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id="toc-The_Antarctic_Circle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_the_South_Shetland_Islands_(1819)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_the_South_Shetland_Islands_(1819)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Discovery of the South Shetland Islands (1819) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_the_South_Shetland_Islands_(1819)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-San_Telmo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#San_Telmo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 San Telmo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-San_Telmo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_sighting_of_the_continent_(1820)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_sighting_of_the_continent_(1820)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 First sighting of the continent (1820) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_sighting_of_the_continent_(1820)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_exploration_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_exploration_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Early exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_exploration_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sealing_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sealing_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1 Sealing expeditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sealing_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_expeditions_1840" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_expeditions_1840"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.2 State expeditions 1840 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_expeditions_1840-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_recognition_of_priority_of_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_recognition_of_priority_of_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 History of recognition of priority of discoveries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_recognition_of_priority_of_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_British_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_British_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early British expeditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_British_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expeditions_from_other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expeditions_from_other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Expeditions from other countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expeditions_from_other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_to_the_South_Pole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_to_the_South_Pole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Race to the South Pole </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_to_the_South_Pole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Further expeditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Further exploration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_exploration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further exploration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 By air </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overland_crossing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overland_crossing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Overland crossing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overland_crossing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Political history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spanish_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Spanish claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 British claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_European_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_European_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other European claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_European_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_American_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_American_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 South American involvement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_American_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Post-war developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Towards_an_international_treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Towards_an_international_treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Towards an international treaty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Towards_an_international_treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Recent history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Women in Antarctica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Antarctica</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ القارة القطبية الجنوبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ القارة القطبية الجنوبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_L%27Ant%C3%A1rtida" title="Historia de L'Antártida – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de L'Antártida" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarktida_tarixi" title="Antarktida tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Antarktida tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="অ্যান্টার্কটিকার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যান্টার্কটিকার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Антарктика тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Антарктика тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="История на Антарктида – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Антарктида" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27Ant%C3%A0rtida" title="Història de l'Antàrtida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'Antàrtida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Antarktidy" title="Dějiny Antarktidy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Antarktidy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarktis#Geschichte" title="Antarktis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Antarktis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_Ant%C3%A1rtida" title="Historia de la Antártida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la Antártida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarkto#Historio" title="Antarkto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antarkto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antartikako_historia" title="Antartikako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antartikako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ جنوبگان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ جنوبگان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Antarctique" title="Histoire de l'Antarctique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Antarctique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_Ant%C3%A1rtida" title="Historia da Antártida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da Antártida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_Antarctica" title="Tarihin Antarctica – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin Antarctica" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istra%C5%BEivanje_Antarktike" title="Istraživanje Antarktike – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Istraživanje Antarktike" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Antarktika" title="Sejarah Antarktika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Antarktika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Antartide" title="Storia dell'Antartide – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Antartide" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Antarcticae" title="Historia Antarcticae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Antarcticae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarktidos_istorija" title="Antarktidos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antarktidos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Antarktisz_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="Az Antarktisz története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az Antarktisz története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Историја на Антарктикот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Антарктикот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Antarctica" title="Geschiedenis van Antarctica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Antarctica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%A5%B5%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="南極の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南極の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarktikas_historie" title="Antarktikas historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antarktikas historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li 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.geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Antarctica&params=67_15_S_39_35_E_source:eswiki">67°15′S 39°35′E / 67.250°S 39.583°E / -67.250; 39.583</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antarctic_exploration&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic exploration">Antarctic exploration</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the natural history of the continent of Antarctica, see <a href="/wiki/Antarctica#Geologic_history" title="Antarctica">Antarctica § Geologic history</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg/300px-James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg/450px-James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg/600px-James_Weddell_Expedition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2107" data-file-height="1252" /></a><figcaption>Painting of <a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">James Weddell</a>'s second expedition, depicting the brig Jane and the cutter Beaufoy</figcaption></figure> The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a>, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>, was coined by <a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Tyre" title="Marinus of Tyre">Marinus of Tyre</a> in the 2nd century AD. The rounding of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn" title="Cape Horn">Cape Horn</a> in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773, <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> and his crew crossed the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circle" title="Antarctic Circle">Antarctic Circle</a> for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland. On 28 January 1820, a Russian expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Mikhail Lazarev</a> reached 69° 21' south latitude, 2° 15' west longitude, and on 2 February, 66° 25' south latitude, 1° 11' west longitude, at both of which positions he was stopped by the pack. He then steered eastward, and on 17 February reached 69° 6' south latitude, and on the 19th, 68° 5' south latitude, 16° 37' east longitude. Later, he reached 66° 53' south latitude, 40° 56' east longitude, where he thought land must be near, on account of the numbers of birds. Ten months later an American sealer, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Nathaniel Palmer</a>, became the first to sight Antarctica on 17 November 1820. The first landing was most likely just over a year later when English-born American Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(sealer)" title="John Davis (sealer)">John Davis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Seal_hunter" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal hunter">sealer</a>, set foot on the ice. Several expeditions attempted to reach the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> in the early 20th century, during the "<a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</a>". Many resulted in injury and death. Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a> finally reached the Pole on 14 December 1911, following a dramatic race with the Briton <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_exploration">Early exploration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early exploration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polynesian_Travel_Claims">Polynesian Travel Claims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Polynesian Travel Claims">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TonganCanoes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/TonganCanoes.jpg/220px-TonganCanoes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/TonganCanoes.jpg/330px-TonganCanoes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/TonganCanoes.jpg/440px-TonganCanoes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>Tongan canoes, with sails and cabins, and two Tongan men paddling a smaller canoe from "Boats of the Friendly Isles" a record of Cook's visit to Tonga, 1773-4</figcaption></figure> Some authors have suggested that a figure in <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> oral tradition from <a href="/wiki/Rarotonga" title="Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Hui Te Rangiora</a> (also known as 'Ui Te Rangiora) and his crew explored Antarctic waters in the early seventh century on the vessel Te Ivi o Atea.<a href="#cite_note-Wehi-2021-1">[1]</a> Accounts name the area "Te tai-uka-a-pia", which literally means 'powdered <a href="/wiki/Tacca_leontopetaloides" title="Tacca leontopetaloides">pia</a>', but in some interpretations it may refer to snow or ice due to the lack of a word for these phenomena in <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wehi-2021-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smith-3">[3]</a> However, this interpretation of the original account is disputed by <a href="/wiki/Te_Rangi_H%C4%ABroa" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Rangi Hīroa">Te Rangi Hīroa</a> (Sir Peter Henry Buck) who lists evidence for his belief that 'later historians embellished the tales by adding details learned from European whalers and teachers'.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This interpretation of oral history and the probability of such a voyage have likewise been dismissed more recently by <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81i_Tahu" title="Ngāi Tahu">Ngāi Tahu</a> scholars, who agree that 'it is very unlikely that Māori or other Polynesian voyaging reached the Antarctic'.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_search_for_Terra_Australis_Incognita">The search for Terra Australis Incognita</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The search for Terra Australis Incognita">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/250px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/375px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/500px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption>In 1570, a rudimentary map by <a href="/wiki/Ortelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortelius">Ortelius</a> showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and South America. Note also the proposed landmasses surrounding the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> speculated, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...".<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It was not until <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator" title="Prince Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry the Navigator</a> began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">torrid zone</a> in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that European exploration of the southern hemisphere began.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> In 1473, Portuguese navigator <a href="/wiki/Lopes_Gon%C3%A7alves" title="Lopes Gonçalves">Lopes Gonçalves</a> proved that the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world. The doubling of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1487 by <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, who passed through the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Magellan" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Magellan">Straits of Magellan</a> in 1520, assumed that the islands of <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a> to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land, and it appeared as such on a map by <a href="/wiki/Ortelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortelius">Ortelius</a>: Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita ("Southern land recently discovered but not yet fully known").<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_(1539-1555),_Spain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg/220px-Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg/330px-Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg/440px-Governorate_of_Terra_Australis_%281539-1555%29%2C_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1219" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Spanish governorate of Terra Australis (1539–1555);<a href="#cite_note-Oscar-10">[10]</a> later it was incorporated into the Governorate of Chile.</figcaption></figure> In 1539, the King of Spain, <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, created the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Governorate of Terra Australis</a><a href="#cite_note-Oscar-10">[10]</a> granted to <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Sancho_de_la_Hoz" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Sancho de la Hoz">Pedro Sancho de la Hoz</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jot_Down-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pedro_Sancho_de_la_Hoz-12">[12]</a> who in 1540 transferred the title to the conqueror <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> and later was incorporated to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Chile">Chile</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geography_world_map.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Geography_world_map.jpeg/250px-Geography_world_map.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Geography_world_map.jpeg/375px-Geography_world_map.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Geography_world_map.jpeg/500px-Geography_world_map.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4420" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption>Map from 1771, showing "Terres Australes" label without any charted landmass</figcaption></figure> European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> In 1599, according to the account of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Le_Maire" title="Jacob Le Maire">Jacob Le Maire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Blown_off_course" title="Blown off course">blown off course</a> Dutch <a href="/wiki/Dirck_Gerritsz_Pomp" title="Dirck Gerritsz Pomp">Dirck Gerritsz Pomp</a> observed mountainous land at latitude (64°). If so, these were the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetland Islands</a>, and possibly the first European sighting of Antarctica (or offshore-lying islands belonging to it). Other accounts, however, do not note this observation, casting doubt on their accuracy. A similar incident happened to the Spaniard <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Castilla" title="Gabriel de Castilla">Gabriel de Castilla</a> claimed to have sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the <a href="/wiki/64th_parallel_south" title="64th parallel south">64° S</a> in 1603. Both of these potential discoveries had no consequences. Before the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>, the passages around Tierra del Fuego, notorious for their harsh weather, served as the primary route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Many ships navigating this route reported drifting off course beyond the 60th parallel, yet no land was ever sighted.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Quir%C3%B3s" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Fernández de Quirós">Quirós</a>, in 1606, took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Vanuatu" title="Geography of Vanuatu">New Hebrides</a>) and those he would discover "even to the Pole".<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a>, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, when <a href="/wiki/Willem_Schouten" title="Willem Schouten">Schouten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Le_Maire" title="Jacob Le Maire">Le Maire</a> discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> Finally, in 1642, <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Tasman</a> showed that even <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland</a> was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but, so far as can be ascertained, none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_expedition_to_Valdivia" title="Dutch expedition to Valdivia">Dutch expedition to Valdivia</a> of 1643 intended to round Cape Horn sailing through <a href="/wiki/Le_Maire_Strait" title="Le Maire Strait">Le Maire Strait</a> but strong winds made it instead drift south and east.<a href="#cite_note-Arana280-14">[14]</a> Northerly winds pushed the expedition as far south as 61°59 S where <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a> were abundant before a southerly wind that begun on April 7 allowed the fleet to advance west.<a href="#cite_note-Arana280-14">[14]</a> The small fleet led by <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Brouwer" title="Hendrik Brouwer">Hendrik Brouwer</a> managed to enter the Pacific Ocean sailing south of <a href="/wiki/Isla_de_los_Estados" title="Isla de los Estados">Isla de los Estados</a> disproving earlier beliefs that it was part of Terra Australis.<a href="#cite_note-Arana280-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kock-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_of_the_Antarctic_Convergence">South of the Antarctic Convergence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: South of the Antarctic Convergence">edit</a>]</div> The visit to <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia</a> by the English merchant <a href="/wiki/Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9" title="Anthony de la Roché">Anthony de la Roché</a> in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence" title="Antarctic Convergence">Antarctic Convergence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict '<a href="/wiki/Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9#Maps_showing_la_Roché's_discovery" title="Anthony de la Roché">Roché Island</a>', honouring the discoverer. <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> was aware of La Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a>'s voyage in <a href="/wiki/HMS_Paramour" class="mw-redirect" title="HMS Paramour">HMS Paramour</a> for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in <a href="/wiki/52nd_parallel_south" title="52nd parallel south">52° S</a> in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi or 230 km off the north coast of <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia" title="South Georgia">South Georgia</a>) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charles_Bouvet_de_Lozier" title="Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier">Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier</a> to discover the "South Land" – described by a half legendary <a href="/wiki/Binot_Paulmier_de_Gonneville" title="Binot Paulmier de Gonneville">"sieur de Gonneyville"</a> – resulted in the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Bouvet_Island" title="Bouvet Island">Bouvet Island</a> in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of <a href="/wiki/48th_meridian_west" title="48th meridian west">48° of longitude</a> of ice-cumbered sea nearly in <a href="/wiki/55th_parallel_south" title="55th parallel south">55° S</a> in 1739.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> In 1771, <a href="/wiki/Yves-Joseph_de_Kerguelen-Tr%C3%A9marec" title="Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec">Yves Joseph Kerguelen</a> sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> in search of "a very large continent." He lighted upon a land in <a href="/wiki/50th_parallel_south" title="50th parallel south">50° S</a> which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">was ultimately named after him</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Antarctic_Circle">The Antarctic Circle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Antarctic Circle">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_James_Cook" title="Second voyage of James Cook">Second voyage of James Cook</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook-1777.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cook-1777.jpg/300px-Cook-1777.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cook-1777.jpg/450px-Cook-1777.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cook-1777.jpg/600px-Cook-1777.