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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Overview of events</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview_of_events-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview of events subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Highlights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Highlights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Highlights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Highlights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_and_explanations_of_the_fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_and_explanations_of_the_fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories and explanations of the fall</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_and_explanations_of_the_fall-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories and explanations of the fall subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_and_explanations_of_the_fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decay_owing_to_general_malaise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_owing_to_general_malaise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Decay owing to general malaise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decay_owing_to_general_malaise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edward_Gibbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edward_Gibbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Edward Gibbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_Gibbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underlying_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underlying_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Underlying causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underlying_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Universal_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universal_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Universal domination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universal_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Militarism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Militarism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Militarism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Militarism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vegetius_on_military_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vegetius_on_military_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Vegetius on military decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vegetius_on_military_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Michael_Rostovtzeff,_Ludwig_von_Mises,_and_Bruce_Bartlett:_excessive_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michael_Rostovtzeff,_Ludwig_von_Mises,_and_Bruce_Bartlett:_excessive_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett: excessive government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michael_Rostovtzeff,_Ludwig_von_Mises,_and_Bruce_Bartlett:_excessive_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joseph_Tainter:_diminishing_returns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joseph_Tainter:_diminishing_returns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>Joseph Tainter: diminishing returns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joseph_Tainter:_diminishing_returns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adrian_Goldsworthy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adrian_Goldsworthy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.8</span> <span>Adrian Goldsworthy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adrian_Goldsworthy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monocausal_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monocausal_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Monocausal decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monocausal_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Environmental degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead_poisoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead_poisoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Lead poisoning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead_poisoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catastrophic_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catastrophic_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Catastrophic collapse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catastrophic_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-J._B._Bury" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#J._B._Bury"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>J. B. Bury</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-J._B._Bury-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peter_Heather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peter_Heather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Peter Heather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peter_Heather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bryan_Ward-Perkins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bryan_Ward-Perkins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Bryan Ward-Perkins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bryan_Ward-Perkins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Transformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Henri_Pirenne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henri_Pirenne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Henri Pirenne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henri_Pirenne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lucien_Musset_and_the_clash_of_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lucien_Musset_and_the_clash_of_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lucien_Musset_and_the_clash_of_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>Late Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Foreign language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the historiography of the decline of the Roman Empire. For a description of events, see <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>. For the historical era in general, see <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a>. For the book by Edward Gibbon, see <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22">"Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Historiography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empires_476AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Roman_Empires_476AD.svg/400px-Roman_Empires_476AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Roman_Empires_476AD.svg/600px-Roman_Empires_476AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Roman_Empires_476AD.svg/800px-Roman_Empires_476AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1753" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</a> Roman Empires by 476</figcaption></figure> <p>The causes and mechanisms of the <b>fall of the Western Roman Empire</b> are a historical theme that was introduced by historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> in his 1776 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i>. Though Gibbon was not the first to speculate on why the empire collapsed, he was the first to give a well-researched and well-referenced account of the event, and started an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiographical</a> discussion about what caused the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>. The traditional date for the end of the Western Roman Empire is 476 when the last Western Roman Emperor was deposed. Many theories of causality have been explored. In 1984, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Demandt" title="Alexander Demandt">Alexander Demandt</a> enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new theories have since emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon himself explored ideas of internal decline (civil wars, the disintegration of political, economic, military, and other social institutions) and of <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">attacks from outside the empire</a>. </p><p>Many historians have postulated reasons for the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Their conclusions usually belong in two broad schools: (1) external factors, such as military threats and barbarian invasions or (2) internal factors, such as a decline in "<a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">civic virtue</a>" and military and economic capability. Most historians believe that the fall was due to a combination of both internal and external factors, but come down more heavily on one or the other as the most important cause of the fall. Modern scholarship has introduced additional factors such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemic diseases</a>, and environmental degradation as important reasons for the decline. Some historians have postulated that the Roman Empire did not fall at all, but that the "decline" was instead a gradual, albeit often violent, transformation into the societies of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. </p><p>Comparisons by historians, both professional and amateur, and in literature, both scholarly and popular, of Rome with the decline and fall of other societies have been numerous. "From the eighteenth century onward", historian <a href="/wiki/Glen_Bowersock" title="Glen Bowersock">Glen Bowersock</a> wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_historiography">Overview of historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview of historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Historiographically" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiographically">Historiographically</a>, the primary issue historians have looked at when analyzing any theory is the continued existence of the Eastern Empire or Byzantine Empire, which lasted almost a thousand years after the fall of the west. For example, Gibbon implicates Christianity in the fall of the Western Empire, yet the eastern half of the Empire, which was even more Christian than the west in geographic extent, fervor, penetration and vast numbers continued on for a thousand years afterwards, although Gibbon did not consider the Eastern Empire to be much of a success. As another example, environmental or weather changes affected the east as much as the west, yet the east did not fall. </p><p>Theories will sometimes reflect the particular concerns that historians might have on cultural, political, or economic trends in their own times. Gibbon's criticism of Christianity reflects the values of <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a>; his ideas on the decline in martial vigor could have been interpreted by some as a warning to the growing <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> and anti-socialist theorists tended to blame <a href="/wiki/Decadence" title="Decadence">decadence</a> and other political problems. More recently, <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> concerns have become popular, with <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> proposed as major factors, and destabilizing population decreases due to <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> such as early cases of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> also cited. Global <a href="/wiki/Climate_changes_of_535%E2%80%93536" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate