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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temporary_vision_impairment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temporary_vision_impairment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Temporary vision impairment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporary_vision_impairment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Health effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_functioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_functioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>General functioning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_functioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cognitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Social and psychological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Associated_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associated_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Associated conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associated_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Cause</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cause-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cause subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cataracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cataracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Cataracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cataracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glaucoma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glaucoma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Glaucoma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glaucoma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Injuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Injuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_defects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_defects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Genetic defects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_defects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poisoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poisoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Poisoning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poisoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mobility_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobility_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobility_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reading_and_magnification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reading_and_magnification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Reading and magnification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reading_and_magnification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computers_and_mobile_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers_and_mobile_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Computers and mobile technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers_and_mobile_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_aids_and_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_aids_and_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Other aids and techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_aids_and_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Legal definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_and_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Literature and art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Modern times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blind_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blind_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Blind culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blind_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphorical_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphorical_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Metaphorical uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphorical_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual impairment</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8" title="अंधरौपन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अंधरौपन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إعاقة بصرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إعاقة بصرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Зрителни увреждания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Зрителни увреждания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defici%C3%A8ncia_visual" title="Deficiència visual – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Deficiència visual" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zrakov%C3%A9_posti%C5%BEen%C3%AD" title="Zrakové postižení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zrakové postižení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sehbehinderung" title="Sehbehinderung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sehbehinderung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8" title="अन्धोपन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="अन्धोपन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4gemispuue" title="Nägemispuue – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nägemispuue" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discapacidad_visual" title="Discapacidad visual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Discapacidad visual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parta_vida_malkapablo" title="Parta vida malkapablo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Parta vida malkapablo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikusteko_desgaitasun" title="Ikusteko desgaitasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ikusteko desgaitasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کم‌بینایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کم‌بینایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9ficience_visuelle" title="Déficience visuelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déficience visuelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisu%C3%ABle_beheining" title="Fisuële beheining – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fisuële beheining" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EA%B0%81_%EC%9E%A5%EC%95%A0" title="시각 장애 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시각 장애" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makanta" title="Makanta – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Makanta" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Տեսողության խանգարում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեսողության խանգարում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enwegh%E1%BB%8B_ike_%E1%BB%8Bh%E1%BB%A5_%E1%BB%A5z%E1%BB%8D" title="Enweghị ike ịhụ ụzọ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Enweghị ike ịhụ ụzọ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_penglihatan" title="Gangguan penglihatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gangguan penglihatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilit%C3%A0_visiva" title="Disabilità visiva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disabilità visiva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="לקות ראייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לקות ראייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF" title="ದೃಷ್ಟಿ ಹಾನಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ದೃಷ್ಟಿ ಹಾನಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpasi_ya_miso" title="Mpasi ya miso – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mpasi ya miso" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyeng%C3%A9nl%C3%A1t%C3%A1s" title="Gyengénlátás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gyengénlátás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="കാഴ്ച വൈകല്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാഴ്ച വൈകല്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_penglihatan" title="Gangguan penglihatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gangguan penglihatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuele_handicap" title="Visuele handicap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Visuele handicap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E8%A6%9A%E9%9A%9C%E5%AE%B3%E8%80%85" title="視覚障害者 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="視覚障害者" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synstap" title="Synstap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Synstap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%83%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BF" title="ଦୃଷ୍ଟିହାନି – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଦୃଷ୍ଟିହାନି" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%CA%BBrishning_buzilishi" title="Koʻrishning buzilishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koʻrishning buzilishi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blainis" title="Blainis – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Blainis" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wada_wzroku" title="Wada wzroku – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wada wzroku" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perda_de_vis%C3%A3o" title="Perda de visão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Perda de visão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deficien%C8%9B%C4%83_de_vedere" title="Deficiență de vedere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Deficiență de vedere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нарушения зрения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нарушения зрения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/mamenuay" title="mamenuay – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="mamenuay" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Visual impairment" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyflop%C3%A9dia" title="Tyflopédia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tyflopédia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Оштећење вида – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Оштећење вида" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4k%C3%B6vamma" title="Näkövamma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Näkövamma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synfel" title="Synfel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Synfel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="பார்வைக் குறைபாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பார்வைக் குறைபாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D1%80%D2%AF_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Күрү начарлану – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Күрү начарлану" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suy_gi%E1%BA%A3m_th%E1%BB%8B_l%E1%BB%B1c" title="Suy giảm thị lực – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Suy giảm thị lực" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E5%8A%9B%E9%9A%9C%E7%A4%99" title="視力障礙 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="視力障礙" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E8%A6%BA%E9%9A%9C%E7%A4%99" title="視覺障礙 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="視覺障礙" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q737460#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Blindness" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Blindness_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Blindness (disambiguation)">Blindness (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Visual impairment</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Vision impairment, vision loss</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Snellen_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lines of letters of decreasing size" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Snellen_chart.svg/200px-Snellen_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Snellen_chart.svg/300px-Snellen_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Snellen_chart.svg/400px-Snellen_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1303" data-file-height="1624" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A typical <a href="/wiki/Snellen_chart" title="Snellen chart">Snellen chart</a> that is frequently used for <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a> testing</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Decreased ability to <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">see</a><sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Non-24-hour_sleep%E2%80%93wake_disorder" title="Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder">Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falls_in_older_adults" title="Falls in older adults">falls in older adults</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Uncorrected <a href="/wiki/Refractive_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractive errors">refractive errors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a><sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">Eye examination</a><sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vision_rehabilitation" title="Vision rehabilitation">Vision rehabilitation</a>, changes in the environment, assistive devices (<a href="/wiki/Eyeglasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeglasses">eyeglasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_cane" title="White cane">white cane</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">940 million / 13% (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015Pre_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Visual</b> or <b>vision impairment</b> (<b>VI</b> or <b>VIP</b>) is the partial or total inability of <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>. In the absence of treatment such as corrective eyewear, assistive devices, and medical treatment, visual impairment may cause the individual difficulties with normal daily tasks, including reading and walking.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>low vision</i> and <i>blindness</i> are often used for levels of impairment which are difficult or impossible to correct and significantly impact daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the various permanent conditions, fleeting temporary vision impairment, <a href="/wiki/Amaurosis_fugax" title="Amaurosis fugax">amaurosis fugax</a>, may occur, and may indicate serious medical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common causes of visual impairment globally are uncorrected <a href="/wiki/Refractive_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractive errors">refractive errors</a> (43%), <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a> (33%), and <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a> (2%).