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1269" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s 1777 south-up map of <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands#South_Georgia" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia</a></figcaption></figure> The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dalrymple" title="Alexander Dalrymple">Alexander Dalrymple</a>, the brilliant and erratic <a href="/wiki/Hydrographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrographer">hydrographer</a> who was nominated by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> to command the <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">Transit of Venus</a> expedition to <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>. Sailing in 1772 with the Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the Adventure of 336 tons under Captain <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Tobias Furneaux</a>, Cook first searched in vain for <a href="/wiki/Bouvet_Island" title="Bouvet Island">Bouvet Island</a>, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in <a href="/wiki/58th_parallel_south" title="58th parallel south">latitude 58° S</a>, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60° S</a>, a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circle" title="Antarctic Circle">Antarctic Circle</a> was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> Cook then turned northward to look for <a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>, of the discovery of which he had received news at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60° S</a> to <a href="/wiki/147th_meridian_east" title="147th meridian east">147° E</a>. On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure, and reached <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60° S</a> by <a href="/wiki/177th_meridian_west" title="177th meridian west">177° W</a>, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in <a href="/wiki/135th_meridian_west" title="135th meridian west">135° W</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between <a href="/wiki/53rd_parallel_south" title="53rd parallel south">53°</a> and <a href="/wiki/57th_parallel_south" title="57th parallel south">57° S</a> to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered <a href="/wiki/Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9#Maps_showing_la_Roché's_discovery" title="Anthony de la Roché">Roché Island</a> renaming it <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">Isle of Georgia</a>, and discovered the <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Sandwich Islands</a> (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between <a href="/wiki/55th_parallel_south" title="55th parallel south">55°</a> and <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60°</a>. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60th parallel</a>, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_the_South_Shetland_Islands_(1819)">Discovery of the South Shetland Islands (1819)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Discovery of the South Shetland Islands (1819)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drake_passage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Drake_passage.png/300px-Drake_passage.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Drake_passage.png/450px-Drake_passage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Drake_passage.png/600px-Drake_passage.png 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="847" /></a><figcaption>Drake Passage map</figcaption></figure> The first land south of the <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">parallel 60° south latitude</a> was documented by captain of the cargo ship <a href="/wiki/William_(1811_Blythe_ship)" title="William (1811 Blythe ship)">Williams</a>, Englishman <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(mariner)" title="William Smith (mariner)">William Smith</a>, who sighted <a href="/wiki/Livingston_Island" title="Livingston Island">Livingston Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetlands</a> archipelago on 19 February 1819 but did not land on it. Smith was blown off course to the south while en route to <a href="/wiki/Valparaiso" class="mw-redirect" title="Valparaiso">Valparaiso</a>. On reaching Valparaiso, Smith reported his discovery of the islands and the abundance of seals there, to Captain <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Shirreff" title="William Henry Shirreff">William Henry Shirreff</a>, of <a href="/wiki/French_frigate_Junon_(1786)" title="French frigate Junon (1786)">HMS Andromache</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> which had arrived there about 5 September 1818. Smith was unable to visit the islands again on his return to the Atlantic. In October 1819, Smith revisited the South Shetlands, landing on <a href="/wiki/King_George_Island_(South_Shetland_Islands)" title="King George Island (South Shetland Islands)">King George Island</a> on 16 October and claimed the new territories for Britain. On 24 November, Williams was back at Valparaiso from <a href="/wiki/Monte_Video" class="mw-redirect" title="Monte Video">Monte Video</a>. At the beginning of the following year, 1820, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> chartered Williams and dispatched with her with Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bransfield" title="Edward Bransfield">Edward Bransfield</a> on board to survey the newly discovered islands and formally claim them for Great Britain, because Smith was a civilian and his October declaration had no legal force.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Before Bransfield's expedition reached its destination, <a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">sealer</a> and Smith's navigator from the previous expedition, Joseph Herring, landed on <a href="/wiki/Rugged_Island_(South_Shetland_Islands)" title="Rugged Island (South Shetland Islands)">Rugged Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The second confirmed ship present in the South Shetlands at this time was the <a href="/wiki/USA" class="mw-redirect" title="USA">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Hersilia_(1819_ship)" title="Hersilia (1819 ship)">Hersilia</a>. The Americans learned of the new land from the crew of the Espirito Santo, Joseph Herring's ship, during a landing in the <a href="/wiki/Falklands" class="mw-redirect" title="Falklands">Falklands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStackpole195510–11-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="San_Telmo">San Telmo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: San Telmo">edit</a>]</div> On September 2, 1819, the Spanish ship <a href="/wiki/San_Telmo_(Spanish_ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="San Telmo (Spanish ship)">San Telmo</a> was lost in a storm in the Drake Passage. There were 644 people on board, including soldiers who were supposed to support <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish forces in Peru</a>. There is speculation that the ship may have sunk near the South Shetland Islands, and even left survivors there. On the <a href="/wiki/Half_Moon_Beach" title="Half Moon Beach">Half Moon Beach</a> next to the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Guillermo_Mann_Base" title="Doctor Guillermo Mann Base">Doctor Guillermo Mann Base</a> stands a plaque commemorating the sinking of the San Telmo.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-atcm-25">[25]</a> It is believed that William Smith found the remains of San Telmo on Livingston Island,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-(España)1987-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martín-Cancela2018-29">[29]</a> but Smith himself never mentioned it and the information is second-hand. There is also uncertainty about where the wreck was actually discovered. Smith landed on Livingston Island only during his fifth voyage to the archipelago, after the expedition commanded by Bransfield. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that Smith named a bay on King George Island 'Shirreff Bay,' but on a subsequent expedition, Bransfield did not confirm this name in the official records, as he had already named a location 'Cape Shirreff' on Livingston Island. There are doubts as to whether the modest remains were related to San Telmo. During the first season at the turn of 1820 and 1821, four sealing ships were wrecked on the islands.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_sighting_of_the_continent_(1820)">First sighting of the continent (1820)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First sighting of the continent (1820)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="First Russian Antarctic Expedition">First Russian Antarctic Expedition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg/170px-Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg/255px-Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg/340px-Admiral_Faddey_Faddeyevich_Bellingshausen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="449" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>Admiral <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen</a> was one of the first to spot the continent of Antarctica.</figcaption></figure> The first generally recognized sighting of the Antarctic continent was made at a point within 32 km (20 mi) of the <a href="/wiki/Princess_Martha_Coast" title="Princess Martha Coast">Princess Martha Coast</a> on 27 or 28 January 1820. The Russian expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Mikhail Lazarev</a>, on the ships Vostok and Mirny.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The discovery was described with the problematic term "materyi led" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: матёрой лёд) which can be translated as "hard ice". The route of this expedition was eastward, as far south as the ice conditions permitted. Two more observations were made, and then, because of the approach of winter, they proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>. While in Australia, Bellingshausen wrote a report in which he stated that the southern continent probably did not exist, meaning that he did not consider the earlier observations to be a continent. When Vostok and Mirny returned to the Antarctic Circle the following summer, they continued eastward, discovering <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_Island" title="Peter I Island">Peter I Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander I Island">Alexander I Island</a>, although the latter was considered part of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a> until 1940. They then sailed north along the Antarctic Peninsula and reached the South Shetland Islands, where on 5 February 1821, near <a href="/wiki/Deception_Island" title="Deception Island">Deception Island</a>, they encountered <a href="/wiki/Hero_(sloop)" title="Hero (sloop)">Hero</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Nathaniel Palmer</a>, previously second mate of the Hersilia. Meanwhile, on 30 January 1820, Edward Bransfield and William Smith sighted <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Peninsula" title="Trinity Peninsula">Trinity Peninsula</a>, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_exploration_2">Early exploration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early exploration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">List of Antarctic expeditions</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sealing_expeditions">Sealing expeditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sealing expeditions">edit</a>]</div> In the years since the discovery of the South Shetland Islands, there have been many sealing expeditions to the area. Most of them have been poorly documented and non-scientific. In 1950s, the notes of <a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(sealer)" title="John Davis (sealer)">John Davis</a>, captain of Cecilia, one of the ships present there, were discovered. Davis described in them the probably first landing on the continent, which was made by his crew on 7 February 1821.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Of the sealers, the most creditable for the exploration of the coast was captain of Hero, Nathaniel Palmer. The crew of Hero were the second in history to sight the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>, located between 55 and 80 degrees west. Along with English sealer <a href="/wiki/George_Powell_(mariner)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Powell (mariner)">George Powell</a>, Palmer also co-discovered the nearby <a href="/wiki/South_Orkney_Islands" title="South Orkney Islands">South Orkney Islands</a> archipelago. In 1823, <a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">James Weddell</a>, a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>. Weddell found very favorable ice conditions there, which allowed him to set a record for the <a href="/wiki/Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">furthest south</a>. Since no land was encountered during the entire voyage, Weddell assumed that the ocean extended to the pole and that there was no continent to the south, only an archipelago. A piece of wood, from the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetland Islands</a>, was the first fossil ever recorded from Antarctica, obtained during a private United States expedition during 1829–31, commanded by Captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Pendleton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benjamin Pendleton (page does not exist)">Benjamin Pendleton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> As the seal population declined, interest in the region waned. However, the search for new seal colonies led to isolated discoveries, such as the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Enderby_Land" title="Enderby Land">Enderby Land</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Biscoe" title="John Biscoe">John Biscoe</a> in February 1831, discovery of <a href="/wiki/Kemp_Land" title="Kemp Land">Kemp Land</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Kemp_(sealer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Kemp (sealer) (page does not exist)">Peter Kemp</a> in 1833 and discovery of <a href="/wiki/Balleny_Islands" title="Balleny Islands">Balleny Islands</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Balleny" title="John Balleny">John Balleny</a> in 1839. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_expeditions_1840">State expeditions 1840</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: State expeditions 1840">edit</a>]</div> In the late 1830s, interest in the far South increased again, resulting in the organisation of three national scientific expeditions during that period. At that time it was still unclear whether there was a continent there or just ice-bound islands. The first to set off in 1837 was a <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">French</a> expedition led by <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">naval officer</a> <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a>. After reaching the Antarctic Circle, <a href="/wiki/French_ship_Astrolabe_(1811)" title="French ship Astrolabe (1811)">Astrolabe</a> and Zélée sailed into the Weddel Sea where they failed to repeat Jemes Weddel's feat. At the turn of February and March 1838 the expedition was already in <a href="/wiki/Bransfield_Strait" title="Bransfield Strait">Bransfield Strait</a>, where it had mapped part of the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, which it named the Louis Philippe Land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlberts1995445-37">[37]</a> In early 1840 a French expedition returned to the Antarctic Circle having sailed from Australia. The two ships reached the north-westernmost and highest <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9barquement_Rock" title="Débarquement Rock">islet</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> of the rocky group of <a href="/wiki/Dumoulin_Islands" title="Dumoulin Islands">Dumoulin Islands</a>,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> at 500–600 m from the icy coast of the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe_Glacier_Tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrolabe Glacier Tongue">Astrolabe Glacier Tongue</a> of the time, today about 4 km north from the glacier extremity near <a href="/wiki/Cape_G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie" title="Cape Géodésie">Cape Géodésie</a>, and hoisted the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">French tricolour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Dumont named the archipelago <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9ologie_Archipelago" title="Géologie Archipelago">Pointe Géologie</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and the land beyond, <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[a]</a> The map of the coast drawn under sail by the hydrographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cl%C3%A9ment_Adrien_Vincendon-Dumoulin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clément Adrien Vincendon-Dumoulin (page does not exist)">Clément Adrien Vincendon-Dumoulin</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Adrien_Vincendon-Dumoulin" class="extiw" title="fr:Clément Adrien Vincendon-Dumoulin">fr</a>] is remarkably accurate given the means of the time.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Charles Wilkes</a>, as commander of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Exploring_Expedition" title="United States Exploring Expedition">expedition</a> in 1840,<a href="#cite_note-antarcticchronology-47">[46]</a> discovered what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Wilkes_Land" title="Wilkes Land">Wilkes Land</a>, a section of the continent around 120 degrees East. Both expeditions operated in the same region and time, leading to disputed claims of priority of discovery. Dumont d'Urville reached the Adelie Land, on 21 or 22 January 1840. Wilkes, on the other hand, claimed to have discovered the same area, which he named "<a href="/wiki/Wilkes_Land" title="Wilkes Land">Wilkes Land</a>", on 16 January 1840, from a greater distance. The differences in dates and the uncertainties regarding the exact locations of the discoveries led to a rivalry for prestige between France and the United States over who was to be the first to discover the Antarctic continent. After the <a href="/wiki/North_magnetic_pole" title="North magnetic pole">North magnetic pole</a> was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the <a href="/wiki/South_magnetic_pole" title="South magnetic pole">South magnetic pole</a>. One of the explorers, <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">James Clark Ross</a>, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on <a href="/wiki/Ross_expedition" title="Ross expedition">his 4 year-expedition</a> from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" title="Ross Ice Shelf">Ross Ice Shelf</a>, a massive floating <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf</a> over 100 feet (30 m) high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: <a href="/wiki/Mount_Erebus" title="Mount Erebus">Mount Erebus</a>, the most active volcano on Antarctica, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Terror_(Antarctica)" title="Mount Terror (Antarctica)">Mount Terror</a>.<a href="#cite_note-antarcticchronology-47">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png/220px-Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png/330px-Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png/440px-Polar_Regions_exploration_1911.png 2x" data-file-width="3096" data-file-height="3106" /></a><figcaption>Map of exploration routes, 1911</figcaption></figure> These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica. Following the expedition south by the ships Erebus and Terror, <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">James Clark Ross</a> (January, 1841) suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South.<a href="#cite_note-Fogg_2000-48">[47]</a> What followed is what historian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Robert_Mill" title="Hugh Robert Mill">H.R. Mill</a> called 'the age of averted interest'<a href="#cite_note-Fogg_2000-48">[47]</a> and in the following twenty years after Ross' return, there was a general lull internationally in Antarctic exploration.<a href="#cite_note-Fogg_2000-48">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_recognition_of_priority_of_discoveries">History of recognition of priority of discoveries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History of recognition of priority of discoveries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_Antarctic_Expedition#Question_of_priority_in_the_discovery_of_Antarctica" title="First Russian Antarctic Expedition">First Russian Antarctic Expedition § Question of priority in the discovery of Antarctica</a></div> In the second half of the 19th century, one of the commanders of the research expeditions from around 1840 was considered to be the discoverer of Antarctica. In Europe, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a> was usually considered, while in America, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Charles Wilkes</a>. Wilkes's priority was challenged due to his changing the reported date of his first sighting of the continent twice. The first observation of the land by an American expedition took place on 16 January 1840, from the deck of the USS Peacock and was supposed to involve distant observation of <a href="/wiki/Eld_Peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eld Peak">Eld Peak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds Peak">Reynolds Peak</a> along the <a href="/wiki/George_V_Coast" title="George V Coast">George V Coast</a>. The prevailing view at the time was that the sighting of January 16 and the sighting of January 19 were fabrications, made after d'Urville announced his own sighting of the continent on the evening 19 January.<a href="#cite_note-49">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEБеллинсгаузен20087-50">[48]</a> In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">anthropologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Percy_Smith_(ethnologist)" title="Percy Smith (ethnologist)">Percy Smith</a> proposed a theory about a <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a> explorer named <a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Ui-te-Rangiora</a>, who may have reached Antarctica or <a href="/wiki/Subantarctic_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Subantarctic islands">subantarctic islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wehi-2021-1">[1]</a> By the early 20th century, the 1820 expedition of <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Nathaniel Palmer</a>, who observed the Antarctic Peninsula in November of that year, was also revisited. At the 1925 the priority of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bransfield" title="Edward Bransfield">Edward Bransfield's</a> expedition, which had mapped the South Shetland Islands and sighted the Trinity Peninsula on 30 January 1820, began to be promoted in Britain. The <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="First Russian Antarctic Expedition">first Russian Antarctic Expedition</a> remained largely forgotten until 10 February 1949, when <a href="/wiki/Lev_Berg" title="Lev Berg">Lev Berg</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Geographical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Geographical Society">Soviet Geographical Society</a>, presented a report stating that Russian sailors had 'discovered <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_Island" title="Peter I Island">Peter I Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Island" title="Alexander Island">Alexander Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traversay_Islands" title="Traversay Islands">Traversay Islands</a>, and others in 1821.' This raised questions about the Russian and <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">Soviet</a> role in Antarctic exploration and the scientific research surrounding the discovery of the continent. Shortly thereafter, expedition documents were reexamined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEБеллинсгаузен20087-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETammiksaar2016578-51">[49]</a> Based on a letter written by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Mikhail Lazarev</a> to a friend after the expedition, it was concluded that an ice shelf, which Lazarev described as 'materyi led' (translated as 'hard ice'), was sighted on 28<a href="#cite_note-16calendar-52">[c]</a> January 1820. However, there is some uncertainty regarding Lazarev's accuracy in recalling the chronology of events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEБалкли201355–56-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">edit</a>]</div> The first documented landing on the mainland of <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> was at <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Land" title="Victoria Land">Victoria Land</a> by the American sealer <a href="/wiki/Mercator_Cooper" title="Mercator Cooper">Mercator Cooper</a> on 26 January 1853.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</a> began at the end of the 19th century and closed with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Ernest Shackleton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a> in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> During this period the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 major <a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">Antarctic expeditions</a> were launched from ten countries.<a href="#cite_note-B19-56">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SirJMurrayatwork.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SirJMurrayatwork.jpg/170px-SirJMurrayatwork.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/SirJMurrayatwork.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>The Canadian-born oceanographer <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">Dr John Murray</a> was the driving force behind the renewal of interest in Antarctic exploration at the beginning of the 20th century.</figcaption></figure> An important precursor to the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration was the <a href="/wiki/Dundee_Whaling_Expedition" title="Dundee Whaling Expedition">Dundee Antarctic Expedition of 1892-93</a> in which four <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling</a> ships travelled south to the Antarctic in search of whales instead of their usual <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> route. The expedition was accompanied by several naturalists (including <a href="/wiki/William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">William Speirs Bruce</a>) and an artist, <a href="/wiki/William_Gordon_Burn_Murdoch" title="William Gordon Burn Murdoch">William Gordon Burn Murdoch</a>. The publications (both scientific and popular) and exhibitions that resulted did much to reignite public interest in the Antarctic. The performance of the whaling ships was also crucial in the decision to build the <a href="/wiki/RRS_Discovery" title="RRS Discovery">RRS Discovery</a> in Dundee.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Following on from that expedition, the specific impetus for the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was a lecture given by <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">Dr John Murray</a> entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration", given to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> in London, 27 November 1893.