changes of 535–536">climate changes of 535–536</a>, perhaps caused by the possible eruption of <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> in 535, as mentioned by <a href="/wiki/David_Keys_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Keys (author)">David Keys</a> and others,<sup id="cite_ref-Krakatoa_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krakatoa-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is another example. Ideas about transformation without a distinct fall mirror the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a> tradition, which rejects <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a> concepts (see <a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">metanarrative</a>). What is not new are attempts to diagnose Rome's particular problems; already in the early 2nd century, at the height of Roman power, <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Satire_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Satire X">Satire X</a> criticized the people's obsession with "<a href="/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses">bread and circuses</a>". </p><p>One of the primary reasons for the vast number of theories is the notable lack of surviving evidence from the 4th and 5th centuries. For example, there are so few records of an economic nature that it is difficult to arrive at even a generalization of the economic conditions. As a result, historians must use <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> in addition to available evidence to imagine how things most probably happened or must use evidence from previous and later periods. As in any field where available evidence is sparse, this ability of historians to imagine the 4th and 5th centuries plays as important a part in shaping our understanding as the available evidence, which means that there is room for endless variety in interpretation. </p><p>The end of the Western Roman Empire traditionally has been seen by historians to mark the end of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Era">Ancient Era</a> and beginning of the Middle Ages. More recent schools of history, such as <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, offer a more nuanced view from the traditional historical narrative. There is no consensus on a date for the start of Rome's decline. Gibbon started his account in 98.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The year 376 is taken as pivotal by many modern historians.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In that year there was an unmanageable influx of <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">Barbarians</a> into the Balkan provinces, and the situation of the Western Empire generally worsened thereafter, despite incomplete and temporary recoveries. Significant events include the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> in 378, the death of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine" title="Crossing of the Rhine">crossing of the Rhine</a> in 406 by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a>, the execution of <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a> in 408, the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sack of Rome</a> in 410, the death of <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a> in 421, the death of <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aetius</a> in 454, and the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">second sack of Rome</a> in 455, with the death of <a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a> in 461 marking the end of the last opportunity for recovery. </p><p>Gibbon took 4 September 476 as a convenient marker for the <a href="/wiki/Final_dissolution_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire">final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of the Western Roman Empire">Emperor of the Western Roman Empire</a>, was deposed by <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, a Germanic chieftain. Some modern historians question the significance of the events of the year 476 for the end of the western empire.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, the Western emperor recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, continued to rule in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, until he was assassinated in 480. The <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrogoth">Ostrogothic</a> rulers of <a href="/wiki/Italia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia">Italia</a> considered themselves upholders of the direct line of Roman tradition, and the Eastern emperors considered themselves the sole rightful Roman rulers of a united empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation rather than a fall.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_events">Overview of events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview of events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomulusAugustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/RomulusAugustus.jpg/206px-RomulusAugustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/RomulusAugustus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="236" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> was deposed as <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Emperor</a> in 476 while still young. However, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> continued to claim the title of Western Emperor after his deposition.</figcaption></figure> <p>The decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> is one of the traditional markers of the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> and the beginning of the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Migration_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period">Migration period</a>. Although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for several centuries (until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>), the Empire as a whole had initiated major cultural and political transformations since the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, with the shift towards a more openly <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> and ritualized form of government, the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, and a general rejection of the traditions and values of Classical Antiquity. While traditional historiography emphasized this break with Antiquity by using the term "<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>" instead of Roman Empire, recent schools of history offer a more nuanced view, seeing mostly continuity rather than a sharp break. The Empire of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> already looked very different from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">classical Rome</a>. </p><p>The Roman Empire emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> when <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Caesar">Augustus Caesar</a> transformed it from a republic into a monarchy. Rome reached its zenith in the 2nd century, then fortunes slowly declined (with many revivals and restorations along the way). The reasons for the decline of the Empire are still debated today, and are likely multiple. Historians infer that the population appears to have diminished in many provinces—especially western Europe—from the diminishing size of fortifications built to protect the cities from <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> incursions from the 3rd century on. Some historians even have suggested that parts of the periphery were no longer inhabited because these fortifications were restricted to the center of the city only. Tree rings suggest "distinct drying" beginning in 250.<sup id="cite_ref-treerings_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-treerings-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the late 3rd century, the city of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> no longer served as an effective capital for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Emperor</a> and various cities were used as new administrative capitals. Successive emperors, starting with <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a>, privileged the eastern city of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, which he had entirely rebuilt after a siege. Later renamed <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and protected by formidable walls in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, it was to become the largest and most powerful city of Christian <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. Since the Crisis of the Third Century, the Empire was intermittently ruled by more than one emperor at once (usually two), presiding over different regions. At first a haphazard form of power sharing, this eventually settled on an east–west administrative division between the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (centered on Rome, but now usually presided from other seats of power such as <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Milan</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (with its capital initially in <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a>, and later Constantinople). The <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>-speaking west, under dreadful demographic crisis, and the wealthier<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>-speaking east, also began to diverge politically and culturally. Although this was a gradual process, still incomplete when Italy came under the rule of barbarian chieftains in the last quarter of the 5th century, it deepened further afterward, and had lasting consequences for the medieval history of Europe. </p><p>Throughout the 5th century, Western emperors were usually figureheads, while the Eastern emperors maintained more independence. For most of the time, the actual rulers in the West were military strongmen who took the titles of <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a>, or both, such as <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aetius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>. Although Rome was no longer the capital in the West, it remained the West's largest city and its economic center. But the city was <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sacked by rebellious Visigoths in 410</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">by the Vandals in 455</a>, events that shocked contemporaries and signaled the disintegration of Roman authority. <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">The City of God</a></i> partly as an answer to critics who blamed the sack of Rome by the Visigoths on the abandonment of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> religions. </p><p>In June 474, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> became Western Emperor but in the next year the <i>magister militum</i> <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(Roman_soldier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orestes (Roman soldier)">Orestes</a> revolted and made his son <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> emperor. Romulus, however, was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> and so was technically an usurper, Nepos still being the legal Western Emperor. Nevertheless, Romulus Augustus is often known as the last Western Roman Emperor. In 476, after being refused lands in Italy, Orestes' Germanic mercenaries under the leadership