaling in Antarctica—an activity pursued by many different nations around the world—would eventually lead to extinction of many different whale species and irreversible damage to the ecosystem, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was founded.  The IWC was charged with the dubious task of trying to regulate the whaling industry to a position of sustainability, where catches would be balanced by production.  In this, however, the commission failed.  In fact, the only thing that ultimately drove companies from the business of whaling was a drop in profits—a drop due to a great lack of whales in the region to a point in which there not many left to kill.</p><p> </p><p> The impact of the IWC did come in time, however.  In the 1960s, for example, blue whales and humpback whales became fully protected; a level of protection that was then extended to fin and sei whales in the 1970s.  Eventually, in 1986, the IWC suspended all commercial whaling whatsoever.</p><p> </p><p> <span class='pull-right wrap-image'><a href='/images/guides/Antarctica old whaling boat.jpg' target='_blank'><img src='https://www.studycountry.com/includes/resize.php?src=/images/guides/Antarctica old whaling boat.jpg&w=220&h=' /></a><span class='caption'>An abandoned whaling boat</span></span>Today, commercial whaling has all but ceased around the world, although some nations, particularly Japan, continue to catch whales in the name of scientific research:  to find out if the time has come to recommence commercial whaling in the Antarctic region.  Many of these “scientifically worthy” whales, however, end up in some of Japan’s upscale restaurants, where one whale can often fetch a market price of 1 million dollars or more.</p><p> </p><p> Whales are now protected by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>History of Sealing in Antarctica</strong></p><p> </p><p> In the 1700s and 1800s, long before the continent of Antarctica was discovered, southern fur seals were almost completely wiped out by commercial ventures from Europe and North America.  Fur seal pelts were extremely popular, largely for their dense, short, fibred fur and were often made into ladies winter coats.  In pursuit of more of these seals, Captain James Cook voyaged to the island of South Georgia in 1775 and reported that there were large numbers of seals in the region.  Within 25 years of being discovered, the summer catch around this island had climbed to over 100,000 seals a year, and by 1822, the southern fur seal was virtually extinct on South Georgia.</p><p> </p><p> Ironically, it was the search for new populations of seals that was ultimately responsible for much of the early exploration of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. One of the very first sightings of the Antarctic continent is credited to Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer who spotted the continent in the summer of 1820.  Additionally, the first group to winter in the region was a ten-member crew of the British sealing ship Lord Melville on King George Island, just north of the Antarctic Peninsula.</p><p> Like whaling, sealing became big business in the waters around Antarctica, and many people feared their dwindling numbers would lead to a disastrous collapse of the region’s bio-system.  In response to this, a commission was formed entitled the “Convention for the Conversation of Antarctic Seals” (CCAS).  Generally speaking, the CCAS was initiated to curtail the over-exploitation of fur seals and the disastrous effects on seal stocks. The CCAS established rules for commercial sealing, with permissible catch limits for some species, including the Crabeater, Leopard and Weddell seals. A zoning system, which included closed hunting seasons in various areas, was also drawn up, and certain species of fur seal, such as the Ross Seal, were given total protection from sealers.</p><p> </p><p> Since the 1950s, sealing in Antarctica has been closed and the numbers of fur seals is once again flourishing. </p><p> </p><p> Whaling and sealing in Antarctica during the 19 and 20 centuries caused an upset in the continent’s ecosystem that took decades to repair.  Their slaughter was driven by economic greed, and had it not been for the respective commissions that were set up to study the effects of these two economic activities they could very well be extinct today in the waters that surround Antarctica.  Today, thanks to the Antarctic Treaty, none such economic activities are permitted in Antarctica.  The Treaty also states that, on Antarctica itself, no Antarctic bird or land animal can be killed or captured without a permit—granted only for scientific reasons under the terms of the treaty.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>The Economy of Antarctica Today</strong></p><p> </p><p> In Antarctica, scientific pursuits, and not commercial undertakings, are the primary forms of most human activity.  Fishing off the coast and tourism, industries that are both based abroad, comprise the limited economic activity on this desolate continent, while researchers at a few scattered facilities make up Antarctica’s small temporary population. The Antarctic dollar, a mock-up souvenir item sold in the United States and Canada, is not legal tender.</p><p> </p><p> Coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have all been found on and around Antarctica, but they have not been located in large enough quantities to exploit.  Even if they had been discovered in great quantities, the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty prohibits nations and individuals from performing large scale extractions and from actively competing for these minerals. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining—a ban that will not be reviewed again until 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>Fishing in Antarctica</strong></p><p> </p><p> The largest economic activity of value in Antarctica is the capture and offshore trading of fish.  Last year alone, fisheries on the continent reportedly landed nearly 150,000 tons of fish.</p><p> </p><p> The fisheries of Antarctica target three main species:  Patagonian and Antarctica Toothfish, Mackerel Icefish, and Krill.  The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) determines the recommended catch limits and licensing requirements for all marine species in Antarctica.  Despite these protections, unregulated fishing, particularly the overfishing of the Patagonian toothfish (also known as Chilean sea bass), is a serious problem.</p><p> </p><p> The Patagonian toothfish is a prized delicacy in Japan, one that has already been over exploited by the fishing industry. In 1998, it was estimated that the total catch of this species was some 10-fold over the legal catch limit.  In that same year, at least eight boats were seized by France and Australia and charged with illegal fishing.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>Tourism in Antarctica</strong></p><p> </p><p> <span class='pull-right wrap-image'><a href='/images/guides/Antarctica Seals.jpg' target='_blank'><img src='https://www.studycountry.com/includes/resize.php?src=/images/guides/Antarctica Seals.jpg&w=220&h=' /></a><span class='caption'>Antarctica seals</span></span>Tourism has existed in Antarctica since about 1957.  Most of this has been small-scale “expedition tourism,” and is currently subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol, but is basically self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO).  Of course, not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members do account for about 95 percent of the tourist activity. Travel to Antarctica is largely done by small or medium ship, with a focus on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife.   An estimated 70,000 tourists, most arriving by commercial ship, visit Antarctica each year—a number that has risen steadily since the beginning of the decade.</p><p> </p><p> Rising tourism in the Antarctic region has led to many environmental concerns and political debate.  At issue is how to protect the Antarctic landscape and its biota, while still allowing tourists to visit and experience the continent for themselves.  Strict visitor guidelines are now in place to help minimize potential damage, but there continues to be a very real threat of a significant environmental disaster, particularly one caused by a cruise vessel running aground.</p><p> </p><p> No commercial or private aircraft is permitted to land on the continent of Antarctica.  Antarctic sightseeing flights, which flew over the country but never landed, operated in places such as Chile, Australia and New Zealand for many years, but these were suspended after the Erebus Tragedy.  In 1979, Air New Zealand Flight 901, on an over-flight of Antarctica, crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all 257 people on board.  Today, the only company that offers these types of over-flights to Antarctica is Qantas Airlines of Australia, which resumed the flights in the early 1990s.</p><p> </p><p> <strong>Research Centers in Antarctica</strong></p><p> As of 2012, approximately 30 countries maintained roughly 70 research stations in Antarctica, 40 of which operate year-round and 30 that are opened only during the Austral summer.  Staffing these centers are approximately 4,000 researchers, only 1,000 of whom remain on the continent during the winter. The largest of these stations is the McMurdo station, once the sight of a portable 1.8 MW nuclear power station, erected about halfway up Observation Hill by the United States Navy in 1962.  The reactor from this station was eventually shut down ten years later, and shipped back to the U.S. along with 100+ drums of radioactive earth.  Following its removal, it took six years before the site was deemed decontaminated enough for unrestrictive use.</p><p> Poor waste discharge methods from McMurdo and other smaller facilities in Antarctica have resulted in an intense combination gradient of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).  Consequently, an extensive cleanup program was initiated at McMurdo Station in 1988.  Major rubbish dumps were removed and returned to the USA, dumping along the shoreline was prohibited, and sewage and grey water were required to be discharged at a submerged outfall.  This has helped somewhat to counteract the human-caused pollution in Antarctica, although according to the results of a recent study, a significant level of contamination still exists and has the potential to drastically impact life forms on the continent, including the local fish species. </p><p> </p><p> </div> <div class="boxads top-border-0"> <br /> </div>  <div class="addthis_sharing_toolbox"></div>  <script async type="text/javascript" src="//s7.addthis.com/js/300/addthis_widget.js#pubid=ra-51a5c93e58b4bcc5"></script> <br /> </div> </div></div></div></div><footer><div class="wrapper row"><div class="col-sm-4">© 1999-2024 StudyCountry.com</div><div class="col-sm-4"></div><div class="col-sm-4" style="text-align:right;"><a href="https://www.studycountry.com/disclaimer.php">Disclaimer</a> | <a href="https://www.studycountry.com/privacy.php">Privacy</a> | <a href="/wiki/">Wiki</a> | <a href="/es/">Español</a> | <a href="/fr/">Français</a></div></div></footer></body></html>