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> Murray advocated that research into the Antarctic should be organised to "resolve the outstanding geographical questions still posed in the south".<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Furthermore, the Royal Geographical Society instated an Antarctic Committee shortly prior to this, in 1887, which successfully encouraged many whalers to explore the Southern regions of the world and laid the groundwork for the lecture given by Murray.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> The Norwegian ship <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_(ship)" title="Antarctic (ship)">Antarctic</a> was put ashore at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Adare" title="Cape Adare">Cape Adare</a>, on 24 January 1895.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> In August 1895 the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London passed a general resolution calling on scientific societies throughout the world to promote the cause of Antarctic exploration "in whatever ways seem to them most effective".<a href="#cite_note-Borchbook9-62">[59]</a> Such work would "bring additions to almost every branch of science".<a href="#cite_note-Borchbook9-62">[59]</a> The Congress had been addressed by the Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Carsten Borchgrevink</a>, who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he had become one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-8">[8]</a> During his address, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a full-scale pioneering Antarctic expedition, to be based at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Adare" title="Cape Adare">Cape Adare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Borchbook4-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adrien_de_Gerlache.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Adrien_de_Gerlache.jpg/170px-Adrien_de_Gerlache.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Adrien_de_Gerlache.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adrien_de_Gerlache" title="Adrien de Gerlache">Adrien de Gerlache</a>, leader of the Belgian expedition</figcaption></figure> The Heroic Age was inaugurated by an <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">expedition</a> launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> (Some histories consider the Discovery expedition, which departed in 1901, as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a>) The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">Belgian Antarctic Expedition</a> was led by Belgian <a href="/wiki/Adrian_de_Gerlache" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrian de Gerlache">Adrian de Gerlache</a>. In 1898, they became the first men to spend winter on Antarctica, when their ship <a href="/wiki/RV_Belgica_(1884)" title="RV Belgica (1884)">Belgica</a> became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on 28 February 1898, and only managed to get out of the ice on 14 March 1899. During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. This was the first expedition to <a href="/wiki/Overwinter" class="mw-redirect" title="Overwinter">overwinter</a> within the Antarctic Circle,<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-HuntfordLastPlace-68">[65]</a> and they visited the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetland Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_British_expeditions">Early British expeditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early British expeditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camp_and_Hut,_Antarctica,_Southern_Cross_Expedition,_1899.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg/220px-Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg/330px-Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg/440px-Camp_and_Hut%2C_Antarctica%2C_Southern_Cross_Expedition%2C_1899.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>The first base on Antarctica of <a href="/wiki/Carstens_Borchgrevink" class="mw-redirect" title="Carstens Borchgrevink">Carstens Borchgrevink</a>'s <a href="/wiki/SS_Southern_Cross_(1886)" title="SS Southern Cross (1886)">Southern Cross</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Expetition (1899)</a>. The hut (HSM 22) still stands and is located on <a href="/wiki/Cape_Adare" title="Cape Adare">Cape Adare</a>, the cape where <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_(ship)" title="Antarctic (ship)">in 1895</a> Borchgrevnik participated in the <a href="/wiki/Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">first documented landing</a> on Antarctica.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross Expedition</a> began in 1898 and lasted for two years. This was the first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (<a href="/wiki/Cape_Adare" title="Cape Adare">Cape Adare</a>) and was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of The <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" title="Ross Ice Shelf">Great Ice Barrier</a>, (The Great Ice Barrier later became formally known as the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" title="Ross Ice Shelf">Ross Ice Shelf</a>). The expedition set a <a href="/wiki/Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">Farthest South</a> record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of the <a href="/wiki/South_Magnetic_Pole" class="mw-redirect" title="South Magnetic Pole">South Magnetic Pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery Expedition</a> was then launched, from 1901 to 1904 and was led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a>. It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Land" title="Victoria Land">Victoria Land</a>, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Discoveryboat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Discoveryboat.jpg/220px-Discoveryboat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Discoveryboat.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="221" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/RRS_Discovery" title="RRS Discovery">RRS Discovery</a> carried an <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">expedition</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a> in 1901.</figcaption></figure> A year later, the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish National Antarctic Expedition</a> was launched, headed by <a href="/wiki/William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">William Speirs Bruce</a>. '<a href="/wiki/Orcadas_Base" title="Orcadas Base">Ormond House</a>' was established as a <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorological</a> observatory on <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Island" title="Laurie Island">Laurie Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/South_Orkney_Islands" title="South Orkney Islands">South Orkneys</a> and was the first permanent base in Antarctica. The <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a> was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of <a href="/wiki/Coats_Land" title="Coats Land">Coats Land</a> was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg/240px-Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg/360px-Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg/480px-Nimrod_South_9_Jan_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="872" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Adams" title="Jameson Adams">Jameson Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wild" title="Frank Wild">Frank Wild</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Marshall" title="Eric Marshall">Eric Marshall</a> (left to right) of the <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod Expedition</a> plant the <a href="/wiki/Union_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Union flag">Union flag</a> at their southernmost position.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Ernest Shackleton</a>, who had been a member of Scott's expedition, organized and led the <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod Expedition</a> from 1907 to 1909. The expedition's primary objective was of reaching the South Pole. Based in <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a>, the expedition pioneered the <a href="/wiki/Beardmore_Glacier" title="Beardmore Glacier">Beardmore Glacier</a> route to the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record 97 <a href="/wiki/Nautical_miles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nautical miles">geographical miles</a> from the Pole before having to turn back. During the expedition, Shackleton was the first to reach the polar plateau. Parties led by <a href="/wiki/T._W._Edgeworth_David" class="mw-redirect" title="T. W. Edgeworth David">T. W. Edgeworth David</a> also became the first to climb <a href="/wiki/Mount_Erebus" title="Mount Erebus">Mount Erebus</a> and to reach the <a href="/wiki/South_Magnetic_Pole" class="mw-redirect" title="South Magnetic Pole">South Magnetic Pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expeditions_from_other_countries">Expeditions from other countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Expeditions from other countries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg/170px-Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg/255px-Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg/340px-Erich_dagobert_von_drygalski.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="3834" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Drygalski" title="Erich von Drygalski">Erich von Drygalski</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Gauss_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss Expedition">First German Antarctic Expedition</a> in 1901.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Gauss_expedition" title="Gauss expedition">First German Antarctic Expedition</a> was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast of <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II_Land" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II Land">Kaiser Wilhelm II Land</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaussberg" title="Gaussberg">Mount Gauss</a>. The expedition's <a href="/wiki/Gauss_(ship)" title="Gauss (ship)">ship</a> became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Swedish Antarctic Expedition">Swedish Antarctic Expedition</a>, operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area of <a href="/wiki/Graham_Land" title="Graham Land">Graham Land</a>, and was marooned on <a href="/wiki/Snow_Hill_Island" title="Snow Hill Island">Snow Hill Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paulet_Island" title="Paulet Island">Paulet Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-barczewski90-86">[83]</a> The French organized <a href="/wiki/French_Antarctic_Expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">their first expedition</a> in 1903 under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charcot" title="Jean-Baptiste Charcot">Jean-Baptiste Charcot</a>. Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskiöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of <a href="/wiki/Graham_Land" title="Graham Land">Graham Land</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>. A section of the coast was explored, and named <a href="/wiki/Loubet_Land" class="mw-redirect" title="Loubet Land">Loubet Land</a> after the President of France.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-87">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> A follow-up trip was organized from 1908 to 1910 which continued the earlier work of the French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Bay" title="Marguerite Bay">Marguerite Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charcot_Island" title="Charcot Island">Charcot Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaud_Island" title="Renaud Island">Renaud Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikkelsen_Bay" title="Mikkelsen Bay">Mikkelsen Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rothschild_Island" title="Rothschild Island">Rothschild Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_to_the_South_Pole">Race to the South Pole</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Race to the South Pole">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg/220px-Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg/330px-Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg/440px-Steam_Yacht_%27Terra_Nova%27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_(ship)" title="Terra Nova (ship)">Terra Nova</a> bore <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a> and his team on their ill-fated expedition to the South Pole.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova Expedition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a></div> The prize of the Heroic Age was to find and reach the South Pole. Two expeditions set off in 1910 to attain this goal; a <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">party</a> led by Norwegian Polar explorer <a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a> from the ship <a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Nova expedition">British group</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_(ship)" title="Terra Nova (ship)">Terra Nova</a>. Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Whales" title="Bay of Whales">Bay of Whales</a> to the polar plateau via the <a href="/wiki/Axel_Heiberg_Glacier" title="Axel Heiberg Glacier">Axel Heiberg Glacier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a> was later named after these two men. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_expeditions">Further expeditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further expeditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mawson_main_base.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mawson_main_base.jpg/220px-Mawson_main_base.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mawson_main_base.jpg/330px-Mawson_main_base.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mawson_main_base.jpg/440px-Mawson_main_base.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3712" data-file-height="2618" /></a><figcaption>The Main Base Hut of the <a href="/wiki/Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Australasian Antarctic Expedition</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Australasian Antarctic Expedition</a> took place between 1911–1914 and was led by Sir <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Douglas Mawson</a>. It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Discoveries included <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Bay" title="Commonwealth Bay">Commonwealth Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ninnis_Glacier" title="Ninnis Glacier">Ninnis Glacier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mertz_Glacier" title="Mertz Glacier">Mertz Glacier</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mary_Land" title="Queen Mary Land">Queen Mary Land</a>. Major accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology.<a href="#cite_note-ats-95">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg/220px-Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg/330px-Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg/440px-Endurance_trapped_in_pack_ice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2408" data-file-height="1804" /></a><figcaption>As time wore on it became more and more evident that the ship was doomed by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Hurley" title="Frank Hurley">Frank Hurley</a>. (The <a href="/wiki/Endurance_(1912_ship)" title="Endurance (1912 ship)">Endurance</a> trapped in pack ice.)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a> of 1914–1917 was led by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Ernest Shackleton</a> and set out to cross the continent via the South pole. However, their ship, the <a href="/wiki/Endurance_(1912_ship)" title="Endurance (1912 ship)">Endurance</a>, was trapped and crushed by pack ice in the <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a> before they were able to land. The expedition members survived after a journey on sledges over pack ice, a prolonged drift on an <a href="/wiki/Drift_ice" title="Drift ice">ice-floe</a>, and a voyage in three small boats to <a href="/wiki/Elephant_Island" title="Elephant Island">Elephant Island</a>. Then Shackleton and five others <a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_the_James_Caird" title="Voyage of the James Caird">crossed the Southern Ocean</a> in an open boat called <a href="/wiki/James_Caird_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Caird (boat)">James Caird</a> and made the first crossing of <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="South Georgia Island">South Georgia</a> to raise the alarm at the whaling station <a href="/wiki/Grytviken" title="Grytviken">Grytviken</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> A related component of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition was the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea_party" title="Ross Sea party">Ross Sea party</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Mackintosh" title="Aeneas Mackintosh">Aeneas Mackintosh</a>. Its objective was to lay depots across the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" title="Ross Ice Shelf">Great Ice Barrier</a>, in order to supply Shackleton's party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, died.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Shackleton's last expedition and the one that brought the 'Heroic Age' to a close, was the <a href="/wiki/Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton–Rowett Expedition</a> from 1921 to 1922 on board the ship <a href="/wiki/Quest_(ship)" title="Quest (ship)">Quest</a>. Its vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_exploration">Further exploration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further exploration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_air">By air</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: By air">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg/220px-Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg/330px-Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg/440px-Wilkins_arctic_expedition_1926.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Wilkins" title="Hubert Wilkins">Hubert Wilkins</a> pioneered the exploration of the Arctic regions by aircraft. Pictured, his plane and encampment as part of the Detroit Arctic Expedition, 1926.</figcaption></figure> After Shackleton's last expedition, there was a hiatus in Antarctic exploration for about seven years. From 1929, aircraft and mechanized transportation were increasingly used, earning this period the sobriquet of the 'Mechanical Age'. <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Wilkins" title="Hubert Wilkins">Hubert Wilkins</a> first visited Antarctica in 1921–1922 as an <a href="/wiki/Ornithologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornithologist">ornithologist</a> attached to the <a href="/wiki/Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton–Rowett Expedition</a>. From 1927, Wilkins and pilot <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ben_Eielson" title="Carl Ben Eielson">Carl Ben Eielson</a> began exploring the Arctic by aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> On 15 April 1928, only a year after <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a>'s flight across the Atlantic, Wilkins and Eielson made a trans-Arctic crossing from <a href="/wiki/Point_Barrow,_Alaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Point Barrow, Alaska">Point Barrow, Alaska</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Spitsbergen" title="Spitsbergen">Spitsbergen</a>, arriving about 20 hours later on 16 April, touching along the way at Grant Land on <a href="/wiki/Ellesmere_Island" title="Ellesmere Island">Ellesmere Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> For this feat and his prior work, Wilkins was knighted. With financial backing from <a href="/wiki/William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">William Randolph Hearst</a>, Wilkins returned to the South Pole and flew over Antarctica in the San Francisco. He named the island of <a href="/wiki/Hearst_Land" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearst Land">Hearst Land</a> after his sponsor. US Navy Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Richard_Evelyn_Byrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Evelyn Byrd">Richard Evelyn Byrd</a> led five expeditions to Antarctica during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. He overflew the South Pole with pilot <a href="/wiki/Bernt_Balchen" title="Bernt Balchen">Bernt Balchen</a> on 28 and 29 November 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd's explorations had science as a major objective and extensively used the aircraft to explore the continent. Captain <a href="/wiki/Finn_Ronne" title="Finn Ronne">Finn Ronne</a>, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the <a href="/wiki/Ronne_Ice_Shelf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronne Ice Shelf">Ronne Ice Shelf</a>, named by Ronne after his wife <a href="/wiki/Edith_Ronne" class="mw-redirect" title="Edith Ronne">Edith Ronne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> Ronne covered 5,800 kilometres (3,600 mi) by ski and dog sled—more than any other explorer in history.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overland_crossing">Overland crossing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Overland crossing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition,_1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg/220px-Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg/330px-Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg/440px-Sir_Edmund_Hillary_with_Rear-Admiral_George_Dufek_at_Scott_Base_during_the_Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition%2C_1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2789" data-file-height="3164" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> (left) with Rear-Admiral <a href="/wiki/George_J._Dufek" title="George J. Dufek">George J. Dufek</a> at <a href="/wiki/Scott_Base" title="Scott Base">Scott Base</a> just before the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a>'s departure from the base</figcaption></figure> The 1955–1958 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a> successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica, via the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. Although supported by the British and other Commonwealth governments, most of the funding came from corporate and individual donations. It was headed by British explorer Dr <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">Vivian Fuchs</a>, with New Zealander Sir <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. After spending the winter of 1957 at Shackleton Base, Fuchs finally set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve-man team travelling in six vehicles; three <a href="/wiki/Sno-Cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sno-Cat">Sno-Cats</a>, two <a href="/wiki/M29_Weasel" title="M29 Weasel">Weasels</a> and one specially adapted Muskeg <a href="/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractor</a>. En route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings. In parallel Hillary's team had set up <a href="/wiki/Scott_Base" title="Scott Base">Scott Base</a> – which was to be Fuchs' final destination – on the opposite side of the continent at <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a>. Using three converted <a href="/wiki/Ferguson_TE20" title="Ferguson TE20">Ferguson TE20</a> tractors<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> and one <a href="/wiki/M29_Weasel" title="M29 Weasel">M29 Weasel</a> (abandoned part-way), Hillary and his three men (Ron Balham, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mulgrew" title="Peter Mulgrew">Peter Mulgrew</a> and Murray Ellis), were responsible for route-finding and laying a line of supply depots up the <a href="/wiki/Skelton_Glacier" title="Skelton Glacier">Skelton Glacier</a> and across the <a href="/wiki/Polar_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar Plateau">Polar Plateau</a> on towards the South Pole, for the use of Fuchs on the final leg of his journey. Other members of Hillary's team carried out geological surveys around the Ross Sea and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Land" title="Victoria Land">Victoria Land</a> areas. Hillary's party reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958, and was just the third (preceded by <a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a> in 1911 and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a> in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Fuchs' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid and on 2 March succeeded in reaching <a href="/wiki/Scott_Base" title="Scott Base">Scott Base</a>, completing the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole.<a href="#cite_note-antarcticchronology-47">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_history">Political history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Political history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_claims">Spanish claims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Spanish claims">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_(Attributed_to_Titian).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Emperor_Charles_V_%28Attributed_to_Titian%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3033" data-file-height="4223" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I of Spain</a> authorized the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Governorate of Terra Australis</a> by means of a royal decree, and ratified its existence by means of other subsequent decrees.