of the chieftain <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> captured and executed Orestes and took <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, the Western Roman capital at the time, deposing Romulus Augustus. The whole of Italy was quickly conquered, and Odoacer was granted the title of patrician by Zeno, effectively recognizing his rule in the name of the Eastern Empire. Odoacer returned the Imperial insignia to Constantinople and ruled as King in Italy. Following Nepos' death <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a>, King of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, conquered Italy with Zeno's approval. </p><p>Meanwhile, much of the rest of the Western provinces were conquered by <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">waves of Germanic invasions</a>, most of them being disconnected politically from the East altogether and continuing a slow decline. Although Roman political authority in the West was lost, Roman culture would last in most parts of the former Western provinces into the 6th century and beyond. </p><p>The first invasions disrupted the West to some degree, but it was the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93552)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (535–552)">Gothic War</a> launched by the Eastern Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> in the 6th century, and meant to reunite the Empire, that eventually caused the most damage to Italy, as well as straining the Eastern Empire militarily. Following these wars, Rome and other Italian cities would fall into severe decline (Rome itself was almost completely abandoned). Another blow came with the <a href="/wiki/Roman-Persian_Wars#Climax" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Persian Wars">Persian invasion of the East</a> in the 7th century, immediately followed by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, especially of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, which curtailed much of the key trade in the Mediterranean on which Europe depended. </p><p>The Empire was to live on in the East for many centuries, and enjoy periods of recovery and cultural brilliance, but its size would remain a fraction of what it had been in classical times. It became an essentially regional power, centered on <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. Modern historians tend to prefer the term <i>Byzantine Empire</i> for the eastern, medieval stage of the Roman Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Highlights">Highlights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Highlights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <p>The decline of the Western Roman Empire was a process spanning many centuries; there is no consensus when it might have begun but many dates and time lines have been proposed by historians. </p> <dl><dt>3rd century</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (234–284), a period of political instability.</li> <li>The reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (284–305), who attempted substantial political and economic reforms, many of which would remain in force in the following centuries.</li></ul> <dl><dt>4th century</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (306–337), who built the new eastern capital of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, legalizing and even favoring to some extent this religion. All Roman emperors after Constantine, except for <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a>, would be Christians.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376-382)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (376-382)">first war</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> (376–382), culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> (9 August 378), in which a large Roman army was defeated by the Visigoths, and Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> was killed. The Visigoths, fleeing a migration of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, had been allowed to settle within the borders of the Empire by Valens, but were mistreated by the local Roman administrators, and rebelled.</li> <li>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (379–395), last emperor to reunite under his authority the western and eastern halves of the Empire. Theodosius continued and intensified the policies against <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a> of his predecessors, eventually outlawing it, and making <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaean</a> Christianity the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>5th century</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Rhine" title="Crossing of the Rhine">Crossing of the Rhine</a>: on 31 December 406 (or 405, according to some historians), a mixed band of <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> crossed the frozen river <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> at Moguntiacum (modern <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>), and began to ravage <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. Some moved on to the regions of <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa</a>. The Empire would never regain control over most of these lands.</li> <li>The second war with the Visigoths, led by king <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>, in which they raided Greece, and then invaded Italy, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sack of Rome</a> (410). The Visigoths eventually left Italy and founded the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> in southern Gaul and Hispania.</li> <li>The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Hunnic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunnic Empire">Hunnic Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Attila_the_Hun" class="mw-redirect" title="Attila the Hun">Attila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bleda" title="Bleda">Bleda</a> (434–453), who raided the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, Gaul, and Italy, threatening both Constantinople and Rome.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">second sack of Rome</a>, this time by the Vandals (455).</li> <li>Failed counterstrikes against the Vandals (461–468). The Western Emperor <a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a> planned a naval campaign against the Vandals to reconquer northern Africa in 461, but word of the preparations got out to the Vandals, who took the Roman fleet by surprise and destroyed it. A <a href="/wiki/Basiliscus#Disastrous_expedition_against_the_Vandals" title="Basiliscus">second naval expedition against the Vandals</a>, sent by Emperors <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a>, was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Bon_(468)" title="Battle of Cape Bon (468)">Cape Bon</a> in 468.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:476eur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/476eur.jpg/500px-476eur.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/476eur.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Europe in 476, from <i>Muir's Historical Atlas</i> (1911)</div></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Deposition of the last Western Emperors, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> (475–480). Julius Nepos, who had been nominated by the Eastern Emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a>, was deposed by the rebelled <i>magister militum</i> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Orestes" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Orestes">Orestes</a>, who installed his own son Romulus in the imperial throne. Both Zeno and his rival <a href="/wiki/Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a>, in the East, continued to regard Julius Nepos, who fled to <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a>, as the legitimate Western Emperor, and Romulus as an usurper. Shortly after, <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, <i>magister militum</i> appointed by Julius, invaded Italy, defeated Orestes, and deposed Romulus Augustus on 4 September 476. Odoacer then proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and asked the Eastern Emperor Zeno to become formal Emperor of both empires, and in so doing legalize Odoacer's own position as Imperial viceroy of Italy. Zeno did so, setting aside the claims of Nepos, who was murdered by his own soldiers in 480.</li> <li>Foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> in Italy (493). Concerned with the success and popularity of Odoacer, Zeno started a campaign against him, at first with words, then by inciting the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a> to take back Italy from him. They did as much, but then founded an independent kingdom of their own, under the rule of king <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric</a>. Italy and the entire West were lost to the Empire.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_and_explanations_of_the_fall">Theories and explanations of the fall</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theories and explanations of the fall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The various theories and explanations of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West can be very broadly classified into four groups, although this classification is not without overlap and does not imply four schools of thought or often more than a superficially similar result of often very different historical analyses: </p> <ul><li><a href="#Decay_owing_to_general_malaise">Decay due to general malaise</a></li> <li><a href="#Monocausal_decay">Monocausal decay</a></li> <li><a href="#Catastrophic_collapse">Catastrophic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="#Transformation">Transformation</a></li></ul> <p>Explanations attributing the decay to general malaise go back to <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, who argued that the edifice of the Roman Empire had been built on unsound foundations to begin with. According to Gibbon, the fall was – in the final analysis – inevitable. On the other hand, Gibbon had assigned a major portion of the responsibility for the decay to the influence of Christianity, and he is therefore often, though perhaps unjustly, seen as the first proponent of a monocausal explanation. </p><p>On the other hand, proponents of a catastrophic collapse are convinced that the fall of the empire was not a pre-determined event and should not be taken for granted. Instead, they are convinced it was due to the combined effect of a number of adverse processes, many of them set in motion by the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">migration of peoples</a> of the time, and that these processes together applied too much stress on the empire's basically sound structure. </p><p>Finally, proponents of transformation as the cause challenge the whole notion of the 'fall' of the empire and distinguish between the fall into disuse of a particular political dispensation,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which was in any case unworkable towards its end, and the fate of the Roman civilisation at the basis of the empire. These explanations are similar enough in reasoning to be considered a school of thought and draw their basic premise from the <a href="#Henri_Pirenne">Pirenne thesis</a> that the Roman world underwent a gradual (though often violent) series of transformations in morphing into the medieval world. The historians belonging to this school often prefer to speak of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> instead of the fall of the Roman Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decay_owing_to_general_malaise">Decay owing to general malaise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decay owing to general malaise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edward_Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Edward Gibbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the words of classicist <a href="/wiki/James_J._O%27Donnell" title="James J. O'Donnell">James J. O'Donnell</a>, the "long, long shadow" of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> "darkens our understanding of the Roman world." Gibbon said the fall of Rome was "the triumph of barbarism and religion."