<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Refractive errors include <a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">near-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">far-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">presbyopia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astigmatism_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astigmatism (eye)">astigmatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other disorders that may cause visual problems include <a href="/wiki/Age-related_macular_degeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age-related macular degeneration">age-related macular degeneration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic retinopathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacification" class="mw-redirect" title="Corneal opacification">corneal clouding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">childhood blindness</a>, and a number of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2012Data_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2012Data-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual impairment can also be caused by problems in the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">premature birth</a>, or trauma, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-Leh2012_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leh2012-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cases are known as <a href="/wiki/Cortical_visual_impairment" title="Cortical visual impairment">cortical visual impairment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leh2012_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leh2012-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Screening for vision problems in children may improve future vision and educational achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Screening adults without symptoms is of uncertain benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-USPSTF2016_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USPSTF2016-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diagnosis is by an <a href="/wiki/Eye_exam" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye exam">eye exam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimates that 80% of visual impairment is either preventable or curable with treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes cataracts, the infections <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">river blindness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">trachoma</a>, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, uncorrected refractive errors, and some cases of childhood blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2015Cause_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015Cause-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many people with significant visual impairment benefit from <a href="/wiki/Vision_rehabilitation" title="Vision rehabilitation">vision rehabilitation</a>, changes in their environment, and assistive devices.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there were 940 million people with some degree of vision loss.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015Pre_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 246 million had low vision and 39 million were blind.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of people with poor vision are in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a> and are over the age of 50 years.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rates of visual impairment have decreased since the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual impairments have considerable economic costs both directly due to the cost of treatment and indirectly due to decreased ability to work.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Low_vision_assessment" title="Low vision assessment">Low vision assessment</a></div> <p>In 2010, the WHO definition for visual impairment was changed and now follows the <a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a>. The previous definition which used "best corrected visual acuity" was changed to "presenting visual acuity". This change was made as newer studies showed that best-corrected vision overlooks a larger proportion of the population who has visual impairment due to uncorrected refractive errors, and/or lack of access to medical or surgical treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distance vision impairment: </p> <ul><li>Category 0: No or mild visual impairment – presenting visual acuity better than 6/18</li> <li>Category 1: Moderate visual impairment – presenting visual acuity worse than 6/18 and better than 6/60</li> <li>Category 2: Severe visual impairment – presenting visual acuity worse than 6/60 and better than 3/60</li> <li>Category 3: Blindness – presenting visual acuity worse than 3/60 and better than 1/60</li> <li>Category 4: Blindness – presenting visual acuity worse than 1/60 with light perception</li> <li>Category 5: Blindness – irreversible blindness with no light perception</li></ul> <p>Near vision impairment: </p> <ul><li>Near visual acuity worse than N6 or M 0.8 at 40 cm.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Severely sight impaired </p> <ul><li>Defined as having central visual acuity of less than 3/60 with normal fields of vision, or gross visual field restriction.</li> <li>Unable to see at 3 metres (10 ft) what the normally sighted person sees at 60 metres (200 ft).</li></ul> <p>Sight impaired </p> <ul><li>Able to see at 3 metres (10 ft), but not at 6 metres (20 ft), what the normally sighted person sees at 60 metres (200 ft)</li> <li>Less severe visual impairment is not captured by registration data, and its prevalence is difficult to quantify</li></ul> <p>Low vision </p> <ul><li>A visual acuity of less than 6/18 but greater than 3/60.</li> <li>Not eligible to drive and may have difficulty recognising faces across a street, watching television, or choosing clean, unstained, co-ordinated clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the UK, the Certificate of Vision Impairment (CVI) is used to certify people as being severely sight impaired or sight impaired.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The accompanying guidance for clinical staff states: "The National Assistance Act 1948 states that a person can be certified as severely sight impaired if they are 'so blind as to be unable to perform any work for which eye sight is essential'". Certification is based on whether a person can do any work for which eyesight is essential, not just one particular job (such as their job before becoming blind).<sup id="cite_ref-dh.gov.uk_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dh.gov.uk-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice, the definition depends on individuals' <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a> and the extent to which their <a href="/wiki/Field_of_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of vision">field of vision</a> is restricted. The <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health">Department of Health</a> identifies three groups of people who may be classified as severely visually impaired.<sup id="cite_ref-dh.gov.uk_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dh.gov.uk-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Those below 3/60 (equivalent to 20/400 in US notation) <a href="/wiki/Snellen_chart" title="Snellen chart">Snellen</a> (most people below 3/60 are severely sight impaired).</li> <li>Those better than 3/60 but below 6/60 Snellen (people who have a very contracted field of vision only).</li> <li>Those 6/60 Snellen or above (people in this group who have a contracted <a href="/wiki/Field_of_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of vision">field of vision</a> especially if the contraction is in the lower part of the field).</li></ol> <p>The Department of Health also state that a person is more likely to be classified as severely visually impaired if their eyesight has failed recently or if they are an older individual, both groups being perceived as less able to adapt to their vision loss.<sup id="cite_ref-dh.gov.uk_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dh.gov.uk-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, any person with vision that cannot be corrected to better than 20/200 in the better eye, or who has 20 <a href="/wiki/Visual_angle" title="Visual angle">degrees</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angular_diameter" title="Angular diameter">diameter</a>) or less of visual field remaining, is considered legally blind or eligible for disability classification and possible inclusion in certain government sponsored programs. </p><p>The terms <i>partially sighted</i>, <i>low vision</i>, <i>legally blind</i> and <i>totally blind</i> are used by schools, colleges, and other educational institutions to describe students with visual impairments.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are defined as follows: </p> <ul><li><i>Partially sighted</i> indicates some type of visual problem, with a need of person to receive special education in some cases.</li> <li><i>Low vision</i> generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a>.</li> <li><i>Legally blind</i> indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye after best correction (contact lenses or glasses), or a field of vision of less than 20 degrees in the better eye.</li> <li><i>Totally blind</i> students learn via braille or other non-visual media.</li></ul> <p>In 1934, the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> adopted the following definition of blindness: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with corrective glasses or central visual acuity of more than 20/200 if there is a visual field defect in which the peripheral field is contracted to such an extent that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees in the better eye.<sup id="cite_ref-Koestler_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koestler-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> included this definition as part of the Aid to the Blind program in the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> passed in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-Koestler_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koestler-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Corn_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corn-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, the Aid to the Blind program and two others combined under Title XVI of the Social Security Act to form the <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Security_Income" title="Supplemental Security Income">Supplemental Security Income</a> program<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>An individual shall be considered to be blind for purposes of this title if he has central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which is accompanied by a limitation in the fields of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees shall be considered for purposes of the first sentence of this subsection as having a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less. An individual shall also be considered to be blind for purposes of this title if he is blind as defined under a State plan approved under title X or XVI as in effect for October 1972 and received aid under such plan (on the basis of blindness) for December 1973, so long as he is continuously blind as so defined.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temporary_vision_impairment">Temporary vision impairment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Temporary vision impairment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amaurosis_fugax" title="Amaurosis fugax">Amaurosis fugax</a></div> <p>Vision impairment for a few seconds, or minutes, may occur due to any of a variety of causes, some serious and requiring medical attention. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Health effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_functioning">General functioning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: General functioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Visual impairments may take many forms and be of varying degrees. Visual acuity alone is not always a good predictor of an individual's function. Someone with relatively good acuity (e.g., 20/40) can have difficulty with daily functioning, while someone with worse acuity (e.g., 20/200) may function reasonably well if they have low visual demands. </p><p>Best-corrected visual acuity differs from presenting visual acuity; a person with a "normal" best corrected acuity can have "poor" presenting acuity (e.g. individual who has uncorrected refractive error). Thus, measuring an individual's general functioning depends on one's situational and contextual factors, as well as access to treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Vision_impairment_and_blindness_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vision_impairment_and_blindness-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> has estimated that the loss of one eye equals 25% impairment of the visual system and 24% impairment of the whole person;<sup id="cite_ref-colenbrander_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colenbrander-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> total loss of vision in both eyes is considered to be 100% visual impairment and 85% impairment of the whole person.<sup id="cite_ref-colenbrander_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colenbrander-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some people who fall into this category can use their considerable residual vision – their remaining sight – to complete daily tasks without relying on alternative methods. The role of a low vision specialist (optometrist or ophthalmologist) is to maximize the functional level of a patient's vision by optical or non-optical means. Primarily, this is by use of magnification in the form of telescopic systems for distance vision and optical or electronic magnification for near tasks. </p><p>People with significantly reduced acuity may benefit from training conducted by individuals trained in the provision of technical aids. Low <a href="/wiki/Vision_Rehabilitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision Rehabilitation">vision rehabilitation</a> professionals, some of whom are connected to an agency for the blind, can provide advice on lighting and contrast to maximize remaining vision. These professionals also have access to non-visual aids, and can instruct patients in their uses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobility">Mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older adults with visual impairment are at an increased risk of physical inactivity,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> slower gait speeds,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and fear of falls.