<a href="#cite_note-Oscar-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> According to Argentina and Chile, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> had claims on Antarctica. The capitulación (governorship) granted to the conquistador <a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez_de_la_Hoz" title="Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz">Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz</a> in 1539 by the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">King of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, explicitly included all lands south of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Straits of Magellan</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a> and by extension potentially the entire continent of Antarctica) and to the East and West the borders were the ones specified in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zaragoza" title="Treaty of Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a>, respectively, thus creating the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Governorate of Terra Australis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oscar-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jot_Down-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pedro_Sancho_de_la_Hoz-12">[12]</a> De la Hoz transferred the title to the conqueror <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a> in 1540.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> In 1555, the claim was incorporated to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Chile">Chile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> This grant established, according to <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, that an <a href="/wiki/Acquisition_of_sovereignty" title="Acquisition of sovereignty">animus occupandi</a> existed on the part of Spain in Antarctica. Spain's sovereignty claim over parts of Antarctica was, according to Chile and Argentina, internationally recognized with the <a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a> bull of 1493 and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> of 1494. Argentina and Chile treat these treaties as legal international treaties mediated by the Catholic Church that was at that time a recognized arbiter in such matters.<a href="#cite_note-Prieto2004-107">[104]</a> Each country currently has claimed a sector of the Antarctic continent that is more or less directly south of its national antarctic-facing lands. Modern Spain has not claimed any Antarctic territory. It operates two summer research stations (<a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Castilla_Base" title="Gabriel de Castilla Base">Gabriel de Castilla Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I_Antarctic_Base" title="Juan Carlos I Antarctic Base">Juan Carlos I Base</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetland Islands</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_claims">British claims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: British claims">edit</a>]</div> The United Kingdom reasserted sovereignty over the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> in the far <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="South Atlantic">South Atlantic</a> in 1833 and maintained a continuous presence there. In 1908, the British government extended its territorial claim by declaring sovereignty over "<a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="South Georgia Island">South Georgia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_Orkneys" class="mw-redirect" title="South Orkneys">South Orkneys</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="South Shetlands">South Shetlands</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Sandwich Islands">Sandwich Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Graham_Land" title="Graham Land">Graham's Land</a>, situated in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Antarctic continent to the south of the <a href="/wiki/50th_parallel_south" title="50th parallel south">50th parallel of south latitude</a>, and lying between the <a href="/wiki/20th_meridian_west" title="20th meridian west">20th</a> and the <a href="/wiki/80th_meridian_west" title="80th meridian west">80th degrees of west longitude</a>".<a href="#cite_note-IntLaw-108">[105]</a> All these territories were administered as <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_Dependencies" title="Falkland Islands Dependencies">Falkland Islands Dependencies</a> from <a href="/wiki/Stanley,_Falkland_Islands" title="Stanley, Falkland Islands">Stanley</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Governor of the Falkland Islands">Governor of the Falkland Islands</a>. The motivation for this declaration lay in the need for regulating and taxing the <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling industry</a> effectively. Commercial operators would hunt whales in areas outside of the official boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> and its dependencies and there was a need to close this loophole. In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present-day <a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory" title="British Antarctic Territory">British Antarctic Territory</a>). The new claim covered "all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the <a href="/wiki/50th_meridian_west" title="50th meridian west">50th degree of west longitude</a> which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the <a href="/wiki/58th_parallel_south" title="58th parallel south">58th parallel of south latitude</a>".<a href="#cite_note-IntLaw-108">[105]</a> Under the ambition of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Amery" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold Amery">Leopold Amery</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Under-Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies">Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies</a>, Britain attempted to incorporate the entire continent into the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Empire</a>. In a memorandum to the <a href="/wiki/Governor-general" title="Governor-general">governor-generals</a> for Australia and New Zealand, he wrote that 'with the exception of Chile and Argentina and some barren islands belonging to France... it is desirable that the whole of the Antarctic should ultimately be included in the British Empire.' The first step was taken on 30 July 1923, when the British government passed an <a href="/wiki/Order_in_Council" title="Order in Council">Order in Council</a> under the British Settlements Act 1887, defining the new borders for the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Dependency" title="Ross Dependency">Ross Dependency</a> - "that part of His Majesty's Dominions in the Antarctic Seas, which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 150th degree of West Longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency." The Order in Council then went on to appoint the Governor-General and <a href="/wiki/Commander-in_Chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander-in Chief">Commander-in Chief</a> of New Zealand as the Governor of the territory.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> In 1930, the United Kingdom claimed <a href="/wiki/Enderby_Land" title="Enderby Land">Enderby Land</a>. In 1933, a British imperial order transferred territory south of <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_south" title="60th parallel south">60° S</a> and between <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(geography)" title="Meridian (geography)">meridians</a> <a href="/wiki/160th_meridian_east" title="160th meridian east">160° E</a> and <a href="/wiki/45th_meridian_east" title="45th meridian east">45° E</a> to Australia as the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> Following the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a> in 1931, the government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand and Australia. This however had no bearing on the obligations of the Governor-General of both countries in their capacity as Governor of the Antarctic territories. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_European_claims">Other European claims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other European claims">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg/220px-Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg/330px-Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg/440px-Atlas_pittoresque_pl_169.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2976" data-file-height="2199" /></a><figcaption>Discovery by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a> in 1840. This served as a basis for the French claim to this region in 1924.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, alarmed by these unilateral declarations, the French government laid claim to a strip of the continent in 1924. The basis for their claim to <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a> lay on the discovery of the coastline in 1840 by the French explorer <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a>, who named it after his wife, Adèle.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> The British eventually decided to recognize this claim and the border between <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a> was fixed definitively in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-mawson-113">[110]</a> These developments also concerned Norwegian whaling interests, who wished to avoid the British taxation of <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling stations</a> in the Antarctic and were concerned that they would be commercially excluded from the continent. The whale-ship owner <a href="/wiki/Lars_Christensen" title="Lars Christensen">Lars Christensen</a> financed several expeditions to the Antarctic with the view to claim land for Norway and establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges.<a href="#cite_note-k52-114">[111]</a> The first expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad, landed on <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_Island" title="Peter I Island">Peter I Island</a> in 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a><a href="#cite_note-k52-114">[111]</a> and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency.<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> The 1929 expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Riiser-Larsen" title="Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen">Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finn_L%C3%BCtzow-Holm" title="Finn Lützow-Holm">Finn Lützow-Holm</a> named the continental land mass near the island as <a href="/wiki/Queen_Maud_Land" title="Queen Maud Land">Queen Maud Land</a>, named after the Norwegian queen <a href="/wiki/Maud_of_Wales" title="Maud of Wales">Maud of Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-npi-116">[113]</a> The territory was explored further during the Norvegia expedition of 1930–31.<a href="#cite_note-snl-117">[114]</a> Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W.<a href="#cite_note-snl-117">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg/220px-Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg/330px-Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg/440px-Peter_I_Island_1929A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>Norwegian expedition landing on <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_Island" title="Peter I Island">Peter I Island</a> in 1929</figcaption></figure> Norway's claim was disputed by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>,<a href="#cite_note-admle-118">[115]</a> which in 1938 dispatched the <a href="/wiki/New_Swabia#German_Antarctic_Expedition_(1938–1939)" title="New Swabia">German Antarctic Expedition</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ritscher" title="Alfred Ritscher">Alfred Ritscher</a>, to fly over as much of it as possible.<a href="#cite_note-snl-117">[114]</a> The ship <a href="/wiki/MS_Schwabenland_(1925)" title="MS Schwabenland (1925)">Schwabenland</a> reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher,<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> who dropped darts inscribed with <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastikas</a> every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim the territory surveyed by Ritscher under the name <a href="/wiki/New_Swabia" title="New Swabia">New Swabia</a>, but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-admle-118">[115]</a> On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway,<a href="#cite_note-npi-116">[113]</a> after a royal decree announced that the land bordering the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_Dependencies" title="Falkland Islands Dependencies">Falkland Islands Dependencies</a> in the west and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Dependency</a> in the east was to be brought under Norwegian sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-snl-117">[114]</a> The primary basis for the annexation was to secure the Norwegian whaling industry's access to the region.<a href="#cite_note-npi-116">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-npo1-121">[118]</a> In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to from 20°W to 45°E, and that the Bruce Coast and <a href="/wiki/Coats_Land" title="Coats Land">Coats Land</a> were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory.<a href="#cite_note-snl-117">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_American_involvement">South American involvement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: South American involvement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Antarctic_Territory" title="Chilean Antarctic Territory">Chilean Antarctic Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentine_Antarctica" title="Argentine Antarctica">Argentine Antarctica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg/220px-Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg/330px-Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg/440px-Omond_House_-_Laurie_Island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Orcadas_Base" title="Orcadas Base">Omond House</a> was built in 1904 by the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish National Antarctic Expedition</a> as the first permanent base in Antarctica. It was later sold to Argentina.</figcaption></figure> This encroachment of foreign powers was a matter of immense disquiet to the nearby South American countries, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>. Taking advantage of a European continent plunged into turmoil with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, Chile's president, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Aguirre_Cerda" title="Pedro Aguirre Cerda">Pedro Aguirre Cerda</a> declared the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Antarctic_Territory" title="Chilean Antarctic Territory">Chilean Antarctic Territory</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Uti_possidetis_juris" title="Uti possidetis juris">uti possidetis juris</a> principle inheriting the Spanish claims on Terra Australis that depended on the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Captaincy General of Chile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oscar-10">[10]</a> In the 20th Century these areas were claimed by Britain. Argentina had an even longer history of involvement in the Continent. Already in 1904 the Argentine government began a permanent occupation in the area with the purchase of a meteorological station on <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Island" title="Laurie Island">Laurie Island</a> established in 1903 by Dr <a href="/wiki/William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">William S. Bruce</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish National Antarctic Expedition</a>. Bruce offered to transfer the station and instruments for the sum of 5.000 <a href="/wiki/Peso" title="Peso">pesos</a>, on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.<a href="#cite_note-RREE-122">[119]</a> British officer William Haggard also sent a note to the Argentine Foreign Minister, Jose Terry, ratifying the terms of Bruce proposition.<a href="#cite_note-RREE-122">[119]</a> In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands. However, Haggard responded by reminding Argentina that the <a href="/wiki/South_Orkneys" class="mw-redirect" title="South Orkneys">South Orkneys</a> were British. The British position was that Argentine personnel was granted permission only for the period of one year. The Argentine government entered into negotiations with the British in 1913 over the possible transfer of the island. Although these talks were unsuccessful, Argentina attempted to unilaterally establish their sovereignty with the erection of markers, national flags and other symbols. <a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Antarctic territory between 0° and 20° (<a href="/wiki/Queen_Maud_Land" title="Queen Maud Land">Queen Maud Land</a>). This alarmed the Chilean government, which led President <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Aguirre_Cerda" title="Pedro Aguirre Cerda">Pedro Aguirre Cerda</a> to encourage the definition of the National Antarctic Territory. With the establishment of Decree No. 1541 on September 7, he organized a commission to examine Norway's interests in the Antarctic territory. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chile_antartica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Chile_antartica.jpg/250px-Chile_antartica.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Chile_antartica.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Commemorative stamp of the Chilean Antarctic declaration of 1940</figcaption></figure> The Chilean commission set the bounds according to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_polar_areas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of polar areas (page does not exist)">Theory of polar areas</a>, taking into account geographical, historical, legal, and diplomatic precedents, which were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955.<a href="#cite_note-antarticachilena-124">[121]</a> Chile considered their Antarctic rights arrived up to the meridian located further west (53° West). Thus, the country claimed to not include the <a href="/wiki/South_Orkney_Islands" title="South Orkney Islands">South Orkney Islands</a> in consideration of the rights of Argentina.<a href="#cite_note-125">[d]</a> In response to this and earlier German explorations, the British Admiralty and <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a> in 1943 to reassert British territorial claims against Argentine and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chilean</a> incursion and establish a permanent British presence in the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> The move was also motivated by concerns within the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign and Commonwealth Office">Foreign Office</a> about the direction of United States post-war activity in the region. A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. The <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a> was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders, <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a> and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>, either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> and denying their use to Britain. In January 1942, Argentina declared its Antarctic rights between the meridians at 25° and 68° 24' W, which includes the area of <a href="/wiki/Punta_D%C3%BAngeness" title="Punta Dúngeness">Punta Dúngeness</a>. On September 2, 1946, Decree No. 8944 set new boundaries for the <a href="/wiki/Argentine_Antarctica" title="Argentine Antarctica">Argentine Antarctic Sector</a> between the meridians at 25° and 74° west longitude. Finally, on February 28, 1957, Decree Law No. 2129 established the definitive limits of their claim between the meridians at 25° and 74° West and the parallel 60° South latitude. This decree established a territory which is superimposed on part of the territory claimed by Chile.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Finally, with British attention elsewhere, Argentina declared the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Argentine_Antarctica" title="Argentine Antarctica">Argentine Antarctica</a> in 1943, claiming territory that overlapped with British ( <a href="/wiki/20th_meridian_west" title="20th meridian west">20°W</a> to <a href="/wiki/80th_meridian_west" title="80th meridian west">80°W</a>) and the earlier Chilean (<a href="/wiki/53rd_meridian_west" title="53rd meridian west">53°W</a> to <a href="/wiki/90th_meridian_west" title="90th meridian west">90°W</a>) claims.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1943, British personnel from <a href="/wiki/HMS_Carnarvon_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="HMS Carnarvon Castle">HMS Carnarvon Castle</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a> removed Argentine flags from <a href="/wiki/Deception_Island" title="Deception Island">Deception Island</a>. The expedition was led by Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/James_William_Slessor_Marr" class="mw-redirect" title="James William Slessor Marr">James Marr</a> and left the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> in two ships, <a href="/wiki/RRS_William_Scoresby" title="RRS William Scoresby">HMS William Scoresby</a> (a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy, on Saturday 29 January 1944. Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on <a href="/wiki/Deception_Island" title="Deception Island">Deception Island</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Union_Flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Flag">Union Flag</a> was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at <a href="/wiki/Port_Lockroy" title="Port Lockroy">Port Lockroy</a> (on February 11) on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Graham_Land" title="Graham Land">Graham Land</a>. A further base was founded at <a href="/wiki/Hope_Bay" title="Hope Bay">Hope Bay</a> on 13 February 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on 7 February 1944. Symbols of British sovereignty, including <a href="/wiki/Post_office" title="Post office">post offices</a>, signposts and <a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">plaques</a> were also constructed and <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">postage stamps</a> were issued. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg/250px-Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg/375px-Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg/500px-Gabriel_Gonzalez_Videla-Antartica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Videla" title="Gabriel González Videla">Gabriel González Videla</a> inaugurating the <a href="/wiki/Base_General_Bernardo_O%27Higgins_Riquelme" title="Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme">Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme</a> in Antarctica in 1948.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a> provoked Chile to organize its <a href="/wiki/First_Chilean_Antarctic_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="First Chilean Antarctic Expedition">First Chilean Antarctic Expedition</a> in 1947–48, where the Chilean president <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Videla" title="Gabriel González Videla">Gabriel González Videla</a> personally inaugurated the <a href="/wiki/Base_General_Bernardo_O%27Higgins_Riquelme" title="Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme">Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> Following the end of the war in 1945, the British bases were handed over to civilian members of the newly created <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_Dependencies_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey">Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey</a> (subsequently the <a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a>) the first such national scientific body to be established in Antarctica. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_(1946%E2%80%93present_(as_of_2023)).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg/220px-Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg/330px-Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg/440px-Argentine_and_Chilean_Antarctic_claims_%281946%E2%80%93present_%28as_of_2023%29%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Overlapping Argentine and Chilean Antarctic claims on Antarctica (1946–present).</figcaption></figure> Geopolitics over Antarctica and the control of the passages between the south Atlantic and the south Pacific have led to the founding of cities and towns such as <a href="/wiki/Ushuaia" title="Ushuaia">Ushuaia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Williams" title="Puerto Williams">Puerto Williams</a>, both of which claim to be the southernmost cities in World. In the late 1940s, Argentina and Chile recognized each other's claims,<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> stating that "Chile and Argentina have unquestionable rights of sovereignty in the polar area called American Antarctica ("Antártida Americana" in Spanish)".<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a> On March 4, 1948, Chile and Argentina signed an agreement on mutual protection and legal defense of its Antarctic territorial rights, recognizing each other:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">(...) until agreed, by mutual agreement, the line common neighborhood in Antarctic territories of Chile and Argentina, declared: 1) That both governments acting in agreement on legal protection and defense of their rights in American Antarctica, between the meridians 25° and 90° west longitude of Greenwich, indisputable sovereign rights are recognized by Chile and Argentina.</blockquote> Currently,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] both countries have <a href="/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">research stations in Antarctica</a>, as does the United Kingdom. All three nations claim the totality of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war_developments">Post-war developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Post-war developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg/220px-Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg/330px-Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg/440px-Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition_Hope_Bay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>Hut built at <a href="/wiki/Hope_Bay" title="Hope Bay">Hope Bay</a> in 1903. It was there that the only instance of shots fired in anger on the Continent occurred in 1952.