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i> (1776–89), Gibbon dated the beginning of the decline of Rome to the year 180 after the death of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "long peace" that ended with Marcus, in his view, "introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals of the empire<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>....The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the causes of destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weakened by internal decay, the Western Roman Empire "was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underlying_causes">Underlying causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Underlying causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When Gibbon published his landmark work, it quickly became the standard, and remained so for over 200 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan196983,_93–94_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan196983,_93–94-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon1906279,_312_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1906279,_312-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Brown has written that "Gibbon's work formed the peak of a century of scholarship which had been conducted in the belief that the study of the declining Roman Empire was also the study of the origins of modern Europe".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201337_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201337-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon was the first to attempt an explanation of causes of a Fall of empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201337_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201337-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Gerald J. Gruman explains Gibbon's views as built around two important concepts: "balance" and "excess".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196076-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon's interpretation of the causes of the decline and fall of the Roman empire are primarily political and can be grouped under four political headings: universal domination, democracy, militarism and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196076-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Universal_domination">Universal domination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Universal domination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibbon assumes the best course for all nations is to preserve a balance of power between them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196076-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without balance, humans produce domination, or its opposite excess, submergence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome's pursuit of empire led to its own demise, because such domination is "artificial and abnormal".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon thought that, in its quest for world dominion, Rome had created a situation that intensified the evils of despotism, lost public freedom, and allowed the universal dominion of their <i>Pax Romana</i> to cause the deterioration of the political virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman Empire included many different nations and cultures, and Rome pushed assimilation by offering citizenship in what Gibbon saw as a profligate manner. The citizens of the Roman world-empire "received the name without adopting the spirit of Romans".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to what Gibbon saw as an obliteration of what it meant to be Roman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Democracy">Democracy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibbon admired the Roman aristocracy, and believed democracy led to anarchy and instability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196079,_81_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196079,_81-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He condemned Roman imperialism because it reduced nations to a mediocre uniformity, levelling all classes and individuals to a servile equality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196080_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196080-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What followed democracy's inevitable collapse was despotism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon accused despotism of weakening the military virtues (I, 194 and II, 522), of causing excessive taxation (II, 190), of fettering the mind (I, 58), and of producing other consequences fatal to the health of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Militarism">Militarism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Militarism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like democracy and universal domination, militarism was considered by Gibbon to be one of the major causes of the decline and fall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196082-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To Gibbon, a standing army was a threatening element.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So were individual soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon explains, with irony, that the enrollment of barbarian troops accelerated the trend toward the "perversion" of pacifism in the broader society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196082-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hiring of mercenary troops imposed a ruinous financial burden (I, 136), and the quality of those troops deteriorated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081–82_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081–82-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successive generations of the governing class "experienced a failure of nerve, a loss of virtue, and so abdicated to successive groups of non-Romans the role of defending Rome".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201262-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Gibbon, that meant "the last sparks of the military flame were finally extinguished" (III, 130).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196082-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religion">Religion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibbon believed that the adoption of Christianity as the religion of Rome in the fourth century was an important factor in the fall of the Empire. He said that Christianity "preached the doctrines of patience and pusillanimity; the active virtues of society were discouraged; and the last remains of the military spirit were buried in the cloister." The Church caused the diversion of money and manpower away from the needs of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon was criticized for his linkage of the rise of Christianity with the decline of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-Decline_and_Fall_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decline_and_Fall-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon's treatment of Christianity retains its place in political categorization as Gibbon characterized the Christian community of Antiquity as a polity even during its period of persecution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201266_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201266-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Clifford Ando, "Gibbon identifies three causes of the empire's decline and excuses two more. The two factors absolved are the barbarians and Christianity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201262-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because Gibbon saw empire as already advanced in decline before either of these became a factor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201262-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christianity typified superstition in Gibbon's view, and its spirituality was subversive of the traditional Roman virtues (IV, 162), but monks and eunuchs were not agents of social change so much as they were symptoms of a decline already taking place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201260_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201260-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vegetius_on_military_decline">Vegetius on military decline</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vegetius on military decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Writing in the 5th century, the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a> pleaded for reform of what must have been a greatly weakened army. The historian <a href="/wiki/Arther_Ferrill" title="Arther Ferrill">Arther Ferrill</a> has suggested that the Roman Empire – particularly the military – declined largely as a result of an influx of Germanic mercenaries into the ranks of the legions. This "Germanization" and the resultant cultural dilution or "barbarization" led not only to a decline in the standard of drill and overall military preparedness within the Empire, but also to a decline of loyalty to the Roman government in favor of loyalty to commanders. Ferrill agrees with other Roman historians such as A.H.M. Jones: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...the decay of trade and industry was not a cause of Rome’s fall. There was a decline in agriculture and land was withdrawn from cultivation, in some cases on a very large scale, sometimes as a direct result of barbarian invasions. However, the chief cause of the agricultural decline was high taxation on the marginal land, driving it out of cultivation. Jones is surely right in saying that taxation was spurred by the huge military budget and was thus ‘indirectly’ the result of the barbarian invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Michael_Rostovtzeff,_Ludwig_von_Mises,_and_Bruce_Bartlett:_excessive_government"><span id="Michael_Rostovtzeff.2C_Ludwig_von_Mises.2C_and_Bruce_Bartlett:_excessive_government"></span>Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett: excessive government</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett: excessive government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a> and economist <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> both argued that unsound economic policies played a key role in the impoverishment and decay of the Roman Empire. According to them, in the second and third century, the Roman Empire developed a complex market economy in which trade was relatively free. Using Marxist terms, Rostovtzeff in 1926 argued that the roots of Roman decline were the "alliance of the [regressive] elements of the rural proletariat with the military destroyed the beneficient rule of an urban bourgeoisie."