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Physical activity is a useful predictor of overall well-being, and routine physical activity reduces the risk of developing chronic diseases and disability.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older adults with visual impairment (including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy) have decreased physical activity as measured with self-reports and accelerometers.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US <a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Survey" title="National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey">National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a> (NHANES) showed that people with corrected visual acuity of less than 20/40 spent significantly less time in moderate to vigorous physical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Age-related macular degeneration is also associated with a 50% decrease in physical activity–however physical activity is protective against age-related macular degeneration progression.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of mobility, those with visual impairment have a slower gait speed than those without visual impairment; however, the rate of decline remains proportional with increasing age in both groups. Additionally, the visually impaired also have greater difficulty walking a quarter mile (400 m) and walking up stairs, as compared to those with normal vision.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive">Cognitive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cognitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older adults with vision loss are at an increased risk of memory loss, cognitive impairment, and cognitive decline.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_psychological">Social and psychological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social and psychological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies demonstrate an association between older adults with visual impairment and a poor mental health;<sup id="cite_ref-Brunes_24_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brunes_24-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aa_849–854_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aa_849–854-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discrimination was identified as one of the causes of this association.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_825–832_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson_825–832-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older adults with visual impairment have a 1.5-fold risk of reporting perceived discrimination and of these individuals, there was a 2-fold risk of loneliness and 4-fold risk of reporting a lower quality of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_825–832_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson_825–832-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among adults with visual impairment, the prevalence of moderate loneliness is 28.7% (18.2% in general population) and prevalence of severe loneliness is 19.7% (2.7% in general population).<sup id="cite_ref-Brunes_24_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brunes_24-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of depression and anxiety are also increased in the visually impaired; 32.2% report depressive symptoms (12.01% in general population), and 15.61% report anxiety symptoms (10.69% in general population).<sup id="cite_ref-Aa_849–854_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aa_849–854-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subjects making the most use of rehabilitation instruments, who lived alone, and preserved their own mobility and occupation were the least depressed, with the lowest risk of suicide and the highest level of social integration. </p><p>Those with worsening sight and the prognosis of eventual blindness are at comparatively high risk of suicide and thus may be in need of supportive services. Many studies have demonstrated how rapid acceptance of the serious visual impairment has led to a better, more productive compliance with rehabilitation programs. Moreover, psychological distress has been reported to be at its highest when sight loss is not complete, but the prognosis is unfavorable. Therefore, early intervention is imperative for enabling successful psychological adjustment.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associated_conditions">Associated conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Associated conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blindness can occur in combination with such conditions as <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum disorders">autism spectrum disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing impairment">hearing impairments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lighthouse_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lighthouse-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autism_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autism-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blindness in combination with hearing loss is known as <a href="/wiki/Deafblindness" title="Deafblindness">deafblindness</a>. </p><p>It has been estimated that over half of completely blind people have <a href="/wiki/Non-24-hour_sleep%E2%80%93wake_disorder" title="Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder">non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder</a>, a condition in which a person's <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a>, normally slightly longer than 24 hours, is not <a href="/wiki/Entrainment_(chronobiology)" title="Entrainment (chronobiology)">entrained</a> (synchronized) to the light–dark cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-AASM2008_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AASM2008-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common causes of visual impairment globally in 2010 were: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a> (42%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> (33%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> (2%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age-related_macular_degeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age-related macular degeneration">Age-related macular degeneration</a> (1%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacification" class="mw-redirect" title="Corneal opacification">Corneal opacification</a> (1%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">Diabetic retinopathy</a> (1%)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a> (1%)</li> <li>Undetermined (18%)<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2012Data_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2012Data-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The most common causes of blindness worldwide in 2010 were: </p> <ol><li>Cataracts (51%)</li> <li>Glaucoma (8%)</li> <li>Age-related macular degeneration (5%)</li> <li>Corneal opacification (4%)</li> <li>Childhood blindness (4%)</li> <li>Refractive errors (3%)</li> <li>Trachoma (3%)</li> <li>Diabetic retinopathy (1%)</li> <li>Undetermined (21%)<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2012Data_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2012Data-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>About 90% of people who are visually impaired live in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are the leading causes of blindness in the developed world.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunce_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunce-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among working-age adults who are newly blind in England and Wales the most common causes in 2010 were:<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Hereditary retinal disorders (20.2%)</li> <li>Diabetic retinopathy (14.4%)</li> <li>Optic atrophy (14.1%)</li> <li>Glaucoma (5.9%)</li> <li>Congenital abnormalities (5.1%)</li> <li>Disorders of the visual cortex (4.1%)</li> <li>Cerebrovascular disease (3.2%)</li> <li>Degeneration of the macula and posterior pole (3.0%)</li> <li>Myopia (2.8%)</li> <li>Corneal disorders (2.6%)</li> <li>Malignant neoplasms of the brain and nervous system (1.5%)</li> <li>Retinal detachment (1.4%)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cataracts">Cataracts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cataracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cataracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataracts">Cataracts</a> are the greying or opacity of the crystalline lens, which can be caused in children by intrauterine infections, metabolic disorders, and genetically transmitted syndromes.<sup id="cite_ref-Althomali,_T._2012_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Althomali,_T._2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cataracts are the leading cause of child and adult blindness that doubles in prevalence with every ten years after the age of 40.<sup id="cite_ref-Brian,_G._2001_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brian,_G._2001-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, today cataracts are more common among adults than in children.<sup id="cite_ref-Althomali,_T._2012_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Althomali,_T._2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, people face higher chances of developing cataracts as they age. Nonetheless, cataracts tend to have a greater financial and emotional toll upon children as they must undergo expensive diagnosis, long term rehabilitation, and visual assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, according to the Saudi Journal for Health Sciences, sometimes people experience irreversible amblyopia<sup id="cite_ref-Althomali,_T._2012_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Althomali,_T._2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after pediatric cataract surgery because the cataracts prevented the normal maturation of vision prior to operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Rashad,_M._A._2012_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rashad,_M._A._2012-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the great progress in treatment, cataracts remain a global problem in both economically developed and developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At present, with the variant outcomes as well as the unequal access to cataract surgery, the best way to reduce the risk of developing cataracts is to avoid smoking and extensive exposure to sun light (i.e. UV-B rays).<sup id="cite_ref-Brian,_G._2001_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brian,_G._2001-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Glaucoma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> is an eye disease often characterized by increased pressure within the eye or intraocular pressure (IOP).<sup id="cite_ref-go.galegroup.com_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-go.galegroup.com-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glaucoma causes visual field loss as well as severs the optic nerve.<sup id="cite_ref-glaucoma.org_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glaucoma.org-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma in patients is imperative because glaucoma is triggered by non-specific levels of IOP.<sup id="cite_ref-glaucoma.org_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glaucoma.org-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, another challenge in accurately diagnosing glaucoma is that the disease has four causes: 1) inflammatory ocular hypertension syndrome (IOHS); 2) severe uveitic angle closure; 3) corticosteroid-induced; and 4) a heterogonous mechanism associated with structural change and chronic inflammation.<sup id="cite_ref-go.galegroup.com_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-go.galegroup.com-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, often <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_glaucoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatric glaucoma">pediatric glaucoma</a> differs greatly in cause and management from the glaucoma developed by adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Meszaros,_Liz_2013_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meszaros,_Liz_2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, the best sign of pediatric glaucoma is an IOP of 21 mm Hg or greater present within a child.<sup id="cite_ref-Meszaros,_Liz_2013_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meszaros,_Liz_2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most common causes of pediatric glaucoma is cataract removal surgery, which leads to an incidence rate of about 12.2% among infants and 58.7% among 10-year-olds.<sup id="cite_ref-Meszaros,_Liz_2013_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meszaros,_Liz_2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infections">Infections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:68-4062-1_(ATED).