</figcaption></figure> Friction between Britain and the <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> states continued into the post war period. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> warships were despatched in 1948 to prevent naval incursions and in 1952, an Argentine shore party at <a href="/wiki/Hope_Bay" title="Hope Bay">Hope Bay</a> (the British Base "D", established there in 1945, came up against the Argentine <a href="/wiki/Esperanza_Base" title="Esperanza Base">Esperanza Base</a>, est. 1952) fired a machine gun over the heads of a <a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a> team unloading supplies from the John Biscoe. The Argentines later extended a <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomatic</a> apology, saying that there had been a misunderstanding and that the Argentine military commander on the ground had exceeded his authority. The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Antarctic_Service_Expedition" title="United States Antarctic Service Expedition">United States Antarctic Service Expedition</a>, from 1939 to 1941, was sponsored by the government with additional support came from donations and gifts by private citizens, corporations and institutions. The objectives of the Expedition, outlined by President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, was to establish two bases: East Base, in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Charcot_Island" title="Charcot Island">Charcot Island</a>, and West Base, in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward VII Peninsula">King Edward VII Land</a>. After operating successfully for two years, but with international tensions on the rise, it was considered wise to evacuate the two bases.<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> However, immediately after the war, American interest was rekindled with an explicitly geopolitical motive. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a>, from 1946 to 1947 was organized by <a href="/wiki/Rear_admiral_(United_States)#Rear_admiral" title="Rear admiral (United States)">Rear Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Richard E. Byrd</a> Jr. and included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and multiple aircraft. The primary mission of Operation Highjump was to establish the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> research base <a href="/wiki/Little_America_(exploration_base)" title="Little America (exploration base)">Little America</a> IV,<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> for the purpose of training personnel and testing equipment in frigid conditions and amplifying existing stores of knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrographic</a>, geographic, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> propagation conditions in the area. The mission was also aimed at consolidating and extending United States sovereignty over the largest practicable area of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> continent, although this was publicly denied as a goal even before the expedition ended. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Towards_an_international_treaty">Towards an international treaty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Towards an international treaty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Igylogo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Igylogo.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a> was pivotal in establishing a cooperative international framework in Antarctica, and led on to the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a> in 1959.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, in an attempt at ending the impasse, on May 4, 1955, Britain submitted two applications to the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> to adjudicate between the territorial claims of Britain, Argentina and Chile, declaring invalid the claims of sovereignty of the two countries in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas, respectively. This proposal failed, as both Latin American countries rejected submitting to an international arbitration procedure.<a href="#cite_note-Dodds-134">[130]</a> On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the Court in that case, and on August 1, August, Argentine government followed suit. Thus, on March 16 March 1956, claims were filed.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955, added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to the <a href="/wiki/Provincia_de_Magallanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Provincia de Magallanes">Province of Magallanes</a>, which on July 12, 1974 became the <a href="/wiki/Magallanes_y_la_Ant%C3%A1rtica_Chilena_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena Region">Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica</a>. In 1958, the U.S. president, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</a>, invited Chile to the <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a> Conference in an attempt to resolve the claiming issues. Negotiations towards the establishment of an international condominium over the continent first began in 1948, involving the 7 claimant powers (Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway, Chile and Argentina) and the US. This attempt was aimed at excluding the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from the affairs of the continent and rapidly fell apart when the USSR declared an interest in the region, refused to recognize any claims of sovereignty and reserved the right to make its own claims in 1950.<a href="#cite_note-Dodds-134">[130]</a> An important impetus toward the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a> in 1959, was the <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a>, 1957–1958. This year of international scientific cooperation triggered an 18-month period of intense Antarctic science. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. The British established <a href="/wiki/Halley_Research_Station" title="Halley Research Station">Halley Research Station</a> in 1956 by an expedition from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>. Sir <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">Vivian Fuchs</a> headed the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a>, which completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica in 1958. In Japan, the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Coast_Guard" title="Japan Coast Guard">Japan Maritime Safety Agency</a> offered <a href="/wiki/Ice_breaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice breaker">ice breaker</a> <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dya_(icebreaker)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sōya (icebreaker)">Sōya</a> as the South Pole observation ship and <a href="/wiki/Showa_Station_(Antarctica)" title="Showa Station (Antarctica)">Showa Station</a> was built as the first Japanese observation base on Antarctica. France contributed with <a href="/wiki/Dumont_d%27Urville_Station" title="Dumont d'Urville Station">Dumont d'Urville Station</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land#Research_stations" title="Adélie Land">Charcot Station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a>. The ship Commandant Charcot of the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> spent nine months of 1949/50 at the coast of Adelie Land, performing <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionospheric</a> soundings.<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> The US erected the <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a> as the first permanent structure directly over the South Pole in January 1957.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> Finally, to prevent the possibility of military conflict in the region, the United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 9 other countries with significant interests negotiated and signed the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty</a> in 1959. The treaty entered into force in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned <a href="/wiki/Military_activity_in_the_Antarctic" title="Military activity in the Antarctic">military activity on that continent</a>. The treaty was the first <a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">arms control</a> agreement established during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_history">Recent history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Recent history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg/280px-Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg/420px-Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg/560px-Glacier_and_Explorer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/MV_Explorer_(1969)" title="MV Explorer (1969)">MV Explorer</a> in Antarctica in January 1999. She sank on 23 November 2007 after hitting an iceberg.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dc10erebus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Dc10erebus.png/220px-Dc10erebus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Dc10erebus.png/330px-Dc10erebus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Dc10erebus.png/440px-Dc10erebus.png 2x" data-file-width="818" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashes on Mt. Erebus</figcaption></figure> In May 1965, the American physicist <a href="/wiki/Carl_R._Disch" title="Carl R. Disch">Carl R. Disch</a> went missing during the course of his routine research near <a href="/wiki/Byrd_Station" title="Byrd Station">Byrd Station</a>, Antarctica. His body was never found.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] A baby, named <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Palma" title="Emilio Palma">Emilio Marcos de Palma</a>, was born near <a href="/wiki/Hope_Bay" title="Hope Bay">Hope Bay</a> on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a> On 28 November 1979, an <a href="/wiki/Air_New_Zealand" title="Air New Zealand">Air New Zealand</a> <a href="/wiki/DC-10" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-10">DC-10</a> on a sightseeing trip <a href="/wiki/Mount_Erebus_disaster" title="Mount Erebus disaster">crashed</a> into <a href="/wiki/Mount_Erebus" title="Mount Erebus">Mount Erebus</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ross_Island" title="Ross Island">Ross Island</a>, killing all 257 people on board.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> In 1991 a convention among member nations of the Antarctic Treaty on how to regulate mining and drilling was proposed. Australian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Bob_Hawke" title="Bob Hawke">Bob Hawke</a> and French Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Michel_Rocard" title="Michel Rocard">Michel Rocard</a> led a response to this convention that resulted in the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Protocol_on_Environmental_Protection_to_the_Antarctic_Treaty" title="Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty">Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty</a>, now known as the Madrid Protocol. All mineral extraction was banned for 50 years and the Antarctic was set aside as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science".<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B8rge_Ousland" title="Børge Ousland">Børge Ousland</a>, a Norwegian explorer, finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing on 18 January 1997. On 23 November 2007, the <a href="/wiki/MV_Explorer_(1969)" title="MV Explorer (1969)">MV Explorer</a> struck an iceberg and sank, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships, including a passing Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">cruise ship</a>, the <a href="/wiki/MS_Nordnorge_(1996)" title="MS Nordnorge (1996)">MS Nordnorge</a>. In 2010, the <a href="/wiki/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory" title="IceCube Neutrino Observatory">IceCube Neutrino Observatory</a> was completed.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> In 2013, it was reported that the observatory had detected 28 <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> that originated outside the Solar system,<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_in_Antarctica">Women in Antarctica</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Women in Antarctica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica" title="Women in Antarctica">Women in Antarctica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young,_Jean_Pearson,_Lois_Jones,_Eileen_McSaveney,_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg/220px-First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg/330px-First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg/440px-First_women_at_the_South_Pole_Pam_Young%2C_Jean_Pearson%2C_Lois_Jones%2C_Eileen_McSaveney%2C_Kay_Lindsay_and_Terry_Tickhill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>The first women at the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> are Pam Young, Jean Pearson, <a href="/wiki/Lois_Jones_(scientist)" title="Lois Jones (scientist)">Lois Jones</a>, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill.</figcaption></figure> Women did not explore Antarctica until well into the 1950s. A few pioneering women visited the Antarctic land and waters prior to the 1950s and many women requested to go on early expeditions, but were turned away.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> Early pioneers such as <a href="/wiki/Louise_Seguin" title="Louise Seguin">Louise Séguin</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Christensen" title="Ingrid Christensen">Ingrid Christensen</a> were some of the first women to see Antarctic waters.<a href="#cite_note-:1-147">[143]</a> Christensen was the first woman to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-:1-147">[143]</a> The first women to have any fanfare about their Antarctic journeys were <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Mikkelsen" title="Caroline Mikkelsen">Caroline Mikkelsen</a> who set foot on an island of Antarctica in 1935,<a href="#cite_note-development.tas.gov.au-148">[144]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Ronne" title="Jackie Ronne">Jackie Ronne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jennie_Darlington" title="Jennie Darlington">Jennie Darlington</a> who were the first women to over-winter in Antarctica in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[145]</a> The first woman scientist to work in Antarctica was <a href="/wiki/Maria_Klenova" title="Maria Klenova">Maria Klenova</a> in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-:0-150">[146]</a> Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Palma" title="Emilio Palma">Emilio Palma</a> at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978. Women faced legal barriers and sexism that prevented most from visiting Antarctica and doing research until the late 1960s. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> banned American women from traveling to Antarctica until 1969.<a href="#cite_note-:10-151">[147]</a> Women were often excluded because it was thought that they could not handle the extreme temperatures or crisis situations.<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> The first woman from the <a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a> to go to Antarctica was <a href="/wiki/Janet_Thomson" title="Janet Thomson">Janet Thomson</a> in 1983 who described the ban on women as a "rather improper segregation."<a href="#cite_note-:9-153">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> Once women were allowed in Antarctica, they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment.<a href="#cite_note-:19-155">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-156">[152]</a> However, a tipping point was reached in the mid-1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life.<a href="#cite_note-:3-157">[153]</a> Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Antarctica" title="Colonization of Antarctica">Colonization of Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livingston_Island#History" title="Livingston Island">History of Livingston Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">List of Antarctic expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers" title="List of Russian explorers">List of Russian explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">Research stations in Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_Antarctica" title="Timeline of women in Antarctica">Timeline of women in Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Ui-te-Rangiora</a>, a Polynesian navigator who may have reached or sighted Antarctica</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica" title="Women in Antarctica">Women in Antarctica</a></li></ul> <img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/28px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/42px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/56px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Alors, j'annonçais aux officiers rassemblés en présence de l'équipage que cette terre porterait désormais le nom de terre Adélie. Cette désignation est destinée à perpétuer le souvenir de ma profonde reconnaissance pour la compagne dévouée qui a su par trois fois consentir à une séparation longue et douloureuse, pour me permettre d'accomplir mes projets d'explorations lointaines. (Then, I announced to the officers gathered in the presence of the crew that this land would carry from now on the name of Terre Adélie. This name is intended to perpetuate the memory of my deep recognition for my devoted partner who agreed three times to long and painful separations, to enable me to carry out my plans for remote explorations.) </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Instead of 20 January 1840, since Dumont d'Urville did not add one day on his diary when he passed the 180° meridian from the east, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/wp/ATCM29_wp019_f.doc">(in French) Proposition de classement du rocher du débarquement dans le cadre des sites et monuments historiques, Antarctic Treaty Consultative meeting 2006, note 4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130811130410/http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/wp/ATCM29_wp019_f.doc">Archived</a> 11 August 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16calendar-52"><a href="#cite_ref-16calendar_52-0">^</a> 16 according to the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> used in Russia. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Some Chilean nationalist sources say that Chile resigned a third of its Antarctic sector in favor of Argentina, without explaining where to take the data, which the Tordesillas line passing through the meridian 37° 7'West however, classically it considered that Spain stood at 46° 37 'West. Argentina formally protested by decree in a note on November 12 November 1940, rejecting Chile's claim and expressing a potential claim to the same area. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wehi-2021-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wehi-2021_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wehi-2021_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wehi-2021_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWehiScottBeckwithPryor_Rodgers2021" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Wehi" title="Priscilla Wehi">Wehi, Priscilla M.</a>; Scott, Nigel J.; Beckwith, Jacinta; Pryor Rodgers, Rata; Gillies, Tasman; Van Uitregt, Vincent; Krushil, Watene (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11485871">"A short scan of Māori journeys to Antarctica"</a>. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 52 (5): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03036758.2021.1917633">10.1080/03036758.2021.1917633</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11485871">11485871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+New+Zealand&rft.atitle=A+short+scan+of+M%C4%81ori+journeys+to+Antarctica&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11485871%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03036758.2021.1917633&rft.aulast=Wehi&rft.aufirst=Priscilla+M.&rft.au=Scott%2C+Nigel+J.&rft.au=Beckwith%2C+Jacinta&rft.au=Pryor+Rodgers%2C+Rata&rft.au=Gillies%2C+Tasman&rft.au=Van+Uitregt%2C+Vincent&rft.au=Krushil%2C+Watene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11485871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaura_Geggel2021" class="citation web cs1">Laura Geggel (15 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/indigenous-people-discovered-antarctica.html">"Antarctica was likely discovered 1 100 years before Westerners 'found' it"</a>. 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Polar Record. 57. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PoRec..57E..42A">2021PoRec..57E..42A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0032247421000693">10.1017/S0032247421000693</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244118774">244118774</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211226030336/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/polar-record/article/southern-maori-perspective-on-stories-of-polynesian-polar-voyaging/CD692ED61C1DAB8F33653C6FCFDDE366">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-26. 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Real Academia de la Historia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171823/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/7380/pedro-sancho-de-la-hoz">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pedro+Sancho+de+la+Hoz&rft.pub=Real+Academia+de+la+Historia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdbe.rah.es%2Fbiografias%2F7380%2Fpedro-sancho-de-la-hoz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografiadechile.cl/detalle.php?IdContenido=827&IdCategoria=40&IdArea=191&status=S&TituloPagina=Historia%20de%20Chile&pos=30">"1544"</a> (in Spanish). 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"Capítulo XI". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/historia-general-de-chile-tomo-cuarto--0/html/ff2f1efc-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_67.html">Historia general de Chile</a> (in Spanish). Vol. Tomo cuarto (Digital edition based on the second edition of 2000 ed.). Alicante: Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. p. 280. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190727005618/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/historia-general-de-chile-tomo-cuarto--0/html/ff2f1efc-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_67.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-07-27. 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Sharpe. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-76560-256-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-76560-256-5"><bdi>978-0-76560-256-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103127/https://books.google.com/books?id=bRgFqADzOLkC">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-30. 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University of Canterbury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103119/https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/13919">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2020-11-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Be+careful%2C+Here+is+Antarctica+-+the+statistics+and+analysis+of+the+grave+accidents+in+Antarctica&rft.inst=University+of+Canterbury&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Xin&rft.aufirst=Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.canterbury.ac.nz%2Fhandle%2F10092%2F13919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarankinSenatore2005" class="citation journal cs1">Zarankin, Andrés; Senatore, María Ximena (2005). "Archaeology in Antarctica: Nineteenth-Century Capitalism Expansion Strategies". 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CSIC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-00-06530-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-00-06530-0"><bdi>978-84-00-06530-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103128/https://books.google.com/books?id=a77vjMllkN4C&pg=PA263">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2020-11-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comunicaciones+presentadas+en+el+Primer+Symposium+Espa%C3%B1ol+de+Estudios+Ant%C3%A1rticos%3A+celebrado+en+Palma+de+Mallorca+del+30+de+junio+al+4+de+julio+de+1985&rft.pub=CSIC+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-84-00-06530-0&rft.au=Consejo+Superior+de+Investigaciones+Cient%C3%ADficas+%28Espa%C3%B1a%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da77vjMllkN4C%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martín-Cancela2018-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Martín-Cancela2018_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-Cancela2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martín-Cancela (9 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_apSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296">Tras las huellas del San Telmo: contexto, historia y arqueología en la Antártida</a> (in Spanish). Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-17358-23-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-17358-23-5"><bdi>978-84-17358-23-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103127/https://books.google.com/books?id=_apSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tras+las+huellas+del+San+Telmo%3A+contexto%2C+historia+y+arqueolog%C3%ADa+en+la+Ant%C3%A1rtida&rft.pub=Prensas+de+la+Universidad+de+Zaragoza&rft.date=2018-03-09&rft.isbn=978-84-17358-23-5&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADn-Cancela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_apSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCazenave_de_la_Roche2019" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cazenave de la Roche, Arnaud (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fh.mdp.edu.ar/revistas/index.php/magallanica/article/view/3903">"Pesquisas sobre el descubrimiento de la Antártida: tras la estela del Williams of Blyth y del San Telmo (1819-1821)"</a>. Magallánica: Revista de historia moderna (in Spanish). 6 (11): 276–317. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F245877">10261/245877</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2422-779X">2422-779X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806233651/http://fh.mdp.edu.ar/revistas/index.php/magallanica/article/view/3903">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2020-11-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magall%C3%A1nica%3A+Revista+de+historia+moderna&rft.atitle=Pesquisas+sobre+el+descubrimiento+de+la+Ant%C3%A1rtida%3A+tras+la+estela+del+Williams+of+Blyth+y+del+San+Telmo+%281819-1821%29&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=276-317&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F245877&rft.issn=2422-779X&rft.aulast=Cazenave+de+la+Roche&rft.aufirst=Arnaud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffh.mdp.edu.ar%2Frevistas%2Findex.php%2Fmagallanica%2Farticle%2Fview%2F3903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/History/discovery-of-antarctica.php">"The Discovery of Antarctica"</a>. www.coolantarctica.com. Retrieved 2023-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.coolantarctica.com&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+Antarctica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coolantarctica.com%2FAntarctica%2520fact%2520file%2FHistory%2Fdiscovery-of-antarctica.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Alan Gurney, Below the Convergence: Voyages Toward Antarctica, 1699–1839, Penguin Books, New York, 1998. p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourke2004" class="citation book cs1">Bourke, Jane (2004). Amazing Antarctica Resource. Ready-Ed Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781863975841" title="Special:BookSources/9781863975841"><bdi>9781863975841</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amazing+Antarctica+Resource&rft.pub=Ready-Ed+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781863975841&rft.aulast=Bourke&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000079.htm">"Charles Wilkes"</a>. South-Pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420184438/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000079.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-20. Retrieved 2017-06-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+Wilkes&rft.pub=South-Pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000079.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._R._A._Thomson1977" class="citation journal cs1">M. R. A. Thomson (1977). "An Annotated Bibliography Of The Paleontology Of Lesser Antarctica And The Scotia Ridge". N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 20 (5): 865–904. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977NZJGG..20..865T">1977NZJGG..20..865T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288306.1977.10420686">10.1080/00288306.1977.10420686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=N.Z.+Journal+of+Geology+and+Geophysics&rft.atitle=An+Annotated+Bibliography+Of+The+Paleontology+Of+Lesser+Antarctica+And+The+Scotia+Ridge&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=865-904&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00288306.1977.10420686&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977NZJGG..20..865T&rft.au=M.+R.+A.+Thomson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palmerstation.com/hero/newship.html">"Hero: A New Antarctic Research Ship"</a>. PalmerStation.com. 1968. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170528182815/http://palmerstation.com/hero/newship.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-28. Retrieved 2017-06-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hero%3A+A+New+Antarctic+Research+Ship&rft.pub=PalmerStation.com&rft.date=1968&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palmerstation.com%2Fhero%2Fnewship.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlberts1995445-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlberts1995445_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlberts1995">Alberts 1995</a>, p. 445. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att030_f.jpg">Photography of Débarquement Rock, site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att028_f.gif">(in French) Views of Débarquement Rock from north and south west, site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments</a>, length 244 m, height 18.7 m </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014736/http://ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att026_f.gif">"{{in lang|fr}} The Dumoulin islands and Débarquement Rock in the Pilote de Terre Adélie, site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att026_f.gif">the original</a> on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%7B%7Bin+lang%7Cfr%7D%7D+The+Dumoulin+islands+and+D%C3%A9barquement+Rock+in+the+Pilote+de+Terre+Ad%C3%A9lie%2C+site+of+Secretariat+of+the+Antarctic+Treaty%2C+Documents%2C+Historic+Sites+and+Monuments&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ats.aq%2Fdocuments%2FATCM29%2Fatt%2FATCM29_att026_f.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014736/http://ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att024_f.gif">"{{in lang|fr}} The Dumoulin islands by Dubouzet in 1840, site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att024_f.gif">the original</a> on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%7B%7Bin+lang%7Cfr%7D%7D+The+Dumoulin+islands+by+Dubouzet+in+1840%2C+site+of+Secretariat+of+the+Antarctic+Treaty%2C+Documents%2C+Historic+Sites+and+Monuments&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ats.aq%2Fdocuments%2FATCM29%2Fatt%2FATCM29_att024_f.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97685c.image.f2.langFR">(in French) Voyage au Pôle sud et dans l'Océanie sur les corvettes "l'Astrolabe" et "la Zélée", exécuté par ordre du Roi pendant les années 1837-1838-1839-1840 sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont-d'Urville, capitaine de vaisseau, Paris, Gide éditeur, 1842–1846, tome 8, p. 149-152, site of Gallica, BNF</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shom.fr/fr_page/fr_prod_cartes/cc/cataligne/carte_7593.htm">"Catalogue des cartes en ligne"</a>. Retrieved 18 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catalogue+des+cartes+en+ligne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shom.fr%2Ffr_page%2Ffr_prod_cartes%2Fcc%2Fcataligne%2Fcarte_7593.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014735/http://ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att023_f.jpg">"{{in lang|fr}} IGN Map of Pointe Géologie archipelago, site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att023_f.jpg">the original</a> on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%7B%7Bin+lang%7Cfr%7D%7D+IGN+Map+of+Pointe+G%C3%A9ologie+archipelago%2C+site+of+Secretariat+of+the+Antarctic+Treaty%2C+Documents%2C+Historic+Sites+and+Monuments&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ats.aq%2Fdocuments%2FATCM29%2Fatt%2FATCM29_att023_f.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att022_f.jpg">(in French) Carte des explorations effectuées par les corvettes "l'Astrolabe" et "la Zélée" dans les régions circum-polaires levée par Vincendon-Dumoulin, 1841 (plate of Voyage au Pôle sud et dans l'Océanie sur les corvettes "l'Astrolabe" et "la Zélée"), site of Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, Documents, Historic Sites and Monuments</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014738/http://ats.aq/documents/ATCM29/att/ATCM29_att022_f.jpg">Archived</a> 13 November 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, enlarge to find the position number 38 of the ships before landing on <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9barquement_Rock" title="Débarquement Rock">Débarquement Rock</a> more than 7 nautical miles southward (about 14 km), near the tongue of the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe_Glacier" title="Astrolabe Glacier">Astrolabe Glacier</a> called Pointe Géologie on the map </li> <li id="cite_note-antarcticchronology-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-antarcticchronology_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-antarcticchronology_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-antarcticchronology_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908120017/http://www.quarkexpeditions.com/antarctica/exploration.shtml">"ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION—CHRONOLOGY"</a>. Quark Expeditions. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quarkexpeditions.com/antarctica/exploration.shtml">the original</a> on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-10-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ANTARCTIC+EXPLORATION%E2%80%94CHRONOLOGY&rft.pub=Quark+Expeditions&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quarkexpeditions.com%2Fantarctica%2Fexploration.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fogg_2000-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fogg_2000_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fogg_2000_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fogg_2000_48-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogg2000" class="citation book cs1">Fogg, G.E. (2000). The Royal Society and the Antarctic. London, The Royal Society: Notes and Records of the Royal Society London, Vol. 54, No. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Society+and+the+Antarctic&rft.place=London%2C+The+Royal+Society&rft.pub=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society+London%2C+Vol.+54%2C+No.+1&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Fogg&rft.aufirst=G.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEБеллинсгаузен20087-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEБеллинсгаузен20087_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEБеллинсгаузен20087_50-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFБеллинсгаузен2008">Беллинсгаузен 2008</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETammiksaar2016578-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETammiksaar2016578_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTammiksaar2016">Tammiksaar 2016</a>, p. 578. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEБалкли201355–56-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEБалкли201355–56_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFБалкли2013">Балкли 2013</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antarctic-circle.org/firsts.htm">Antarctic Circle—Antarctic First</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060208102813/http://www.antarctic-circle.org/firsts.htm">Archived</a> 2006-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Antarctic-circle.org. Retrieved on 2012-01-29. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrowfield2004" class="citation book cs1">Harrowfield, Richard (2004). Polar Castaways: The Ross Sea Party of Sir Ernest Shackleton, 1914–1917. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-77-357245-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-77-357245-4"><bdi>978-0-77-357245-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polar+Castaways%3A+The+Ross+Sea+Party+of+Sir+Ernest+Shackleton%2C+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.place=Montreal&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-77-357245-4&rft.aulast=Harrowfield&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-B19-56"><a href="#cite_ref-B19_56-0">^</a> Barczewski, pp. 19–20. (Barczewski mentions a figure of 14 expeditions) </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Matthew Jarron, Independent & Individualist: Art in Dundee 1867–1924 (Dundee, 2015) chapter 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1894" class="citation book cs1">Murray, John (1894). The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration. London: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renewal+of+Antarctic+Exploration&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Geographical+Journal%2C+Vol.+3%2C+No.+1&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrane2005" class="citation book cs1">Crane, David (2005). Scott of the Antarctic: A Life of Courage, and Tragedy in the Extreme South. London: Harper Collins. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-715068-7"><bdi>978-0-00-715068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scott+of+the+Antarctic%3A+A+Life+of+Courage%2C+and+Tragedy+in+the+Extreme+South&rft.place=London&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-00-715068-7&rft.aulast=Crane&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science1887" class="citation book cs1">American Association for the Advancement of Science (1887). The Exploration of the Antarctic Regions. New York: Science, Vol. 9, No. 223.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Exploration+of+the+Antarctic+Regions&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Science%2C+Vol.+9%2C+No.+223&rft.date=1887&rft.au=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nbl.snl.no/Henrik_Bull_-_1844%E2%80%931930">"Henrik Bull"</a>. Retrieved 2017-06-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Henrik+Bull&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnbl.snl.no%2FHenrik_Bull_-_1844%25E2%2580%25931930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borchbook9-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borchbook9_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borchbook9_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorchgrevink,_Carstens1901" class="citation book cs1">Borchgrevink, Carstens (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aMRgMxzhEI8C&q=Southern+Cross+Expedition&pg=PA24">First on the Antarctic Continent</a>. George Newnes Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-90-583841-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-90-583841-0"><bdi>978-0-90-583841-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103620/https://books.google.com/books?id=aMRgMxzhEI8C&q=Southern+Cross+Expedition&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+on+the+Antarctic+Continent&rft.pub=George+Newnes+Ltd&rft.date=1901&rft.isbn=978-0-90-583841-0&rft.au=Borchgrevink%2C+Carstens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaMRgMxzhEI8C%26q%3DSouthern%2BCross%2BExpedition%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> pp. 9–10 </li> <li id="cite_note-Borchbook4-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Borchbook4_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorchgrevink,_Carstens1901" class="citation book cs1">Borchgrevink, Carstens (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aMRgMxzhEI8C&q=Southern+Cross+Expedition&pg=PA24">First on the Antarctic Continent</a>. George Newnes Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-90-583841-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-90-583841-0"><bdi>978-0-90-583841-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103620/https://books.google.com/books?id=aMRgMxzhEI8C&q=Southern+Cross+Expedition&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+on+the+Antarctic+Continent&rft.pub=George+Newnes+Ltd&rft.date=1901&rft.isbn=978-0-90-583841-0&rft.au=Borchgrevink%2C+Carstens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaMRgMxzhEI8C%26q%3DSouthern%2BCross%2BExpedition%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsten_Borchgrevink1901" class="citation book cs1">Carsten Borchgrevink (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/FirstonAntarcti00Borc">First on the Antarctic continent: being an account of the British Antarctic expedition, 1898–1900</a>. London: G. Newnes.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+on+the+Antarctic+continent%3A+being+an+account+of+the+British+Antarctic+expedition%2C+1898%E2%80%931900&rft.pub=London%3A+G.+Newnes&rft.date=1901&rft.au=Carsten+Borchgrevink&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FFirstonAntarcti00Borc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Max (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastgreatquestca0000jone/page/59">The Last Great Quest</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastgreatquestca0000jone/page/59">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-01-9280-483-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-01-9280-483-9"><bdi>978-01-9280-483-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Great+Quest&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-01-9280-483-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastgreatquestca0000jone%2Fpage%2F59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090623023005/http://www.nls.uk/collections/foreign/mountains/antarctica-2.html">"Mountaineering and Polar Collection – Antarctica"</a>. National Library of Scotland. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nls.uk/collections/foreign/mountains/antarctica-2.html">the original</a> on 23 June 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mountaineering+and+Polar+Collection+%E2%80%93+Antarctica&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Scotland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nls.uk%2Fcollections%2Fforeign%2Fmountains%2Fantarctica-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000083.htm">"Antarctic Explorers – Adrien de Gerlache"</a>. South-pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305161337/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000083.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antarctic+Explorers+%E2%80%93+Adrien+de+Gerlache&rft.pub=South-pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000083.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HuntfordLastPlace-68"><a href="#cite_ref-HuntfordLastPlace_68-0">^</a> Huntford (Last Place on Earth) pp. 64–75 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._K._Headland1989" class="citation book cs1">R. K. Headland (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg49AAAAIAAJ&q=first%20landing&pg=PA221">Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521309035" title="Special:BookSources/9780521309035"><bdi>9780521309035</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103620/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg49AAAAIAAJ&q=first%20landing&pg=PA221">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2020-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronological+List+of+Antarctic+Expeditions+and+Related+Historical+Events&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780521309035&rft.au=R.+K.+Headland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSg49AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dfirst%2520landing%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091120185702/http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/english/forgotten-expedition/">"The Forgotten Expedition"</a>. Antarctic Heritage Trust. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/english/forgotten%2Dexpedition/">the original</a> on 20 November 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Expedition&rft.pub=Antarctic+Heritage+Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage-antarctica.org%2Fenglish%2Fforgotten%252Dexpedition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink (1864–1934)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A070353b.htm">Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg (1864–1934)</a>. Australian Dictionary of Biography Online Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120527171814/http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A070353b.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carsten+Egeberg+Borchgrevink+%281864%E2%80%931934%29&rft.btitle=Borchgrevink%2C+Carsten+Egeberg+%281864%E2%80%931934%29&rft.pub=Australian+Dictionary+of+Biography+Online+Edition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adb.online.anu.edu.au%2Fbiogs%2FA070353b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Preston, pp. 57–79 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Crane, p. 253 (map); pp. 294–95 (maps) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Fiennes, p. 89 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant05.htm">"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 5: The Voyage of the Scotia"</a>. Glasgow Digital Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301001509/http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant05.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scotland+and+the+Antarctic%2C+Section+5%3A+The+Voyage+of+the+Scotia&rft.pub=Glasgow+Digital+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk%2Fscotia%2Fgooant%2Fgooant05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Speak, pp. 82–95 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000093.htm">"William S. Bruce"</a>. South-Pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190519071316/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000093.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2007-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=William+S.+Bruce&rft.pub=South-Pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000093.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant030202.htm">"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 3: Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen"</a>. Glasgow Digital Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314141925/http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant030202.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scotland+and+the+Antarctic%2C+Section+3%3A+Scott%2C+Shackleton+and+Amundsen&rft.pub=Glasgow+Digital+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk%2Fscotia%2Fgooant%2Fgooant030202.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Riffenburgh, pp. 309–12 (summary of achievements) </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Huntford (Shackleton biography) p. 242 (map) </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000085.htm">"Erich von Drygalski 1865–1949"</a>. South-pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120414185118/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000085.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Erich+von+Drygalski+1865%E2%80%931949&rft.pub=South-pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000085.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Mill, pp. 420–24 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Crane, p. 307 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodlad" class="citation web cs1">Goodlad, James A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant020303.htm">"Scotland and the Antarctic, Section II: Antarctic Exploration"</a>. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120805012650/http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/gooant/gooant020303.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scotland+and+the+Antarctic%2C+Section+II%3A+Antarctic+Exploration&rft.pub=Royal+Scottish+Geographical+Society&rft.aulast=Goodlad&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk%2Fscotia%2Fgooant%2Fgooant020303.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000091.htm">"Otto Nordenskiöld 1869–1928"</a>. South-pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151025163542/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000091.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Otto+Nordenski%C3%B6ld+1869%E2%80%931928&rft.pub=South-pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000091.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-barczewski90-86"><a href="#cite_ref-barczewski90_86-0">^</a> Barczewski, p. 90 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Mills_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills2003" class="citation book cs1">Mills, William James (11 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PYdBH4dOOM4C&q=Jean-Baptiste+Charcot&pg=PA135">Exploring Polar Frontiers</a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57-607422-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57-607422-0"><bdi>978-1-57-607422-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630103624/https://books.google.com/books?id=PYdBH4dOOM4C&q=Jean-Baptiste+Charcot&pg=PA135">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Polar+Frontiers&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003-12-11&rft.isbn=978-1-57-607422-0&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=William+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPYdBH4dOOM4C%26q%3DJean-Baptiste%2BCharcot%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> pp. 135–139 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000095.htm">"Jean-Baptiste Charcot"</a>. South-pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120419041303/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000095.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jean-Baptiste+Charcot&rft.pub=South-pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000095.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988">(Francais voyage) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Mill, pp. 431–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.south-pole.com/p0000096.htm">"Jean-Baptiste Charcot"</a>. South-pole.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120211140103/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000096.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jean-Baptiste+Charcot&rft.pub=South-pole.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.south-pole.com%2Fp0000096.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988">(Pourquoispas? voyage) </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Amundsen, Vol I pp. 184–95; Vol II, pp. 120–134 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Huntford (Last Place on Earth), pp. 446–74 </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080422100914/http://www.norway.org.uk/history/expolorers/amundsen/amundsen.htm">"Roald Amundsen"</a>. Norwegian Embassy (UK). 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Retrieved 31 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Universum&rft.atitle=El+Tratado+Ant%C3%A1rtico%2C+veh%C3%ADculo+de+paz+en+un+campo+minado&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=138-147&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Prieto+Larrain&rft.aufirst=M.+Cristina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.cl%2Fscielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_arttext%26pid%3DS0718-23762004000100008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IntLaw-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IntLaw_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IntLaw_108-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cIFAZPBKKuwC&pg=PA652">International law for Antarctica, p. 652</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230325080014/https://books.google.com/books?id=cIFAZPBKKuwC&pg=PA652">Archived</a> 2023-03-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi, 1996 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/imperial/1923/0974/latest/DLM1195.html">http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/imperial/1923/0974/latest/DLM1195.