<sup id="cite_ref-Bowersock_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowersock-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mises in 1959 said the ruin of Rome was due to inflation and government intervention in the economy, especially with price controls that did not reflect market realities.<sup id="cite_ref-Mises_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mises-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Bartlett" title="Bruce Bartlett">Bruce Bartlett</a> followed in the footsteps of Rostovtzeff and Mises. He titled his 1994 essay, "How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome." He said that "the fall of Rome was fundamentally due to economic deterioration resulting from excessive taxation, inflation, and over-regulation."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Joseph_Tainter:_diminishing_returns">Joseph Tainter: diminishing returns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Joseph Tainter: diminishing returns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 1988 book <i>The Collapse of Complex Societies</i>, American anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Tainter" title="Joseph Tainter">Tainter</a> presents the view that for given technological levels there are implicit declining returns to complexity, in which systems deplete their resource base beyond levels that are ultimately sustainable. Tainter argues that societies become more complex as they try to solve problems. Social complexity can include differentiated <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> roles, reliance on <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract</a> <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, and the existence of a class of information producers and analysts who are not involved in primary resource production. Such complexity requires a substantial "energy" subsidy (meaning <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">resources</a>, or other forms of <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>). When a society confronts a "problem", such as a shortage of or difficulty in gaining access to <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, it tends to create new layers of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> to address the challenge. </p><p>For example, as Roman <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural output</a> slowly declined and population increased, per-capita energy availability dropped. The Romans solved this problem in the short term by conquering their neighbours to appropriate their energy surpluses (metals, grain, slaves, etc.). However, this solution merely exacerbated the issue over the long term; as the Empire grew, the cost of maintaining communications, garrisons, civil government, etc., increased. Eventually, this cost grew so great that any new challenges such as invasions and crop failures could not be solved by the acquisition of more territory. At that point, the Empire fragmented into smaller units. </p><p>Though it's often presumed that the collapse of the Roman Empire was a catastrophe for everyone involved, Tainter points out that it can be seen as a very rational preference of individuals at the time, many of whom were better off (all but the elite, presumably). Archeological evidence from human bones indicates that average nutrition improved after the collapse in many parts of the former Roman Empire. Average individuals may have benefited because they no longer had to invest in the burdensome complexity of empire. Tainter's view is supported by later studies which indicate that European men in the medieval period were taller than those of the Roman Empire. Average stature is a good indicator of nutrition and health. <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Tainter's view, while <a href="/wiki/Invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasions">invasions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">crop failures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> or <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> may be the <i>apparent</i> causes of <a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">societal collapse</a>, the ultimate cause is <i>diminishing returns on investments in social <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adrian_Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Adrian Goldsworthy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>The Complete Roman Army</i> (2003) <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a>, a British military historian, sees the causes of the collapse of the Roman Empire not in any 'decadence' in the make-up of the Roman legions, but in a combination of endless civil wars between factions of the Roman Army fighting for control of the Empire. This inevitably weakened the army and the society upon which it depended, making it less able to defend itself against the growing numbers of Rome's enemies. The army still remained a superior fighting instrument to its opponents, both civilized and barbarian; this is shown in the victories over Germanic tribes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourg" title="Battle of Strasbourg">Battle of Strasbourg</a> (357) and in its ability to hold the line against the Sassanid Persians throughout the 4th century. But, says Goldsworthy, "Weakening central authority, social and economic problems and, most of all, the continuing grind of civil wars eroded the political capacity to maintain the army at this level."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goldsworthy set out in greater detail his theory that recurring civil wars during the late fourth and early fifth centuries contributed to the fall of the West Roman Empire (395–476), in his book <i>The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower</i> (2009). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monocausal_decay">Monocausal decay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Monocausal decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disease">Disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Hardy_McNeill" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hardy McNeill">William H. McNeill</a>, a <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">world historian</a>, noted in chapter three of his book <i>Plagues and Peoples</i> (1976) that the Roman Empire suffered the severe and protracted <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> starting around 165. For about twenty years, waves of one or more diseases, possibly the first epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, swept through the Empire, ultimately killing about half the population. Similar <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">epidemics</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a>, also occurred in the 3rd century. McNeill argues that the severe fall in population left the state apparatus and army too large for the population to support, leading to further economic and social decline that eventually killed the <a href="/wiki/Western_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Empire">Western Empire</a>. The Eastern half survived due to its larger population, which even after the plagues was sufficient for an effective state apparatus. </p><p>Archaeology has revealed that from the 2nd century onward, the inhabited area in most Roman towns and cities grew smaller and smaller. Imperial laws concerning "agri deserti", or deserted lands, became increasingly common and desperate. The economic collapse of the 3rd century may also be evidence of a shrinking population as Rome's tax base was also shrinking and could no longer support the Roman Army and other Roman institutions. </p><p>Rome's success had led to increased contact with Asia though trade, especially in a sea route through the Red Sea that Rome cleared of pirates shortly after conquering Egypt. Wars also increased contact with Asia, particularly wars with the Persian Empire. With increased contact with Asia came increased transmission of disease into the Mediterranean from Asia. Romans used public fountains, public latrines, public baths, and supported many brothels all of which were conducive to the spread of pathogens. Romans crowded into walled cities and the poor and the slaves lived in very close quarters with each other. Epidemics began sweeping though the Empire. </p><p>The culture of the German barbarians living just across the Rhine and Danube rivers was not so conducive to the spread of pathogens. Germans lived in small scattered villages that did not support the same level of trade as did Roman settlements. Germans lived in single-family detached houses. Germans did not have public baths nor as many brothels and drank ale made with boiled water. The barbarian population seemed to be on the rise. The demographics of Europe were changing. </p><p>Economically, depopulation led to the impoverishment of East and West as economic ties among different parts of the empire weakened. Increasing raids by barbarians further strained the economy and further reduced the population, mostly in the West. In areas near the Rhine and Danube frontiers, raids by barbarians killed Romans and disrupted commerce. Raids also forced Romans into walled towns and cities furthering the spread of pathogens and increasing the rate of depopulation in the West. A low population and weak economy forced Rome to use barbarians in the Roman Army to defend against other barbarians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environmental_degradation">Environmental degradation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Environmental degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation during the Roman period</a></div> <p>Another theory is that gradual environmental degradation caused population and economic decline. <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and excessive grazing led to <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of meadows and cropland. Increased irrigation without suitable drainage caused <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salinization</a>, especially in North Africa. These human activities resulted in fertile land becoming nonproductive and eventually increased <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> in some regions. Many animal species became extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recent research of Tainter stated that "deforestation did not cause the Roman collapse",<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it could be a minor contributing factor. </p><p>Also, high taxes and heavy slavery are another reason for decline, as they forced small farmers out of business and into the cities, which became overpopulated. Roman cities were only designed to hold a certain number of people, and once they passed that, disease, <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water shortage</a> and food shortage became common.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead_poisoning">Lead poisoning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lead poisoning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></div> <p>Publishing several articles in the 1960s, the sociologist S. Colum Gilfillan advanced the argument that lead poisoning was a significant factor in the decline of the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilfillan_1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilfillan_1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gilfillan_3_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilfillan_3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, a posthumously published book elaborated on Gilfillan's work on this topic.