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photo of children leading a line of adults across a dry landscape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg/220px-68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg/330px-68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg/440px-68-4062-1_%28ATED%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>The burden of <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">onchocerciasis</a>: children leading blind adults in Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>Childhood blindness can be caused by conditions related to pregnancy, such as <a href="/wiki/Congenital_rubella_syndrome" title="Congenital rubella syndrome">congenital rubella syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">retinopathy of prematurity</a>. Leprosy and onchocerciasis each blind approximately 1 million individuals in the developing world. </p><p>The number of individuals blind from <a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">trachoma</a> has decreased in the past 10 years from 6 million to 1.3 million, putting it in seventh place on the list of causes of blindness worldwide. </p><p>Central corneal ulceration is also a significant cause of monocular blindness worldwide, accounting for an estimated 850,000 cases of corneal blindness every year in the Indian subcontinent alone. As a result, corneal scarring from all causes is now the fourth greatest cause of global blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Injuries">Injuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Injuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.,_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photo of three men weaving wicker baskets" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg/220px-Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg/330px-Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg/440px-Re-educating_wounded._Blind_French_soldiers_learning_to_make_baskets._American_Red_Cross.%2C_1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533674.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="2199" /></a><figcaption>Re-educating wounded. Blind French soldiers learning to make baskets, World War I.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Eye_injury" title="Eye injury">Eye injuries</a>, most often occurring in people under 30, are the leading cause of monocular blindness (vision loss in one eye) throughout the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Injuries and cataracts affect the eye itself, while abnormalities such as <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve_hypoplasia" title="Optic nerve hypoplasia">optic nerve hypoplasia</a> affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain, which can lead to decreased visual acuity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cortical_blindness" title="Cortical blindness">Cortical blindness</a> results from injuries to the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> that prevent the brain from correctly receiving or interpreting signals from the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a>. Symptoms of cortical blindness vary greatly across individuals and may be more severe in periods of exhaustion or stress. It is common for people with cortical blindness to have poorer vision later in the day. </p><p>Blinding has been used as an <a href="/wiki/Blinding_(punishment)" title="Blinding (punishment)">act of vengeance and torture</a> in some instances, to deprive a person of a major sense by which they can navigate or interact within the world, act fully independently, and be aware of events surrounding them. An example from the classical realm is <a href="/wiki/Oedipus" title="Oedipus">Oedipus</a>, who gouges out his own eyes after realizing that he fulfilled the awful prophecy spoken of him. Having crushed the Bulgarians, the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> blinded as many as 15,000 prisoners taken in the battle, before releasing them.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary examples include the addition of methods such as <a href="/wiki/Acid_throwing" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid throwing">acid throwing</a> as a form of <a href="/wiki/Disfigurement" title="Disfigurement">disfigurement</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_defects">Genetic defects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Genetic defects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People with <a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">albinism</a> often have vision loss to the extent that many are legally blind, though few of them actually cannot see. <a href="/wiki/Leber_congenital_amaurosis" title="Leber congenital amaurosis">Leber congenital amaurosis</a> can cause total blindness or severe sight loss from birth or early childhood. <a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a> is characterized by decreased peripheral vision and trouble seeing at night. </p><p>Advances in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic map">mapping</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> have identified other genetic causes of <a href="/wiki/Low_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vision">low vision</a> or blindness. One such example is <a href="/wiki/Bardet%E2%80%93Biedl_syndrome" title="Bardet–Biedl syndrome">Bardet–Biedl syndrome</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poisoning">Poisoning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Poisoning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rarely, blindness is caused by the intake of certain chemicals. A well-known example is <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>, which is only mildly toxic and minimally intoxicating, and breaks down into the substances <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a> which in turn can cause blindness, an array of other health complications, and death.<sup id="cite_ref-Methanol_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methanol-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When competing with <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> for metabolism, ethanol is metabolized first, and the onset of toxicity is delayed. Methanol is commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Methylated_spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Methylated spirits">methylated spirits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denatured_alcohol" title="Denatured alcohol">denatured ethyl alcohol</a>, to avoid paying taxes on selling ethanol intended for human consumption. Methylated spirits are sometimes used by <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholics</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_alcohol" title="Surrogate alcohol">desperate and cheap substitute</a> for regular ethanol <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic beverages">alcoholic beverages</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a>: is a category of vision loss or visual impairment that is caused by factors unrelated to refractive errors or coexisting ocular diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Rashad,_M._A._2012_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rashad,_M._A._2012-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amblyopia is the condition when a child's visual systems fail to mature normally because the child either has been born premature, measles, congenital rubella syndrome, vitamin A deficiency, or meningitis.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert,_C._2001_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_C._2001-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If left untreated during childhood, amblyopia is currently incurable in adulthood because surgical treatment effectiveness changes as a child matures.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert,_C._2001_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_C._2001-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, amblyopia is the world's leading cause of child monocular vision loss, which is the damage or loss of vision in one eye.<sup id="cite_ref-Rashad,_M._A._2012_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rashad,_M._A._2012-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the best case scenario, which is very rare, properly treated amblyopia patients can regain 20/40 acuity.<sup id="cite_ref-Rashad,_M._A._2012_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rashad,_M._A._2012-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacification" class="mw-redirect" title="Corneal opacification">Corneal opacification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerative_myopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Degenerative myopia">Degenerative myopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">Diabetic retinopathy</a>: is one of the manifestation microvascular complications of diabetes, which is characterized by blindness or reduced acuity. That is, diabetic retinopathy describes the retinal and vitreous hemorrhages or retinal capillary blockage caused by the increase of A1C,<sup id="cite_ref-Morello,_C._M_2007_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morello,_C._M_2007-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which a measurement of blood glucose or sugar level.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, as A1C increases, people tend to be at greater risk of developing diabetic retinopathy than developing other microvascular complications associated with diabetes (e.g. chronic hyperglycemia, diabetic neuropathy, and diabetic nephropathy).<sup id="cite_ref-Morello,_C._M_2007_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morello,_C._M_2007-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the fact that only 8% of adults 40 years and older experience vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy (e.g. nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy or NPDR and proliferative diabetic retinopathy or PDR), this eye disease accounted for 17% of cases of blindness in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-Morello,_C._M_2007_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morello,_C._M_2007-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">Retinopathy of prematurity</a>: The most common cause of blindness in infants worldwide. In its most severe form, ROP causes retinal detachment, with attendant visual loss. Treatment is aimed mainly at prevention, via laser or <a href="/wiki/Avastin" class="mw-redirect" title="Avastin">Avastin</a> therapy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stargardt%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Stargardt's disease">Stargardt's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a>: is a group of 30 intraocular inflammatory diseases<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused by infections, systemic diseases, organ-specific autoimmune processes, cancer or trauma.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao,_Narsing_2013_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao,_Narsing_2013-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, uveitis refers to a complex category of ocular diseases that can cause blindness if either left untreated or improperly diagnosed.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao,_Narsing_2013_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao,_Narsing_2013-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current challenge of accurately diagnosing uveitis is that often the cause of a specific ocular inflammation is either unknown or multi-layered.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, about 3–10% of those with uveitis in developed countries, and about 25% of those with uveitis in the developing countries, become blind from incorrect diagnosis and from ineffectual prescription of drugs, antibiotics or steroids.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao,_Narsing_2013_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao,_Narsing_2013-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, uveitis is a diverse category of eye diseases that are subdivided as granulomatous (or tumorous) or non-granulomatous anterior, intermediate, posterior or pan uveitis.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao,_Narsing_2013_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao,_Narsing_2013-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, uveitis diseases tend to be classified by their anatomic location in the eye (e.g. uveal tract, retina, or lens), as well as can create complication that can cause cataracts, glaucoma, retinal damage, age-related macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rao,_Narsing_2013_71-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rao,_Narsing_2013-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a>, often due to <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">vitamin A deficiency</a>, is estimated to affect 5 million children each year; 500,000 develop active corneal involvement, and half of these go blind.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/220px--Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="50" data-mwtitle="Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv/Exploring-Eye-Movements-in-Patients-with-Glaucoma-When-Viewing-a-Driving-Scene-pone.0009710.s001.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Scientists track eye movements in glaucoma patients to check vision impairment while driving.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is important that people be examined by someone specializing in low vision care prior to other rehabilitation training to rule out potential medical or surgical correction for the problem and to establish a careful baseline refraction and prescription of both normal and low vision glasses and optical aids. Only a doctor is qualified to evaluate visual functioning of a compromised visual system effectively.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> provides an approach to evaluating visual loss as it affects an individual's ability to perform activities of daily living.<sup id="cite_ref-colenbrander_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colenbrander-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Screening adults who have no symptoms is of uncertain benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-USPSTF2016_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USPSTF2016-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The World Health Organization estimates that 80% of visual loss is either preventable or curable with treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes cataracts, onchocerciasis, trachoma, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, uncorrected refractive errors, and some cases of childhood blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2015Cause_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2015Cause-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that half of blindness in the United States is preventable.