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922054721/https://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/imperial/1923/0974/latest/DLM1195.html">Archived</a> 2022-09-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Order in Council Under the British Settlements Act, 1887 (50 & 51 Vict c 54), Providing for the Government of the Ross Dependency. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Antarctica and international law: a collection of inter-state and national documents, Volume 2. pp. 143. 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Polar Record. pp. 578–600.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Russian+Antarctic+Expedition+under+the+command+of+Fabian+Gottlieb+von+Bellingshausen+and+its+reception+in+Russia+and+the+world&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=578-600&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Tammiksaar&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFБалкли2013" class="citation news cs1">Балкли Рип (Англия) (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220912095922/https://naukarus.com/pervye-nablyudeniya-materikovoy-chasti-antarktidy-popytka-kriticheskogo-analiza">"Первые наблюдения материковой части Антарктиды: попытка критического анализа"</a>. No. 4. Вопросы истории естествознания и техники. pp. 41–56. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naukarus.com/pervye-nablyudeniya-materikovoy-chasti-antarktidy-popytka-kriticheskogo-analiza">the original</a> on 2022-09-12. Retrieved 2021-11-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B%3A+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=41-56&rft.date=2013&rft.au=%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BF+%28%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaukarus.com%2Fpervye-nablyudeniya-materikovoy-chasti-antarktidy-popytka-kriticheskogo-analiza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFБеллинсгаузен2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Беллинсгаузен Ф. Ф. (2008). Двукратные изыскания в Южном Ледовитом океане и плавание вокруг света (in Russian). Moscow: Дрофа. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-358-02961-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-358-02961-3"><bdi>978-5-358-02961-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2+%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3+%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=%D0%94%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-5-358-02961-3&rft.au=%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD+%D0%A4.+%D0%A4.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Antarctica" title="Bibliography of Antarctica">Bibliography of Antarctica</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191230213409/http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/10/working-class-hero/">"Working-Class Hero"</a>. Portland Magazine. 8 November 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/10/working-class-hero/">the original</a> on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Portland+Magazine&rft.atitle=Working-Class+Hero&rft.date=2012-11-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.portlandmonthly.com%2Fportmag%2F2012%2F10%2Fworking-class-hero%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"> — "'She's just moored there at the dock in Bay Center, sitting in the mud,' says Charles Lagerbom, Northport, Maine, resident and president of the Antarctican Society".</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/4229">The South Pole; an account of the Norwegian Antarctic expedition in the "Fram", 1910–12 — Volume 1 and Volume 2</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/14363">The Worst Journey in the World, Volumes 1 and 2 Antarctic 1910–1913</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/5199">South: the story of Shackleton's 1914–1917 expedition</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony,_Jason_C.2012" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, Jason C. (2012). <a href="/wiki/Hoosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoosh">Hoosh: roast penguin, scurvy day, and other stories of Antarctic cuisine</a>. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2666-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2666-1"><bdi>978-0-8032-2666-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hoosh%3A+roast+penguin%2C+scurvy+day%2C+and+other+stories+of+Antarctic+cuisine&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Neb.&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-2666-1&rft.au=Anthony%2C+Jason+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Antarctica" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Robert Clancy, John Manning, Henk Brolsma: Mapping Antarctica: A Five Hundred Year Record of Discovery. Springer, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4320-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4320-5">978-94-007-4320-5</a> [Print]; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4321-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4321-2">978-94-007-4321-2</a> [eBook]</li> <li>Ivanov, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://livingston-island.weebly.com/">General Geography and History of Livingston Island.</a> In: Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis. Eds. C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev. Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015. pp. 17–28. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-954-07-3939-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-954-07-3939-7">978-954-07-3939-7</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Antarctica&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131114012806/http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/natural_world/antarctica/antarctica/index.html">Early Antarctic Adventures (State Library of New South Wales)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120724073141/http://www.polarconservation.org/education/antarctic-history">PCO: Antarctic History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090106182938/http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/AHT/HistoryHutPointCrew/">Antarctic Heritage Trust</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/terrymct/sets/72057594098237101/">Surveying Antarctica, 1957</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160625002841/http://www.bigdeadplace.com/">Big Dead Place</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/10/working-class-hero/">Working-Class 'Hero' after two decades of polar exploration.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191230213409/http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/10/working-class-hero/">Archived</a> 2019-12-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020050952/http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/natural_world/antarctica/hurley/index.html">Hurley's Antarctica</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Antarctica" title="Geography of Antarctica">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_sea_ice" title="Antarctic sea ice">Antarctic sea ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Antarctica" title="Climate of Antarctica">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Antarctica_heat_wave" title="2024 Antarctica heat wave">Heat waves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_ice_shelves" title="List of Antarctic ice shelves">Ice shelves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Antarctica" title="Geology of Antarctica">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_the_Antarctic" title="List of glaciers in the Antarctic">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ultras_of_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ultras of Antarctica">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra#Antarctic" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Antarctica" title="List of volcanoes in Antarctica">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Biogeographic realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="East Antarctic Ice Sheet">ice sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Shield" title="East Antarctic Shield">shield</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Antarctica" title="Extreme points of Antarctica">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Floristic_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Floristic Kingdom">Floristic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_magnetic_pole" title="South magnetic pole">South magnetic pole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet" title="West Antarctic Ice Sheet">ice sheet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies of Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_CECs" title="Lake CECs">Lake CECs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercer_Lake_(Antarctica)" title="Mercer Lake (Antarctica)">Lake Mercer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Antarctica" title="List of rivers of Antarctica">List of rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_flora" title="Antarctic flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_microorganism" title="Antarctic microorganism">Microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Antarctica" title="Wildlife of Antarctica">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_of_Antarctica" title="List of birds of Antarctica">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Antarctica" title="List of mammals of Antarctica">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_krill" title="Antarctic krill">Krill</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Antarctica_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="536" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Antarctica" title="Colonization of Antarctica">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Antarctica" title="List of years in Antarctica">Years</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Managers_of_National_Antarctic_Programs" title="Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs">Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_activity_in_the_Antarctic" title="Military activity in the Antarctic">Military activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Antarctic_Program" title="National Antarctic Program">National programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_Antarctica" title="Territorial claims in Antarctica">Territorial claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Treaty System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_Day" title="Antarctica Day">Antarctica Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_English" title="Antarctic English">Antarctic English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Antarctica" title="Crime in Antarctica">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Antarctica" title="Demographics of Antarctica">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Antarctica">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_field_camps" title="Antarctic field camps">Field camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_in_Antarctica" title="Firefighting in Antarctica">Firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Flags of Antarctica">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_gateway_cities" title="Antarctic gateway cities">Gateway cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwinter_Day" title="Midwinter Day">Midwinter Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Protected_Area" title="Antarctic Protected Area">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antarctica" title="Religion in Antarctica">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">Research stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antarctica" title="Telecommunications in Antarctica">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Antarctica" title="Time in Antarctica">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Antarctica" title="Tourism in Antarctica">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Antarctica" title="Transport in Antarctica">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica" title="Women in Antarctica">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Famous explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Richard E. Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Douglas Mawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Ui-te-Rangiora</a> (legendary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">James Clark Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Ernest Shackleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Antarctica" title="Category:Antarctica">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antarctica" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Antarctica">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Antarctica-related_articles" title="Index of Antarctica-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_by_continent" title="Template:History by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_by_continent" title="Template talk:History by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_by_continent" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History by continent"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History by continent</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">Americas</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eurasia" title="History of Eurasia">Eurasia</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">Asia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polar_exploration" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polar_exploration" title="Template:Polar exploration"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polar_exploration" title="Template talk:Polar exploration"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polar_exploration" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polar exploration"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polar_exploration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Polar_exploration" title="Polar exploration">Polar exploration</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arctic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">Arctic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Ocean_*_History_*_Expeditions_*_Research_stations"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arctic_expeditions" title="List of Arctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_stations_in_the_Arctic" title="List of research stations in the Arctic">Research stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farthest_North" title="Farthest North">Farthest North</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marmaduke" title="Thomas Marmaduke">Marmaduke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joris_Carolus" title="Joris Carolus">Carolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Parry" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_magnetic_pole" title="North magnetic pole">North magnetic pole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Ross (Royal Navy officer)">J. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Kent_Kane" title="Elisha Kent Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israel_Hayes" title="Isaac Israel Hayes">Hayes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaris_expedition" title="Polaris expedition">Polaris expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Polaris_(1871)" title="USS Polaris (1871)">Polaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Hall" title="Charles Francis Hall">C. F. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Bessels" title="Emil Bessels">Bessels</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Expedition" title="British Arctic Expedition">British Arctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Alert_(1856)" title="HMS Alert (1856)">HMS Alert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Discovery_(1874)" title="HMS Discovery (1874)">HMS Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Frederick_Stephenson" title="Henry Frederick Stephenson">Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hastings_Markham" title="Albert Hastings Markham">Markham</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Franklin_Bay_Expedition" title="Lady Franklin Bay Expedition">Lady Franklin Bay Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_Greely" title="Adolphus Greely">Greely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Lockwood" title="James B. Lockwood">Lockwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_L._Brainard" title="David L. Brainard">Brainard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nansen%27s_Fram_expedition" title="Nansen's Fram expedition">Nansen's Fram expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Johansen" title="Hjalmar Johansen">Johansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Luigi_Amedeo,_Duke_of_the_Abruzzi" title="Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi">Amedeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9e%27s_Arctic_balloon_expedition" title="Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition">Andrée's balloon expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_August_Andr%C3%A9e" title="Salomon August Andrée">S. A. Andrée</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Cook" title="Frederick Cook">F. Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Roosevelt_(1905)" title="SS Roosevelt (1905)">SS Roosevelt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henson" title="Matthew Henson">Henson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norge_(airship)" title="Norge (airship)">Norge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Nobile" title="Umberto Nobile">Nobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Riiser-Larsen" title="Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen">Riiser-Larsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ellsworth" title="Lincoln Ellsworth">Ellsworth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italia_(airship)" title="Italia (airship)">Italia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_O-12_(SS-73)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS O-12 (SS-73)">Nautilus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Wilkins" title="Hubert Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-25" title="Tupolev ANT-25">ANT-25</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Chkalov" title="Valery Chkalov">Chkalov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Baydukov" title="Georgy Baydukov">Baydukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vasilyevich_Belyakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Vasilyevich Belyakov">Belyakov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drifting_ice_station" title="Drifting ice station">Drifting ice stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-1" title="North Pole-1">NP-1</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Papanin" title="Ivan Papanin">Papanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Shirshov" title="Pyotr Shirshov">Shirshov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Fyodorov_(scientist)" title="Yevgeny Fyodorov (scientist)">E. Fyodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Krenkel" title="Ernst Krenkel">Krenkel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-36" title="North Pole-36">NP-36</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pole-37" title="North Pole-37">NP-37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Sedov_(1908_icebreaker)" title="Georgiy Sedov (1908 icebreaker)">Georgiy Sedov</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Badygin" title="Konstantin Badygin">Badygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS Nautilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Skate_(SSN-578)" title="USS Skate (SSN-578)">USS Skate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Plaisted" title="Ralph Plaisted">Plaisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wally_Herbert" title="Wally Herbert">Herbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika_(1972_icebreaker)" title="Arktika (1972 icebreaker)">NS Arktika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barneo" title="Barneo">Barneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika_2007" title="Arktika 2007">Arktika 2007</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)">Mir submersibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Sagalevich" title="Anatoly Sagalevich">Sagalevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Chilingarov" title="Artur Chilingarov">Chilingarov</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_the_Navigator" title="Brendan the Navigator">Brendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papar" title="Papar">Papar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Vikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar_Svavarsson" title="Garðar Svavarsson">Garðar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson" title="Ingólfr Arnarson">Ingólfr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnbj%C3%B6rn_Ulfsson" title="Gunnbjörn Ulfsson">Gunnbjörn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sn%C3%A6bj%C3%B6rn_galti" title="Snæbjörn galti">Snæbjörn galti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" title="Erik the Red">Erik the Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_IV%27s_expeditions_to_Greenland" title="Christian IV's expeditions to Greenland">Christian IV's expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Hall_(explorer)" title="James Hall (explorer)">J. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cunningham_(explorer)" title="John Cunningham (explorer)">Cunningham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godske_Lindenov" title="Godske Lindenov">Lindenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Richardson" title="Carsten Richardson">C. Richardson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Egede" title="Hans Egede">Egede</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Scoresby" title="William Scoresby">Scoresby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Nansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Peary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">Cabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">G. Corte-Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">M. Corte-Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Frobisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Gilbert" title="Humphrey Gilbert">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(explorer)" title="John Davis (explorer)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_(1602_ship)" title="Discovery (1602 ship)">Discovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bylot" title="Robert Bylot">Bylot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baffin" title="William Baffin">Baffin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Munk" title="Jens Munk">Munk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Fyodorov_(navigator)" title="Ivan Fyodorov (navigator)">I. Fyodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Discovery_(1774)" title="HMS Discovery (1774)">HMS Discovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Clerke" title="Charles Clerke">Clerke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue" title="Otto von Kotzebue">Kotzebue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Ross (Royal Navy officer)">J. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Griper_(1813)" title="HMS Griper (1813)">HMS Griper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Parry" title="William Edward Parry">Parry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Hecla_(1815)" title="HMS Hecla (1815)">HMS Hecla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Francis_Lyon" title="George Francis Lyon">Lyon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Fury_(1814)" title="HMS Fury (1814)">HMS Fury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Parkyns_Hoppner" title="Henry Parkyns Hoppner">Hoppner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppermine_expedition" title="Coppermine expedition">Coppermine expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin" title="John Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Back" title="George Back">Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Warren_Dease" title="Peter Warren Dease">Dease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Simpson_(explorer)" title="Thomas Simpson (explorer)">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Blossom_(1806)" title="HMS Blossom (1806)">HMS Blossom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Beechey" title="Frederick William Beechey">Beechey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition" title="Franklin's lost expedition">Franklin's lost expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Collinson" title="Richard Collinson">Collinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rae%E2%80%93Richardson_Arctic_expedition" title="Rae–Richardson Arctic expedition">Rae–Richardson expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rae_(explorer)" title="John Rae (explorer)">Rae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Richardson_(naturalist)" title="John Richardson (naturalist)">J. Richardson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Thomas_Austin" title="Horatio Thomas Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McClure_Arctic_expedition" title="McClure Arctic expedition">McClure expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Investigator_(1848)" title="HMS Investigator (1848)">HMS Investigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_McClure" title="Robert McClure">McClure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolute_(1850)" title="HMS Resolute (1850)">HMS Resolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kellett" title="Henry Kellett">Kellett</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Belcher" title="Edward Belcher">Belcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kennedy_(explorer)" title="William Kennedy (explorer)">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ren%C3%A9_Bellot" title="Joseph René Bellot">Bellot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_(1850_ship)" title="Isabel (1850 ship)">Isabel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Augustus_Inglefield" title="Edward Augustus Inglefield">Inglefield</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Grinnell_expedition" title="Second Grinnell expedition">2nd Grinnell expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Advance_(1847)" title="USS Advance (1847)">USS Advance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Kent_Kane" title="Elisha Kent Kane">Kane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_(ship)" title="Fox (ship)">Fox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_McClintock" title="Leopold McClintock">McClintock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">HMS Pandora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Young" title="Allen Young">Young</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Sverdrup" title="Otto Sverdrup">Sverdrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gj%C3%B8a" title="Gjøa">Gjøa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_voyage_of_the_Karluk" title="Last voyage of the Karluk">Karluk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilhjalmur_Stefansson" title="Vilhjalmur Stefansson">Stefansson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bartlett_(explorer)" title="Robert Bartlett (explorer)">Bartlett</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Roch_(ship)" title="St. Roch (ship)">St. Roch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Larsen_(explorer)" title="Henry Larsen (explorer)">H. Larsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Scott_Cowper" title="David Scott Cowper">Cowper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route" title="Northern Sea Route">North East Passage</a> <a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Russian Arctic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pomors" title="Pomors">Pomors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch_(boat)" title="Koch (boat)">Koch boats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Willoughby" title="Hugh Willoughby">Willoughby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chancellor" title="Richard Chancellor">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Barentsz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Heemskerck" title="Jacob van Heemskerck">Heemskerck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangazeya" title="Mangazeya">Mangazeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Poole" title="Jonas Poole">Poole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Cossacks" title="Siberian Cossacks">Siberian Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Perfilyev" title="Ilya Perfilyev">Perfilyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Stadukhin" title="Mikhail Stadukhin">Stadukhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnev" title="Semyon Dezhnev">Dezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedot_Alekseyevich_Popov" title="Fedot Alekseyevich Popov">Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Ivanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkury_Vagin" title="Merkury Vagin">Vagin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Permyakov" title="Yakov Permyakov">Permyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition" title="Great Northern Expedition">Great Northern Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitus_Bering" title="Vitus Bering">Bering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov" title="Aleksei Chirikov">Chirikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Malygin" title="Stepan Malygin">Malygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ovtsyn" title="Dmitry Ovtsyn">Ovtsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Minin" title="Fyodor Minin">Minin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Pronchishchev" title="Vasili Pronchishchev">V. Pronchishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Pronchishcheva" title="Maria Pronchishcheva">M. Pronchishcheva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Chelyuskin" title="Semyon Chelyuskin">Chelyuskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khariton_Laptev" title="Khariton Laptev">Kh. Laptev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Laptev" title="Dmitry Laptev">D. Laptev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Chichagov" title="Vasily Chichagov">Chichagov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Lyakhov" title="Ivan Lyakhov">Lyakhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Billings" title="Joseph Billings">Billings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Sannikov" title="Yakov Sannikov">Sannikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matvei_Gedenshtrom" title="Matvei Gedenshtrom">Gedenshtrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Wrangel" title="Ferdinand von Wrangel">Wrangel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Matyushkin" title="Fyodor Matyushkin">Matyushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Anjou" title="Pyotr Anjou">Anjou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Benjamin_von_L%C3%BCtke" title="Friedrich Benjamin von Lütke">Litke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lavrov" title="Mikhail Lavrov">Lavrov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Pakhtusov" title="Pyotr Pakhtusov">Pakhtusov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avgust_Tsivolko" title="Avgust Tsivolko">Tsivolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Middendorff" title="Alexander von Middendorff">Middendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_North_Pole_expedition" title="Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition">Austro-Hungarian Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Weyprecht" title="Karl Weyprecht">Weyprecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Payer" title="Julius von Payer">Payer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vega_Expedition" title="Vega Expedition">Vega Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%C3%B6ld" title="Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld">A. E. Nordenskiöld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Palander" title="Louis Palander">Palander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeannette_expedition" title="Jeannette expedition">Jeannette expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">USS Jeannette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._De_Long" title="George W. De Long">De Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Melville" title="George W. Melville">Melville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yermak_(1898_icebreaker)" title="Yermak (1898 icebreaker)">Yermak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Makarov" title="Stepan Makarov">Makarov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarya_(polar_ship)" title="Zarya (polar ship)">Zarya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Toll" title="Eduard von Toll">Toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kolomeitsev" title="Nikolai Kolomeitsev">Kolomeitsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Matisen" title="Fyodor Matisen">Matisen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Kolchak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Sedov" title="Georgy Sedov">Sedov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusanov_expedition" title="Rusanov expedition">Rusanov expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Rusanov" title="Vladimir Rusanov">Rusanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kuchin" title="Alexander Kuchin">Kuchin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_expedition" title="Brusilov expedition">Brusilov expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Svyataya_Anna" title="Svyataya Anna">Sv. Anna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Brusilov" title="Georgy Brusilov">Brusilov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_Albanov" title="Valerian Albanov">Albanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Konrad" title="Alexander Konrad">Konrad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Wiese" title="Vladimir Wiese">Wiese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nag%C3%B3rski" title="Jan Nagórski">Nagórski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymyr_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Taymyr (1909 icebreaker)">Taymyr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vaygach_(1909_icebreaker)" title="Vaygach (1909 icebreaker)">Vaygach</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Vilkitsky" title="Boris Vilkitsky">Vilkitsky</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maud_(ship)" title="Maud (ship)">Maud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_and_Antarctic_Research_Institute" title="Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute">AARI</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Samoylovich" title="Rudolf Samoylovich">Samoylovich</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikifor_Begichev" title="Nikifor Begichev">Begichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Urvantsev" title="Nikolay Urvantsev">Urvantsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadko_(1913_icebreaker)" title="Sadko (1913 icebreaker)">Sadko</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Ushakov" title="Georgy Ushakov">Ushakov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Directorate_of_the_Northern_Sea_Route" title="Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route">Glavsevmorput</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Schmidt" title="Otto Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviaarktika" title="Aviaarktika">Aviaarktika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Shevelev" title="Mark Shevelev">Shevelev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Sibiryakov_(icebreaker)" title="A. Sibiryakov (icebreaker)">A. Sibiryakov</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Voronin_(captain)" title="Vladimir Voronin (captain)">Voronin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Chelyuskin" title="SS Chelyuskin">Chelyuskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krassin_(1916_icebreaker)" title="Krassin (1916 icebreaker)">Krassin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Gakkel" title="Yakov Gakkel">Gakkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">Nuclear-powered icebreakers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lenin_(1957_icebreaker)" title="Lenin (1957 icebreaker)">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika-class_icebreaker" title="Arktika-class icebreaker">Arktika-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic exploration">Antarctic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Continent_*_History_*_Expeditions"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Continent</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions" title="List of Antarctic expeditions">Expeditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_de_la_Roch%C3%A9" title="Anthony de la Roché">Roché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charles_Bouvet_de_Lozier" title="Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier">Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves-Joseph_de_Kerguelen-Tr%C3%A9marec" title="Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec">Kerguelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS Adventure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(mariner)" title="William Smith (mariner)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Telmo_(Spanish_ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="San Telmo (Spanish ship)">San Telmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_(sloop-of-war)" title="Vostok (sloop-of-war)">Vostok</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Bellingshausen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirny_(sloop-of-war)" title="Mirny (sloop-of-war)">Mirny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev" title="Mikhail Lazarev">Lazarev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bransfield" title="Edward Bransfield">Bransfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Palmer" title="Nathaniel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(sealer)" title="John Davis (sealer)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Morrell" title="Benjamin Morrell">Morrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ship_Astrolabe_(1811)" title="French ship Astrolabe (1811)">Astrolabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">Dumont d'Urville</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Exploring_Expedition" title="United States Exploring Expedition">United States Exploring Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Vincennes_(1826)" title="USS Vincennes (1826)">USS Vincennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilkes" title="Charles Wilkes">Wilkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Porpoise_(1836)" title="USS Porpoise (1836)">USS Porpoise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cadwalader_Ringgold" title="Cadwalader Ringgold">Ringgold</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_expedition" title="Ross expedition">Ross expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Abernethy_(explorer)" title="Thomas Abernethy (explorer)">Abernethy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercator_Cooper" title="Mercator Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS Challenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Nares" title="George Nares">Nares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(oceanographer)" title="John Murray (oceanographer)">Murray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_(1881_ship)" title="Jason (1881 ship)">Jason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Belgian Antarctic Expedition">Belgian Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RV_Belgica_(1884)" title="RV Belgica (1884)">Belgica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_de_Gerlache" title="Adrien de Gerlache">de Gerlache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lecointe_(explorer)" title="Georges Lecointe (explorer)">Lecointe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Cook" title="Frederick Cook">Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Arctowski" title="Henryk Arctowski">Arctowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Racovi%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Emil Racoviță">Racoviță</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Boles%C5%82aw_Dobrowolski" title="Antoni Bolesław Dobrowolski">Dobrowolski</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Southern_Cross_(1886)" title="SS Southern Cross (1886)">Southern Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RRS_Discovery" title="RRS Discovery">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Hut" title="Discovery Hut">Discovery Hut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_expedition" title="Gauss expedition">Gauss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_(ship)" title="Gauss (ship)">Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Drygalski" title="Erich von Drygalski">Drygalski</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Swedish Antarctic Expedition">Swedish Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_(ship)" title="Antarctic (ship)">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Nordenskj%C3%B6ld" title="Otto Nordenskjöld">O. Nordenskjöld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Anton_Larsen" title="Carl Anton Larsen">C. A. Larsen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Scottish National Antarctic Expedition">Scottish Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Speirs_Bruce" title="William Speirs Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotia_(barque)" title="Scotia (barque)">Scotia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcadas_Base" title="Orcadas Base">Orcadas Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(1867_ship)" title="Nimrod (1867 ship)">Nimrod</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Antarctic_Expedition" title="French Antarctic Expedition">French Antarctic Expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pourquoi-Pas_(1908)" title="Pourquoi-Pas (1908)">Pourquoi-Pas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Charcot" title="Jean-Baptiste Charcot">Charcot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Japanese Antarctic Expedition">Japanese Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobu_Shirase" title="Nobu Shirase">Shirase</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framheim" title="Framheim">Framheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_(ship)" title="Terra Nova (ship)">Terra Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Evans,_1st_Baron_Mountevans" title="Edward Evans, 1st Baron Mountevans">E. R. Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Crean_(explorer)" title="Tom Crean (explorer)">Crean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lashly" title="William Lashly">Lashly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Filchner" title="Wilhelm Filchner">Filchner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Australasian Antarctic Expedition">Australasian Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SY_Aurora" title="SY Aurora">SY Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_Eastern_Party" title="Far Eastern Party">Far Eastern Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_(1912_ship)" title="Endurance (1912 ship)">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wild" title="Frank Wild">Wild</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyage_of_the_James_Caird" title="Voyage of the James Caird">James Caird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea_party" title="Ross Sea party">Ross Sea party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Mackintosh" title="Aeneas Mackintosh">Mackintosh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett_Expedition" title="Shackleton–Rowett Expedition">Shackleton–Rowett Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quest_(ship)" title="Quest (ship)">Quest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Polar_Year" title="International Polar Year">IPY</a> · <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">IGY</a> <a href="/wiki/Research_stations_in_Antarctica" title="Research stations in Antarctica">Modern research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Christensen" title="Lars Christensen">Christensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Australian_and_New_Zealand_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition">BANZARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Graham_Land_expedition" title="British Graham Land expedition">BGLE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rymill" title="John Rymill">Rymill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Swabia" title="New Swabia">New Swabia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ritscher" title="Alfred Ritscher">Ritscher</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tabarin" title="Operation Tabarin">Operation Tabarin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Marr_(biologist)" title="James Marr (biologist)">Marr</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Highjump" title="Operation Highjump">Operation Highjump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_Arturo_Prat_Base" title="Captain Arturo Prat Base">Captain Arturo Prat Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey" title="British Antarctic Survey">British Antarctic Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Windmill" title="Operation Windmill">Operation Windmill</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ketchum" title="Gerald Ketchum">Ketchum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronne_Antarctic_Research_Expedition" title="Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition">Ronne Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finn_Ronne" title="Finn Ronne">F. Ronne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Ronne" title="Jackie Ronne">E. Ronne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Schlossbach" title="Isaac Schlossbach">Schlossbach</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deep_Freeze" title="Operation Deep Freeze">Operation Deep Freeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Trans-Antarctic_Expedition" title="Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition">Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="Soviet Antarctic Expedition">Soviet Antarctic Expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition">1st</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Somov" title="Mikhail Somov">Somov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Klenova" title="Maria Klenova">Klenova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirny_Station" title="Mirny Station">Mirny</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition">2nd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Tryoshnikov" title="Alexey Tryoshnikov">Tryoshnikov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition" title="3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition">3rd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transglobe_Expedition" title="Transglobe Expedition">Transglobe Expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranulph_Fiennes" title="Ranulph Fiennes">Fiennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Burton" title="Charles R. Burton">Burton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrey_Kapitsa" title="Andrey Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farthest_South" title="Farthest South">Farthest South</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(1771)" title="HMS Resolution (1771)">HMS Resolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">J. Cook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Adventure_(1771)" title="HMS Adventure (1771)">HMS Adventure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Furneaux" title="Tobias Furneaux">Furneaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Weddell" title="James Weddell">Weddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Erebus_(1826)" title="HMS Erebus (1826)">HMS Erebus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_Ross" title="James Clark Ross">J. C. Ross</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Terror_(1813)" title="HMS Terror (1813)">HMS Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crozier" title="Francis Crozier">Crozier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Expedition" title="Southern Cross Expedition">Southern Cross</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carsten_Borchgrevink" title="Carsten Borchgrevink">Borchgrevink</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Expedition" title="Discovery Expedition">Discovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barne" title="Michael Barne">Barne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Expedition" title="Nimrod Expedition">Nimrod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Shackleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wild" title="Frank Wild">Wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Marshall" title="Eric Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Adams" title="Jameson Adams">Adams</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_magnetic_pole" title="South magnetic pole">South magnetic pole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Mawson" title="Douglas Mawson">Mawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgeworth_David" title="Edgeworth David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Mackay" title="Alistair Mackay">Mackay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%27s_South_Pole_expedition" title="Amundsen's South Pole expedition">Amundsen's South Pole expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Amundsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olav_Bjaaland" title="Olav Bjaaland">Bjaaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmer_Hanssen" title="Helmer Hanssen">Helmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverre_Hassel" title="Sverre Hassel">Hassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wisting" title="Oscar Wisting">Wisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polheim" title="Polheim">Polheim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Nova_Expedition" title="Terra Nova Expedition">Terra Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Robert Falcon Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Evans" title="Edgar Evans">E. Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Oates" title="Lawrence Oates">Oates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilson_(explorer)" title="Edward Wilson (explorer)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Robertson_Bowers" title="Henry Robertson Bowers">Bowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsley_Cherry-Garrard" title="Apsley Cherry-Garrard">Cherry-Garrard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" title="Richard E. Byrd">Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernt_Balchen" title="Bernt Balchen">Balchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Chadbourne_McKinley" title="Ashley Chadbourne McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_J._Dufek" title="George J. Dufek">Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Hillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Fuchs" title="Vivian Fuchs">V. Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_Cold" title="Pole of Cold">Pole of Cold</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_Station" title="Vostok Station">Vostok Station</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_inaccessibility" title="Pole of inaccessibility">Pole of inaccessibility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pole_of_Inaccessibility_research_station" title="Pole of Inaccessibility research station">Pole of Inaccessibility research station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Tolstikov" title="Yevgeny Tolstikov">Tolstikov</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_P._Crary" title="Albert P. Crary">Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arved_Fuchs" title="Arved Fuchs">A. Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Messner" title="Reinhold Messner">Messner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Antarctica&params=67_15_S_39_35_E_source:eswiki">67°15′S 39°35′E / 67.250°S 39.583°E / -67.250; 39.583</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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