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilfillan_4_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilfillan_4-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jerome Nriagu, a geochemist, argued in a 1983 book that "lead poisoning contributed to the decline of the Roman empire." His work centred on the level to which the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a>, who had few sweeteners besides <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, would boil <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a> in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called <i><a href="/wiki/Defrutum" class="mw-redirect" title="Defrutum">defrutum</a></i>, concentrated again into <i><a href="/wiki/Sapa_(sweetener)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapa (sweetener)">sapa</a></i>. This syrup was used to some degree to sweeten wine and food. If acidic must is boiled within lead vessels the sweet syrup it yields will contain a quantity of <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">Pb(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub> or lead(II) acetate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lessler_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lead was also leached from the glazes on <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphorae</a> and other pottery, from pewter drinking vessels and cookware, and from lead piping used for municipal water supplies and baths.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6338384_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6338384-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role and importance of lead poisoning in contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire is the subject of controversy, and its importance and validity is discounted by many historians.<sup id="cite_ref-Lessler_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Scarborough, a pharmacologist and classicist, criticized Nriagu's book as "so full of false evidence, miscitations, typographical errors, and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader cannot trust the basic arguments."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concluded that ancient authorities were well aware of lead poisoning and that it was not <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> in the Roman empire nor did it cause its fall. Additionally, Roman authors such as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> recognised the toxicity of lead.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catastrophic_collapse">Catastrophic collapse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Catastrophic collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="J._B._Bury">J. B. Bury</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: J. B. Bury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">J. B. Bury</a>'s <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i> (1889/1923) challenged the prevailing "theory of moral decay" established by Gibbon as well as the classic "clash of Christianity vs. paganism" theory, citing the relative success of the Eastern Empire, which was resolutely Christian. He held that Gibbon's grand history, though epoch-making in its research and detail, was too monocausal. His main difference from Gibbon lay in his interpretation of facts, rather than disputing any facts. He made it clear that he felt that Gibbon's thesis concerning "moral decay" was viable – but incomplete. Bury's judgment was that:<sup id="cite_ref-bury_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bury-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The gradual collapse of the Roman power ... was the consequence of a series of contingent events. No general causes can be assigned that made it inevitable.</p></blockquote> <p>Bury held that a number of crises arose simultaneously: economic decline, Germanic expansion, depopulation of Italy, dependency on Germanic <i>foederati</i> for the military, the disastrous (though Bury believed unknowing) treason of <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, loss of martial vigor, <a href="/wiki/Flavius_A%C3%ABtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Aëtius">Aetius</a>' murder, the lack of any leader to replace Aetius – a series of misfortunes which, in combination, proved catastrophic: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Empire had come to depend on the enrollment of barbarians, in large numbers, in the army, and ... it was necessary to render the service attractive to them by the prospect of power and wealth. This was, of course, a consequence of the decline in military spirit, and of depopulation, in the old civilised Mediterranean countries. The Germans in high command had been useful, but the dangers involved in the policy had been shown in the cases of <a href="/wiki/Merobaudes_(magister_peditum)" title="Merobaudes (magister peditum)">Merobaudes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arbogastes" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbogastes">Arbogastes</a>. Yet this policy need not have led to the dismemberment of the Empire, and but for that series of chances its western provinces would not have been converted, as and when they were, into German kingdoms. It may be said that a German penetration of western Europe must ultimately have come about. But even if that were certain, it might have happened in another way, at a later time, more gradually, and with less violence. The point of the present contention is that Rome's loss of her provinces in the fifth century was not an "inevitable effect of any of those features which have been rightly or wrongly described as causes or consequences of her general 'decline'". The central fact that Rome could not dispense with the help of barbarians for her wars (<i>gentium barbararum auxilio indigemus</i>) may be held to be the cause of her calamities, but it was a weakness which might have continued to be far short of fatal but for the sequence of contingencies pointed out above.<sup id="cite_ref-bury_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bury-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peter_Heather">Peter Heather</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Peter Heather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a>, in his <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (2005), maintains the Roman imperial system with its sometimes violent imperial transitions and problematic communications notwithstanding, was in fairly good shape during the first, second, and part of the 3rd centuries. According to Heather, the first real indication of trouble was the emergence in Iran of the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a> Persian empire (226–651). In Heather's words: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Much more important to imperial collapse than any internal developments was the rise of Persia to superpower status in the third century. From this point on, a much higher proportion of the empire's resources, fiscal and military, had to be focused permanently on the east.<sup id="cite_ref-Heather1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>...Army, bureaucracy, and politics: all had to adapt in order to meet the Persian challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-Heather2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Heather goes on to state – in the tradition of Gibbon and Bury – that it took the Roman Empire about half a century to cope with the Sassanid threat, which it did by stripping the western provincial towns and cities of their regional taxation income. The resulting expansion of military forces in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> was finally successful in stabilizing the frontiers with the Sassanids, but the reduction of real income in the provinces of the Empire led to two trends which, Heather says, had a negative long-term impact. First, the incentive for local officials to spend their time and money in the development of local infrastructure disappeared. Public buildings from the 4th century onward tended to be much more modest and funded from central budgets, as the regional taxes had dried up. Second, Heather says "the landowning provincial literati now shifted their attention to where the money was ... away from provincial and local politics to the imperial bureaucracies."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather200664–67,_96–97,_110,_116_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200664–67,_96–97,_110,_116-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having set the scene of an Empire stretched militarily by the Sassanid threat, Heather then suggests, using archaeological evidence, that by 400 the Germanic tribes of Europe had "increased substantially in size and wealth" since the first century. Contact with the Empire had increased their material wealth, and that in turn had led to disparities of wealth sufficient to create ruling and military classes capable of maintaining control over far larger groupings than had previously been possible. The Germans had become more formidable foes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heather then posits what amounts to a domino theory – namely that pressure on peoples very far away from the Empire could result in sufficient pressure on peoples on the Empire's borders to make them contemplate the risk of full scale immigration to the empire. Thus he links the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> invasion of 376 directly to <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> movements around the Black Sea in the decade before. In the same way he sees the invasions across the Rhine in 406 as a direct consequence of further Hunnic incursions in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>; as such he sees the Huns as important in the fall of the Western Empire long before they themselves became a military threat to the Empire. He postulates that the Hunnic expansion caused unprecedented invasions of the Empire in 376 and 405–408 by barbarian groupings who had become significantly more politically and militarily capable than in previous eras. This detached territory and denied revenues to an empire already at maximum stretch due to the Sassanid pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006432–437_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006432–437-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He disputes Gibbon's contention that <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and moral decay led to the decline. He also rejects the political infighting of the Empire as a reason, considering it was a systemic recurring factor throughout the Empire's history which, while it might have contributed to an inability to respond to the challenges of the 5th century, it cannot be blamed for them. Instead he places the fall of the Western Roman Empire on outside military factors, starting with the Sassanids, and ending with the Germanic invasions under pressure from the Huns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006443–445_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006443–445-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bryan_Ward-Perkins">Bryan