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC2011_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Tommy Edison cooking" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg/220px-Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg/330px-Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg/440px-Tommy_Edison_blind_cooking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Edison" title="Tommy Edison">Tommy Edison</a>, a blind film critic, demonstrates for his viewers how a blind person can cook alone.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobility_2">Mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Long_cane_folded.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White cane with red band, folded into four segments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Long_cane_folded.jpg/220px-Long_cane_folded.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Long_cane_folded.jpg/330px-Long_cane_folded.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Long_cane_folded.jpg/440px-Long_cane_folded.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Folded long cane</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caoguia2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man walks through mall, holding onto harnessed yellow lab" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Caoguia2006.jpg/220px-Caoguia2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Caoguia2006.jpg/330px-Caoguia2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Caoguia2006.jpg/440px-Caoguia2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1851" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption>A blind man is assisted by a <a href="/wiki/Guide_dog" title="Guide dog">guide dog</a> in Brasília, Brazil.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village,_Uttarakhand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Indian woman touches a large brown vehicle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg/220px-Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg/330px-Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg/440px-Blind_girl_feels_shape_of_vehicle_near_Mana_village%2C_Uttarakhand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Blind girl feels shape of vehicle near <a href="/wiki/Mana,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mana, India">Mana village, Uttarakhand</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Girl wedged between two bolders, climbing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg/170px-Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg/255px-Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg/340px-Visually_impaired_girl_negotiating_a_rock_while_rock_climbing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Visually impaired girl negotiating a rock while rock climbing</figcaption></figure> <p>Many people with serious visual impairments can travel independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. <a href="/wiki/Orientation_and_Mobility" title="Orientation and Mobility">Orientation and mobility specialists</a> are professionals who are specifically trained to teach people with visual impairments how to travel safely, confidently, and independently in the home and the community. These professionals can also help blind people to practice travelling on specific routes which they may use often, such as the route from one's house to a convenience store. Becoming familiar with an environment or route can make it much easier for a blind person to navigate successfully. </p><p>Tools such as the <a href="/wiki/White_cane" title="White cane">white cane</a> with a red tip – the <a href="/wiki/International_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="International symbols">international symbol</a> of blindness – may also be used to improve mobility. A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation. It is usually swung in a low sweeping motion, across the intended path of travel, to detect obstacles. However, techniques for cane travel can vary depending on the user and/or the situation. Some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane. The choice depends on the individual's vision, motivation, and other factors. </p><p>A small number of people employ <a href="/wiki/Guide_dog" title="Guide dog">guide dogs</a> to assist in mobility. These dogs are trained to navigate around various obstacles, and to indicate when it becomes necessary to go up or down a step. However, the helpfulness of guide dogs is limited by the inability of dogs to understand complex directions. The human half of the guide dog team does the directing, based upon skills acquired through previous mobility training. In this sense, the handler might be likened to an aircraft's navigator, who must know how to get from one place to another, and the dog to the pilot, who gets them there safely. </p><p><a href="/wiki/GPS_for_the_visually_impaired" title="GPS for the visually impaired">GPS devices</a> can also be used as a mobility aid. Such software can assist blind people with orientation and navigation, but it is not a replacement for traditional mobility tools such as white canes and guide dogs. </p><p>Some blind people are skilled at <a href="/wiki/Human_echolocation" title="Human echolocation">echolocating</a> silent objects simply by producing mouth clicks and listening to the returning echoes. It has been shown that blind echolocation experts use what is normally the "visual" part of their brain to process the echoes.<sup id="cite_ref-Thaler2011_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thaler2011-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reader_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reader-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Government actions are sometimes taken to make public places more accessible to blind people. Public transportation is freely available to blind people in many cities. <a href="/wiki/Tactile_paving" title="Tactile paving">Tactile paving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_crossing#Enhancements_for_disabled_people" title="Pedestrian crossing">audible traffic signals</a> can make it easier and safer for visually impaired pedestrians to cross streets. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the <a href="/wiki/Priority_(right_of_way)" class="mw-redirect" title="Priority (right of way)">right-of-way</a> be given to users of white canes or guide dogs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reading_and_magnification">Reading and magnification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reading and magnification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Watch with tactile hands and braille digits" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg/170px-Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg/255px-Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg/340px-Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Most visually impaired people who are not totally blind read print, either of a regular size or enlarged by magnification devices. Many also read <a href="/wiki/Large-print" title="Large-print">large-print</a>, which is easier for them to read without such devices. A variety of <a href="/wiki/Magnifying_glass" title="Magnifying glass">magnifying glasses</a>, some handheld, and some on desktops, can make reading easier for them. </p><p>Others read <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a> (or the infrequently used <a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a>), or rely on <a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">talking books</a> and readers or <a href="/wiki/Reading_machine" title="Reading machine">reading machines</a>, which convert printed text to speech or <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a>. They use computers with special hardware such as <a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">scanners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refreshable_Braille_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Refreshable Braille display">refreshable braille displays</a> as well as software written specifically for the blind, such as <a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">optical character recognition</a> applications and <a href="/wiki/Screen_reader" title="Screen reader">screen readers</a>. </p><p>Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_Service_for_the_Blind_and_Physically_Handicapped" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped">National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped</a> in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_for_the_Blind" title="National Library for the Blind">National Library for the Blind</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Institute_for_the_Blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal National Institute for the Blind">RNIB</a> in the United Kingdom. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Closed-circuit_television" title="Closed-circuit television">Closed-circuit televisions</a>, equipment that enlarges and contrasts textual items, are a more <a href="/wiki/High-tech" class="mw-redirect" title="High-tech">high-tech</a> alternative to traditional magnification devices. </p><p>There are also over 100 <a href="/wiki/Radio_reading_service" title="Radio reading service">radio reading services</a> throughout the world that provide people with vision impairments with readings from periodicals over the radio. The International Association of Audio Information Services provides links to all of these organizations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers_and_mobile_technology">Computers and mobile technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Computers and mobile technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Access technology such as <a href="/wiki/Screen_reader" title="Screen reader">screen readers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Screen_magnifier" title="Screen magnifier">screen magnifiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refreshable_Braille_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Refreshable Braille display">refreshable braille displays</a> enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>. The availability of assistive technology is increasing, accompanied by concerted efforts to ensure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind. Later versions of <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> include an Accessibility Wizard & Magnifier for those with partial vision, and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Narrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Narrator">Microsoft Narrator</a>, a simple screen reader. <a href="/wiki/Linux_distribution" title="Linux distribution">Linux distributions</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Live_CD" title="Live CD">live CDs</a>) for the blind include <a href="/wiki/Vinux" title="Vinux">Vinux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adriane_Knoppix" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriane Knoppix">Adriane Knoppix</a>, the latter developed in part by <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Knopper" title="Klaus Knopper">Adriane Knopper</a> who has a visual impairment. macOS and iOS also come with a built-in screen reader called <a href="/wiki/VoiceOver" title="VoiceOver">VoiceOver</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Google_TalkBack" class="mw-redirect" title="Google TalkBack">Google TalkBack</a> is built in to most Android devices. </p><p>The movement towards greater <a href="/wiki/Web_accessibility" title="Web accessibility">web accessibility</a> is opening a far wider number of websites to <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive technology">adaptive technology</a>, making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers. </p><p>Experimental approaches in <a href="/wiki/Sensory_substitution" title="Sensory substitution">sensory substitution</a> are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</a>. </p><p>Modified visual output that includes large print and/or clear simple graphics can be of benefit to users with some residual vision.<sup id="cite_ref-dynamicdiversity_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dynamicdiversity-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_aids_and_techniques">Other aids and techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other aids and techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banknote_feature.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Raised bumps on a Canadian banknote" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Banknote_feature.JPG/220px-Banknote_feature.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Banknote_feature.JPG/330px-Banknote_feature.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/df/Banknote_feature.JPG 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">tactile feature</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Canadian_dollar" title="Banknotes of the Canadian dollar">Canadian banknote</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_(Los_Barruecos).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg/220px-Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg/330px-Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg/440px-Roca_seta_-mushroom_rock-_%28Los_Barruecos%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2688" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Scaled-down palpable model of mountain for blind tourists</figcaption></figure> <p>Blind people may use talking equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, watches, clocks, <a href="/wiki/Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">scales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compasses</a>. They may also enlarge or mark dials on devices such as ovens and thermostats to make them usable. Other techniques used by blind people to assist them in daily activities include: </p> <ul><li>Adaptations of <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknotes</a> so that the value can be determined by touch. For example: <ul><li>In some currencies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euro</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pound sterling</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a>, the size of a note increases with its value.</li> <li>On US coins, pennies and dimes, and nickels and quarters are similar in size. The larger denominations (dimes and quarters) have ridges along the sides (historically used to prevent the "shaving" of precious metals from the coins), which can now be used for identification.</li> <li>Some currencies' <a href="/wiki/Banknotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Banknotes">banknotes</a> have a tactile feature to indicate denomination. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency tactile feature</a> is a system of raised dots in one corner, based on braille cells but not standard <a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">braille</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition.</li></ul></li> <li>Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items</li> <li>Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate</li> <li>Marking controls of household appliances</li></ul> <p>Most people, once they have been visually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management. </p><p>For the blind, there are books in braille, audio-books, and text-to-speech computer programs, machines and <a href="/wiki/E-book_readers" class="mw-redirect" title="E-book readers">e-book readers</a>. Low vision people can make use of these tools as well as <a href="/wiki/Large-print" title="Large-print">large-print</a> reading materials and e-book readers that provide large <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">font</a> sizes. </p><p>Computers are important tools of integration for the visually impaired person. They allow, using standard or specific programs, screen magnification and conversion of text into sound or touch (braille line), and are useful for all levels of visual impairment. <a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">OCR</a> scanners can, in conjunction with text-to-speech software, read the contents of books and documents aloud via computer. Vendors also build closed-circuit televisions that electronically magnify paper, and even change its contrast and color, for visually impaired users. For more information, consult <a href="/wiki/Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a>. </p><p>In adults with low vision there is no conclusive evidence supporting one form of reading aid over another.<sup id="cite_ref-Virgili_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virgili-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several studies stand-mounted devices allowed faster reading than hand-held or portable optical aids.<sup id="cite_ref-Virgili_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virgili-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While electronic aids may allow faster reading for individuals with low vision, portability, ease of use, and affordability must be considered for people.<sup id="cite_ref-Virgili_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virgili-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Children with low vision sometimes have reading delays, but do benefit from phonics-based beginning reading instruction methods. Engaging phonics instruction is multisensory, highly motivating, and hands-on. Typically students are first taught the most frequent sounds of the alphabet letters, especially the so-called short vowel sounds, then taught to blend sounds together with three-letter consonant-vowel-consonant words such as cat, red, sit, hot, sun. Hands-on (or kinesthetically appealing) VERY enlarged print materials such as those found in "The Big Collection of Phonics Flipbooks" by Lynn Gordon (Scholastic, 2010) are helpful for teaching word families and blending skills to beginning readers with low vision. Beginning reading instructional materials should focus primarily on the lower-case letters, not the capital letters (even though they are larger) because reading text requires familiarity (mostly) with lower-case letters. Phonics-based beginning reading should also be supplemented with phonemic awareness lessons, writing opportunities, and many read-alouds (literature read to children daily) to stimulate motivation, vocabulary development, concept development, and comprehension skill development. Many children with low vision can be successfully included in regular education environments. Parents may need to be vigilant to ensure that the school provides the teacher and students with appropriate low vision resources, for example technology in the classroom, classroom aide time, modified educational materials, and consultation assistance with low vision experts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> estimates that in 2012 there were 285 million visually impaired people in the world, of which 246 million had low vision and 39 million were blind.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2014_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of those who are blind 90% live in the developing world.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worldwide for each blind person, an average of 3.4 people have low vision, with country and regional variation ranging from 2.4 to 5.5.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>By age:</b> Visual impairment is unequally distributed across age groups. More than 82% of all people who are blind are 50 years of age and older, although they represent only 19% of the world's population. Due to the expected number of years lived in blindness (blind years), childhood blindness remains a significant problem, with an estimated 1.4 million blind children below age 15. </p><p><b>By gender:</b> Available studies consistently indicate that in every region of the world, and at all ages, females have a significantly higher risk of being visually impaired than males.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>By geography:</b> Visual impairment is not distributed uniformly throughout the world. More than 90% of the world's visually impaired live in developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the estimates of the 1990s, new data based on the 2002 global population show a reduction in the number of people who are blind or visually impaired, and those who are blind from the effects of infectious diseases, but an increase in the number of people who are blind from conditions related to longer life spans.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1987, it was estimated that 598,000 people in the United States met the legal definition of blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirchner_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirchner-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of this number, 58% were over the age of 65.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirchner_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirchner-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994–1995, 1.3 million Americans reported legal blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-AFB_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFB-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_blind_people" title="List of blind people">List of blind people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blind_musicians" title="Blind musicians">Blind musicians</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_definition">Legal definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Legal definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To determine which people qualify for special assistance because of their visual disabilities, various governments have specific definitions for legal blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-ssdiqualify.org_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ssdiqualify.org-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and most of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, legal blindness is defined as <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a> (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand 20 feet (6.1 m) from an object to see it – with <a href="/wiki/Corrective_lens" title="Corrective lens">corrective lenses</a> – with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from 200 feet (61 m). In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a <a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a> of less than 20 <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degrees</a> (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. Approximately fifteen percent of those deemed legally blind, by any measure, have no light or form perception. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to relatively good acuity. <a href="/wiki/Low_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vision">Low vision</a> is sometimes used to describe visual acuities from 20/70 to 20/200.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_art">Literature and art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Literature and art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_blindness" title="Cultural depictions of blindness">Cultural depictions of blindness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_in_art" title="Visual impairment in art">Visual impairment in art</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Moche_(culture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moche (culture)">Moche</a> people of ancient <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> depicted the blind in their ceramics.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Greek myth, <a href="/wiki/Tiresias" title="Tiresias">Tiresias</a> was a prophet famous for his <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">clairvoyance</a>. According to one myth, he was blinded by the gods as punishment for revealing their secrets, while another holds that he was blinded as punishment after he saw <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> naked while she was bathing. In <a href="/wiki/The_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="The Odyssey">the Odyssey</a>, the one-eyed Cyclops <a href="/wiki/Polyphemus" title="Polyphemus">Polyphemus</a> captures <a href="/wiki/Odysseus" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a>, who blinds Polyphemus to escape. In Norse mythology, <a href="/wiki/Loki" title="Loki">Loki</a> tricks the blind god <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6%C3%B0r" title="Höðr">Höðr</a> into killing his brother <a href="/wiki/Baldr" title="Baldr">Baldr</a>, the god of happiness. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> contains numerous instances of <a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Jesus performing miracles</a> to heal the blind. According to the Gospels, Jesus healed <a href="/wiki/Healing_the_two_blind_men_in_Galilee" title="Healing the two blind men in Galilee">the two blind men of Galilee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blind_man_of_Bethsaida" title="Blind man of Bethsaida">the blind man of Bethsaida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Healing_the_blind_near_Jericho" title="Healing the blind near Jericho">the blind man of Jericho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Healing_the_blind_at_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Healing the blind at birth">the man who was born blind</a>. </p><p>The parable of the <a href="/wiki/Blind_men_and_an_elephant" title="Blind men and an elephant">blind men and an elephant</a> has crossed between many religious traditions and is part of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> lore. In various versions of the tale, a group of blind men (or men in the dark) touch an <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a> to learn what it is like. Each one feels a different part, but only one part, such as the side or the tusk. They then compare notes and learn that they are in complete disagreement. </p><p>"<a href="/wiki/Three_Blind_Mice" title="Three Blind Mice">Three Blind Mice</a>" is a medieval <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Nursery_rhyme" title="Nursery rhyme">nursery rhyme</a> about three blind mice whose tails are cut off after chasing the farmer's wife. The work is explicitly incongruous, ending with the comment <i>Did you ever see such a sight in your life, As three blind mice?</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_times">Modern times</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Modern times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oil painting of woman with head tilted down, possibly with eyes closed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg/170px-Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg/255px-Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg/340px-Vel%C3%A1zquez_Blind_woman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><i>Blind Woman</i> by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man with eyes closed holds and feels a marble bust" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg/170px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg/255px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg/340px-Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribera_018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1108" data-file-height="1477" /></a><figcaption><i>The Sense of Touch</i> by <a href="/wiki/Jusepe_de_Ribera" title="Jusepe de Ribera">Jusepe de Ribera</a> depicts a blind man holding a marble head in his hands.</figcaption></figure> <p>Poet <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, who went blind in mid-life, composed "<a href="/wiki/On_His_Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="On His Blindness">On His Blindness</a>", a sonnet about coping with blindness. The work posits that <i>[those] who best Bear [God]'s mild yoke, they serve him best.</i> </p><p>The Dutch painter and engraver <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a> often depicted scenes from the apocryphal <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Tobit" title="Book of Tobit">Book of Tobit</a>, which tells the story of a blind patriarch who is healed by his son, Tobias, with the help of the archangel <a href="/wiki/Raphael_(archangel)" title="Raphael (archangel)">Raphael</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaver-turned-abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Newton" title="John Newton">John Newton</a> composed the hymn "<a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace" title="Amazing Grace">Amazing Grace</a>" about a wretch who <i>"once was lost, but now am found, Was blind, but now I see."</i> Blindness, in this sense, is used both metaphorically (to refer to someone who was ignorant but later became knowledgeable) and literally, as a reference to those healed in the Bible. In the later years of his life, Newton himself would go blind. </p><p><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a>' story "<a href="/wiki/The_Country_of_the_Blind" title="The Country of the Blind">The Country of the Blind</a>" explores what would happen if a sighted man found himself trapped in a country of blind people to emphasise society's attitude to blind people by turning the situation on its head. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Saramago" title="José Saramago">José Saramago</a>'s novel <a href="/wiki/Blindness_(novel)" title="Blindness (novel)"><i>Blindness</i></a> describes a sudden mass blindness epidemic, and the main story follows the first group to lose their vision and how they have to adapt to their new disability amidst a decaying society. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>'s anti-war song "<a href="/wiki/Blowin%27_in_the_Wind" title="Blowin' in the Wind">Blowin' in the Wind</a>" twice alludes to metaphorical blindness: <i>How many times can a man turn his head // and pretend that he just doesn't see... How many times must a man look up // Before he can see the sky?</i> </p><p>Contemporary fiction contains numerous well-known <a href="/wiki/Category:Fictional_blind_characters" title="Category:Fictional blind characters">blind characters</a>. Some of these characters can see by means of devices, such as the <a href="/wiki/Marvel_Comics" title="Marvel Comics">Marvel Comics</a> superhero <a href="/wiki/Daredevil_(Marvel_Comics_character)" title="Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)">Daredevil</a>, who can see via his super-human hearing acuity, or <i><a href="/wiki/Star_Trek" title="Star Trek">Star Trek</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> <a href="/wiki/Geordi_La_Forge" title="Geordi La Forge">Geordi La Forge</a>, who can see with the aid of a <a href="/wiki/VISOR" class="mw-redirect" title="VISOR">VISOR</a>, a fictional device that transmits optical signals to his brain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blind_culture">Blind culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Blind culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People who are not blind often imagine that people who are blind share a cultural identity in the way that other minority groups with shared experiences have a distinct culture.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various blind commentators have responded to this perception by explaining that more commonly, blind people integrate with the broader community and culture, and often do not identify blindness as a defining part of their culture.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People who are blind share the common cultural experience of the many misconceptions sighted people have about living with blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blind and partially sighted people participate in sports, such as <a href="/wiki/Swimming_(sport)" title="Swimming (sport)">swimming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snow_skiing" class="mw-redirect" title="Snow skiing">snow skiing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athletics_(sport)" class="mw-redirect" title="Athletics (sport)">athletics</a>. Some sports have been invented or adapted for the blind, such as <a href="/wiki/Goalball" title="Goalball">goalball</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paralympic_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralympic association football">association football</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blind_cricket" title="Blind cricket">cricket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blind_golf" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind golf">golf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bowling" title="Bowling">bowling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beep_baseball" title="Beep baseball">beep baseball</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vicsports_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vicsports-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The worldwide authority on sports for the blind is the <a href="/wiki/International_Blind_Sports_Federation" title="International Blind Sports Federation">International Blind Sports Federation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Para_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Para-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tennis_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tennis-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People with vision impairments have participated in the <a href="/wiki/Paralympic_Games" title="Paralympic Games">Paralympic Games</a> since the <a href="/wiki/1976_Summer_Paralympics" title="1976 Summer Paralympics">1976 Toronto summer Paralympics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-disserv_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-disserv-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphorical_uses">Metaphorical uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Metaphorical uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "blind" (adjective and verb) is often used to signify a lack of knowledge of something. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Blind_date" title="Blind date">blind date</a> is a date in which the people involved have not previously met; a <a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">blind experiment</a> is one in which information is kept from either the experimenter or the participant to mitigate the <a href="/wiki/Placebo_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Placebo effect">placebo effect</a> or <a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">observer bias</a>. The expression "<a href="/wiki/Blind_leading_the_blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind leading the blind">blind leading the blind</a>" refers to incapable people leading other incapable people. Being blind to something means not understanding or being aware of it. A "<a href="/wiki/Blind_spot_(vision)" title="Blind spot (vision)">blind spot</a>" is an area where someone cannot see: for example, where a car driver cannot see because parts of his car's bodywork are in the way; metaphorically, a topic on which an individual is unaware of their own biases, and therefore of the resulting distortions of their own judgements (see <a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Bias blind spot</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Visual_prosthesis" title="Visual prosthesis">Visual prosthesis</a></div> <p>A 2008 study tested the effect of using <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a> to help restore the sight of patients with a rare form of inherited blindness, known as <a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a> or LCA.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leber's Congenital Amaurosis damages the light receptors in the retina and usually begins affecting sight in early childhood, with worsening vision until complete blindness around the age of 30. The study used a common cold virus to deliver a normal version of the gene called <a href="/wiki/RPE65" title="RPE65">RPE65</a> directly into the eyes of affected patients. All three patients, aged 19, 22 and 25, responded well to the treatment and reported improved vision following the procedure. </p><p>Two experimental treatments for retinal problems include a cybernetic replacement and transplant of fetal retinal cells.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no high-quality evidence on the effect of assistive technologies on educational outcomes and quality of life in children with low vision as of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor is there evidence on magnifying reading aids in children.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low-vision rehabilitation does not appear to have an important impact on health-related quality of life, though some low-vision rehabilitation interventions, particularly psychological therapies and methods of enhancing vision, may improve vision-related quality of life in people with sight loss.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blindness_in_animals" title="Blindness in animals">Blindness in animals</a></div> <p>Statements that certain species of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> are "born blind" refers to them being born with their eyes closed and their eyelids fused together; the eyes open later. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbit</a>. In humans, the eyelids are fused for a while before birth, but open again before the normal birth time; however, very <a href="/wiki/Premature_babies" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature babies">premature babies</a> are sometimes born with their eyes fused shut, and opening later. Other animals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Blind_mole_rat" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind mole rat">blind mole rat</a>, are truly blind and rely on other senses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The theme of blind animals has been a powerful one in literature. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Shaffer" title="Peter Shaffer">Peter Shaffer</a>'s Tony Award-winning play, <a href="/wiki/Equus_(play)" title="Equus (play)"><i>Equus</i></a>, tells the story of a boy who blinds six horses. <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Taylor_(author)" title="Theodore Taylor (author)">Theodore Taylor</a>'s classic young adult novel, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Trouble_With_Tuck&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Trouble With Tuck (page does not exist)">The Trouble With Tuck</a></i>, is about a teenage girl, Helen, who trains her blind dog to follow and trust a seeing-eye dog. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">Accessibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessible_Books_Consortium" title="Accessible Books Consortium">Accessible Books Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_wayfinding" title="Acoustic wayfinding">Acoustic wayfinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_visual_loss" title="Acute visual loss">Acute visual loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness_and_education" title="Blindness and education">Blindness and education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookshare" title="Bookshare">Bookshare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braille_trail" title="Braille trail">Braille trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_rights_movement" title="Disability rights movement">Disability rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovery_from_blindness" title="Recovery from blindness">Recovery from blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_regeneration" title="Retinal regeneration">Retinal regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_tourism" title="Sensory tourism">Sensory tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sighted_guide" title="Sighted guide">Sighted guide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_interactive_thresholding_algorithm" title="Swedish interactive thresholding algorithm">Swedish interactive thresholding algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">Tactile alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_graphic" title="Tactile graphic">Tactile graphic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_symbol_systems" title="Tangible symbol systems">Tangible symbol systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">Visual agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure">Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Blind_Union" title="World Blind Union">World Blind Union</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_impairment&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WHO2014-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512062236/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/">"Visual impairment and blindness Fact Sheet N°282"</a>. August 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/">the original</a> on 12 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visual+impairment+and+blindness+Fact+Sheet+N%C2%B0282&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Ffactsheets%2Ffs282%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVisual+impairment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC2011-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2011_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150429145832/http://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/blindness.html">"Blindness and Vision Impairment"</a>. 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li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q737460" class="extiw" title="d:Q737460">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H54.0">H54.0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H54.1">H54.1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H54.4">H54.4</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=369">369</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28256.htm">28256</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003040.htm">003040</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_pathology" title="Template talk:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Diseases of the human eye</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adnexa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inflammation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inflammation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stye" title="Stye">Stye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalazion" title="Chalazion">Chalazion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharitis" title="Blepharitis">Blepharitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meibomian_gland_dysfunction" title="Meibomian gland dysfunction">Meibomian gland dysfunction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entropion" title="Entropion">Entropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectropion" title="Ectropion">Ectropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagophthalmos" title="Lagophthalmos">Lagophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharochalasis" title="Blepharochalasis">Blepharochalasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">Ptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharophimosis" title="Blepharophimosis">Blepharophimosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthelasma" title="Xanthelasma">Xanthelasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankyloblepharon" title="Ankyloblepharon">Ankyloblepharon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelash" title="Eyelash">Eyelash</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichiasis" title="Trichiasis">Trichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarosis" title="Madarosis">Madarosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distichiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distichiasis">Distichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichomegaly" title="Trichomegaly">Trichomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_apparatus" title="Lacrimal apparatus">Lacrimal apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoadenitis" title="Dacryoadenitis">Dacryoadenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphora_(medicine)" title="Epiphora (medicine)">Epiphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryocystitis" title="Dacryocystitis">Dacryocystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exophthalmos" title="Exophthalmos">Exophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enophthalmos" title="Enophthalmos">Enophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_cellulitis" title="Orbital cellulitis">Orbital cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_lymphoma" title="Orbital lymphoma">Orbital lymphoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_cellulitis" title="Periorbital cellulitis">Periorbital cellulitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemosis" title="Chemosis">Chemosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">Conjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergic_conjunctivitis" title="Allergic conjunctivitis">allergic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygium_(conjunctiva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterygium (conjunctiva)">Pterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopterygium" title="Pseudopterygium">Pseudopterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinguecula" title="Pinguecula">Pinguecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconjunctival_bleeding" title="Subconjunctival bleeding">Subconjunctival hemorrhage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Globe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">Globe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleritis" title="Scleritis">Scleritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcleritis" title="Episcleritis">Episcleritis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratitis" title="Keratitis">Keratitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herpetic_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetic keratitis">herpetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">acanthamoebic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">fungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure keratitis">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ulcer" title="Corneal ulcer">Corneal ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thygeson%27s_superficial_punctate_keratopathy" title="Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy">Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_dystrophy" title="Corneal dystrophy">Corneal dystrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchs%27_dystrophy" title="Fuchs' dystrophy">Fuchs'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meesmann_corneal_dystrophy" title="Meesmann corneal dystrophy">Meesmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ectatic_disorders" title="Corneal ectatic disorders">Corneal ectasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconus" title="Keratoconus">Keratoconus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucid_marginal_degeneration" title="Pellucid marginal degeneration">Pellucid marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoglobus" title="Keratoglobus">Keratoglobus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrien%27s_marginal_degeneration" title="Terrien's marginal degeneration">Terrien's marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-LASIK_ectasia" title="Post-LASIK ectasia">Post-LASIK ectasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis" title="Keratoconjunctivitis">Keratoconjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis_sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratoconjunctivitis sicca">sicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacity" title="Corneal opacity">Corneal opacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_neovascularization" title="Corneal neovascularization">Corneal neovascularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser%E2%80%93Fleischer_ring" title="Kayser–Fleischer ring">Kayser–Fleischer ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27s_striae" title="Haab's striae">Haab's striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_senilis" title="Arcus senilis">Arcus senilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_keratopathy" title="Band keratopathy">Band keratopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Vascular tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_uveitis" title="Intermediate uveitis">Intermediate uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphema" title="Hyphema">Hyphema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubeosis_iridis" title="Rubeosis iridis">Rubeosis iridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_pupillary_membrane" title="Persistent pupillary membrane">Persistent pupillary membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridodialysis" title="Iridodialysis">Iridodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechia_(eye)" title="Synechia (eye)">Synechia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroideremia" title="Choroideremia">Choroideremia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroiditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroiditis">Choroiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_choroidal_excavation" title="Focal choroidal excavation">Focal choroidal excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypoidal_choroidal_vasculopathy" title="Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy">Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">Congenital cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_cataract" title="Childhood cataract">Childhood cataract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphakia" title="Aphakia">Aphakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_lentis" title="Ectopia lentis">Ectopia lentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retinal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal disease">Retina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis" title="Retinitis">Retinitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_retinitis" title="Cytomegalovirus retinitis">Cytomegalovirus retinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">Retinal detachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">Posterior vitreous detachment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoschisis" title="Retinoschisis">Retinoschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_ischemic_syndrome" title="Ocular ischemic syndrome">Ocular ischemic syndrome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein_occlusion" title="Central retinal vein occlusion">Central retinal vein occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Central retinal artery occlusion">Central retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Branch retinal artery occlusion">Branch retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">Retinopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purtscher%27s_retinopathy" title="Purtscher's retinopathy">Purtscher's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">of prematurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bietti%27s_crystalline_dystrophy" title="Bietti's crystalline dystrophy">Bietti's crystalline dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coats%27_disease" title="Coats' disease">Coats' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_retinopathy" title="Sickle cell retinopathy">Sickle cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_retinopathy" title="Photic retinopathy">photic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_haemorrhage" title="Retinal haemorrhage">Retinal haemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">Central serous retinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_edema" title="Macular edema">Macular edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">Epiretinal membrane</a> (Macular pucker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot_chorioretinopathy" title="Birdshot chorioretinopathy">Birdshot chorioretinopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypertension" title="Ocular hypertension">Ocular hypertension</a> / <a href="/wiki/Primary_juvenile_glaucoma" title="Primary juvenile glaucoma">Primary juvenile glaucoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypotony" title="Ocular hypotony">Ocular hypotony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_eye_(medicine)" title="Red eye (medicine)">Red eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_rupture" title="Globe rupture">Globe rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">Keratomycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phthisis_bulbi" title="Phthisis bulbi">Phthisis bulbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_fetal_vasculature" title="Persistent fetal vasculature">Persistent fetal vasculature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_exudative_vitreoretinopathy" title="Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy">Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease">Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pathways" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Pathways</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_papillitis" title="Optic papillitis">optic papillitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Kennedy_syndrome" title="Foster Kennedy syndrome">Foster Kennedy syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic atrophy">Optic atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc_drusen" title="Optic disc drusen">Optic disc drusen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Ischemic optic neuropathy">Ischemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">anterior (AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy">posterior (PION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">non-arteritic anterior (NAION)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjer%27s_optic_neuropathy" title="Kjer's optic neuropathy">Kjer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_and_nutritional_optic_neuropathy" title="Toxic and nutritional optic neuropathy">Toxic and nutritional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">Extraocular muscles</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">Binocular vision</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Paralytic_strabismus" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Paralytic_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Paralytic strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">Ophthalmoparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_progressive_external_ophthalmoplegia" title="Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia">Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kearns%E2%80%93Sayre_syndrome" title="Kearns–Sayre syndrome">Kearns–Sayre syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_disease" title="Cranial nerve disease">palsies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve_palsy" title="Oculomotor nerve palsy">Oculomotor (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_nerve_palsy" title="Fourth nerve palsy">Fourth-nerve (IV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_nerve_palsy" title="Sixth nerve palsy">Sixth-nerve (VI)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Other_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Other strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Exotropia" title="Exotropia">Exotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertropia" title="Hypertropia">Hypertropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophoria" title="Heterophoria">Heterophoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophoria" title="Esophoria">Esophoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exophoria" title="Exophoria">Exophoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotropia" title="Cyclotropia">Cyclotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%27s_syndrome" title="Brown's syndrome">Brown's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_syndrome" title="Duane syndrome">Duane syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other binocular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">Conjugate gaze palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_insufficiency" title="Convergence insufficiency">Convergence insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internuclear_ophthalmoplegia" title="Internuclear ophthalmoplegia">Internuclear ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_and_a_half_syndrome" title="One and a half syndrome">One and a half syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">Anisometropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">Aniseikonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorders</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oguchi_disease" title="Oguchi disease">Oguchi disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">Vision loss</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Visual impairment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemianopsia" title="Hemianopsia">Hemianopsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binasal_hemianopsia" title="Binasal hemianopsia">binasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitemporal_hemianopsia" title="Bitemporal hemianopsia">bitemporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">subjective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisocoria" title="Anisocoria">Anisocoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Robertson_pupil" title="Argyll Robertson pupil">Argyll Robertson pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gunn_pupil" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Gunn pupil">Marcus Gunn pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adie_syndrome" title="Adie syndrome">Adie syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloplegia" title="Cycloplegia">Cycloplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinaud%27s_syndrome" title="Parinaud's syndrome">Parinaud's syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infections" 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