Ward-Perkins</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bryan Ward-Perkins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Ward-Perkins" title="Bryan Ward-Perkins">Bryan Ward-Perkins</a>'s <i>The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization</i> (2005) takes a traditional view tempered by modern discoveries, arguing that the empire's demise was caused by a vicious circle of political instability, foreign invasion, and reduced tax revenue. Essentially, invasions caused long-term damage to the provincial tax base, which lessened the Empire's medium- to long-term ability to pay and equip the legions, with predictable results. Likewise, constant invasions encouraged provincial rebellion as self-help, further depleting Imperial resources. Contrary to the trend among some historians of the "there was no fall" school, who view the fall of Rome as not necessarily a "bad thing" for the people involved, Ward-Perkins argues that in many parts of the former Empire the archaeological record indicates that the collapse was truly a disaster. </p><p>Ward-Perkins' theory, much like Bury's, and Heather's, identifies a series of cyclic events that came together to cause a definite decline and fall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transformation">Transformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Transformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Henri_Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Henri Pirenne"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the second half of the 19th century, some historians focused on the continuities between the Roman Empire and the post-Roman Germanic kingdoms rather than the rupture. In <i>Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France</i> (1875–89), <a href="/wiki/Fustel_de_Coulanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Fustel de Coulanges">Fustel de Coulanges</a> argued that the barbarians simply contributed to an ongoing process of transforming Roman institutions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a> continued this idea with the "Pirenne Thesis", published in the 1920s, which remains influential to this day. It holds that even after the barbarian invasions, the Roman way of doing things did not immediately change; barbarians came to Rome not to destroy it, but to take part in its benefits, and thus they tried to preserve the Roman way of life. The Pirenne Thesis regards the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish realm in Europe</a> as a continuation of the Roman Empire, and thus validates the crowning of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as the first <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> as a successor of the Roman Emperors. According to Pirenne, the real break in Roman history occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries as a result of Arab expansion. Islamic conquest of the area of today's south-eastern Turkey, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, Spain and Portugal ruptured economic ties to western Europe, cutting the region off from trade and turning it into a stagnant backwater, with wealth flowing out in the form of raw resources and nothing coming back. This began a steady decline and impoverishment so that by the time of Charlemagne western Europe had become almost entirely agrarian at a subsistence level, with no long-distance trade. Pirenne's view on the continuity of the Roman Empire before and after the Germanic invasion has been supported by recent historians such as François Masai, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Werner" title="Karl Ferdinand Werner">Karl Ferdinand Werner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Peter Brown</a>. </p><p>Some modern critics have argued that the "Pirenne Thesis" erred on two counts: by treating the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> realm as a Roman state and by overemphasizing the effect of the Islamic conquests on the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. Other critics have argued that while Pirenne was correct in arguing for the continuity of the Empire beyond the sack of Rome, the Arab conquests in the 7th century may not have disrupted <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> trade routes to the degree that Pirenne argued. Michael McCormick in particular has argued that some recently unearthed sources, such as collective biographies, describe new trade routes. Moreover, other records and coins document the movement of Islamic currency into the Carolingian Empire. McCormick has concluded that if money was coming in, some type of goods must have been going out – including slaves, timber, weapons, honey, amber, and furs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lucien_Musset_and_the_clash_of_civilizations">Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the spirit of "Pirenne thesis", a school of thought pictured a clash of civilizations between the Roman and the Germanic world, a process taking place roughly between 3rd and 8th century. </p><p>The French historian <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Musset" title="Lucien Musset">Lucien Musset</a>, studying the <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">Barbarian invasions</a>, argues the civilization of <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> emerged from a synthesis between the <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Roman">Graeco-Roman</a> world and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> civilizations penetrating the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire did not fall, did not decline, it just transformed but so did the Germanic populations which invaded it. To support this conclusion, beside the narrative of the events, he offers <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> surveys of <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponymy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthroponymy" title="Anthroponymy">anthroponymy</a>, analyzes archaeological records, studies the urban and rural society, the institutions, the religion, the art, and the technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Late Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians of Late Antiquity, a field pioneered by Peter Brown, have turned away from the idea that the Roman Empire fell at all – refocusing instead on Pirenne's thesis. They see a transformation occurring over centuries, with the roots of Medieval culture contained in Roman culture and focus on the continuities between the classical and Medieval worlds. Thus, it was a gradual process with no clear break. Brown argues in his book that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Factors we would regard as natural in a 'crisis' – <i>malaise</i> caused by urbanization, public disasters, the intrusion of alien religious ideas, and a consequent heightening of religious hopes and fears – may not have bulked as large in the minds of the men of the late second and third centuries as we suppose... The towns of the Mediterranean were small towns. For all their isolation from the way of life of the villagers, they were fragile excrescences in a spreading countryside."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_of_the_Romans" title="Last of the Romans">Last of the Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">List of Roman civil wars and revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Christianity_during_the_Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome">Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_transformation" title="Societal transformation">Societal transformation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDemandt2003" class="citation web cs1">Demandt, Alexander (25 August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crookedtimber.org/2003/08/25/decline-and-fall">"210 Theories"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Crooked_Timber" title="Crooked Timber">Crooked Timber</a> weblog entry</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Crooked+Timber+weblog+entry&rft.atitle=210+Theories&rft.date=2003-08-25&rft.aulast=Demandt&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrookedtimber.org%2F2003%2F08%2F25%2Fdecline-and-fall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/courses/rome/210reasons.html">Alexander Demandt: 210 Theories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232650/http://www.utexas.edu/courses/rome/210reasons.html">Archived</a> 2015-03-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Source: A. Demandt, <i>Der Fall Roms</i> (1984) 695. See also: Karl Galinsky in <i>Classical and Modern Interactions</i> (1992) 53–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" <i>Bulletin of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></i> (1996) 49#8 pp 29–43 at p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krakatoa-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krakatoa_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Winchester" title="Simon Winchester">Winchester, Simon</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa:_The_Day_the_World_Exploded,_August_27,_1883" class="mw-redirect" title="Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883"><i>Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883</i></a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-621285-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-621285-5"><bdi>0-06-621285-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krakatoa%3A+The+Day+the+World+Exploded%2C+August+27%2C+1883&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-06-621285-5&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnaldo Momigliano, echoing the trope of the sound of a tree falling in the forest, titled an article in 1973, "La caduta senza rumore di un impero nel 476 d.C." ("The noiseless fall of an empire in 476 AD").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt,_LynnThomas_R._MartinBarbara_H._RosenweinR._Po-chia_Hsia2001" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Lynn; Thomas R. Martin; Barbara H. Rosenwein; R. Po-chia Hsia; Bonnie G. Smith (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312391201"><i>The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, Volume A: To 1500</i></a></span>. Bedford / St. Martins. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-18365-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-18365-8"><bdi>0-312-18365-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+West%2C+Peoples+and+Cultures%2C+Volume+A%3A+To+1500&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Bedford+%2F+St.+Martins&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-312-18365-8&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Lynn&rft.au=Thomas+R.+Martin&rft.au=Barbara+H.+Rosenwein&rft.au=R.+Po-chia+Hsia&rft.au=Bonnie+G.+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780312391201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-treerings-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-treerings_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinver2011" class="citation news cs1">Kinver, Mark (14 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12186245">"Roman rise and fall 'recorded in trees'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Roman+rise+and+fall+%27recorded+in+trees%27&rft.date=2011-01-14&rft.aulast=Kinver&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-12186245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Donnell, James J. (2008) <i>The Ruin of the Roman Empire,</i> New York: Harper Collins, pp. 38–39, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060787417" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060787417">978-0060787417</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/print/article/209020">"Five Good Emperors"</a>. <i>Britannica Online Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Five+Good+Emperors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fprint%2Farticle%2F209020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1993" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1993). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I</i>. London: Everyman Library. pp. 65–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1857150957" title="Special:BookSources/978-1857150957"><bdi>978-1857150957</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire%2C+Volume+I&rft.place=London&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Everyman+Library&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1857150957&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, Vol. IV, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon" class="citation web cs1">Gibbon, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/gibbon.fall.html">"General Observation on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West"</a>. <i>Georgetown University</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Georgetown+University&rft.atitle=General+Observation+on+the+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire+in+the+West&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.georgetown.edu%2Fjod%2Ftexts%2Fgibbon.fall.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan196983,_93–94-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordan196983,_93–94_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJordan1969">Jordan 1969</a>, p. 83, 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1906279,_312-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon1906279,_312_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGibbon1906">Gibbon 1906</a>, pp. 279, 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201337-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201337_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown201337_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2013">Brown 2013</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196076-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196076_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196077–78_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196079,_81-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196079,_81_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, pp. 79, 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196080-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196080_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196082-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196082_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruman196081–82-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruman196081–82_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruman1960">Gruman 1960</a>, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo201262-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo201262_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span 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IX</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heather1_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2005" class="citation web cs1">Heather, Peter (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/empire-and-development-the-fall-of-the-roman-west">"Empire and Development: the fall of the Roman west"</a>. <i>Policy Papers</i>. History and Policy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Policy+Papers&rft.atitle=Empire+and+Development%3A+the+fall+of+the+Roman+west&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyandpolicy.org%2Fpolicy-papers%2Fpapers%2Fempire-and-development-the-fall-of-the-roman-west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather2-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heather2_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2006" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2006). <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195325416" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195325416"><bdi>978-0195325416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0195325416&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200664–67,_96–97,_110,_116-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather200664–67,_96–97,_110,_116_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeather2006">Heather 2006</a>, pp. 64–67, 96–97, 110, 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeather2006">Heather 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006432–437-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006432–437_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeather2006">Heather 2006</a>, pp. 432–437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2006443–445-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather2006443–445_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeather2006">Heather 2006</a>, pp. 443–445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Brown, <i>The Making of Late Antiquity</i> (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp. 2–3</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndo2012" class="citation book cs1">Ando, Clifford (2012). "5 Narrating Decline and Fall". In Rousseau, Philip (ed.). <i>A Companion to Late Antiquity</i> (illustrated, reprint ed.). John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118255315" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118255315"><bdi>978-1118255315</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5+Narrating+Decline+and+Fall&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Late+Antiquity&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1118255315&rft.aulast=Ando&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>William Carroll Bark (1958). <i>Origins of the Medieval World</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0514-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0514-3">0-8047-0514-3</a></li> <li>Alexander Demandt (1984). <i>Der Fall Roms: Die Auflösung des römischen Reiches im Urteil der Nachwelt</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-09598-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-09598-4">3-406-09598-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2013" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Peter (2013). "Gibbon's Views on Culture and Society in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries". In Bowersock, G. W.; Clive, John; Graubard, Stephen R. (eds.). <i>Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 37–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733695.c5">10.4159/harvard.9780674733695.c5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674733695" title="Special:BookSources/9780674733695"><bdi>9780674733695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gibbon%27s+Views+on+Culture+and+Society+in+the+Fifth+and+Sixth+Centuries&rft.btitle=Edward+Gibbon+and+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=37-52&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733695.c5&rft.isbn=9780674733695&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Drasch, G A (1982). <i>Lead burden in prehistorical, historical and modern human bodies. The Science of the Total Environment</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>. <i>General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West</i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Medieval_Sourcebook" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Medieval Sourcebook">Internet Medieval Sourcebook</a>. Brief excerpts of Gibbon's theories (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gibbon-fall.html">online</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). "XX". In Bury, J.B. (ed.). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. Vol. 3. Fred de Fau and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XX&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruman1960" class="citation journal cs1">Gruman, Gerald J. (1960). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Balance' and 'Excess' as Gibbon's Explanation of the Decline and Fall". <i>History and Theory</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 75–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2504258">10.2307/2504258</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504258">2504258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=%27Balance%27+and+%27Excess%27+as+Gibbon%27s+Explanation+of+the+Decline+and+Fall&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-85&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2504258&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2504258%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gruman&rft.aufirst=Gerald+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan1969" class="citation journal cs1">Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". <i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Theory" title="History and Theory">History and Theory</a></i>. <b>8</b> (1): 71–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2504190">10.2307/2504190</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504190">2504190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Gibbon%27s+%22Age+of+Constantine%22+and+the+Fall+of+Rome&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-96&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2504190&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2504190%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistoriography+of+the+fall+of+the+Western+Roman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Scarborough, John (1984). <i>The Myth of Lead Poisoning Among the Romans: An Essay Review</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Robert J. Antonio. "The Contradiction of Domination and Production in Bureaucracy: The Contribution of Organizational Efficiency to the Decline of the Roman Empire," <i>American Sociological Review</i> Vol. 44, No. 6 (Dec., 1979), pp. 895–912 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2094715">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arther_Ferrill" title="Arther Ferrill">Arther Ferrill</a> The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation 0500274959 (1998).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a>. <i>How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower</i>(2009); published in Britain as <i>The Fall of the West: The Death of the Roman Superpower </i> (2010)</li> <li>Guy Halsall. <i>Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West</i> (Cambridge U.P., 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521435439/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a>. "The Huns and the End of the Roman Empire in Western Europe," <i>English Historical Review</i> Vol. 110, No. 435 (Feb., 1995), pp. 4–41 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/573374">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a>. <i>Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe</i> (Oxford University Press; 2010); 734 pages; Examines the migrations, trade, and other phenomena that shaped a recognizable entity of Europe in the first millennium. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199735603/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter</a>, <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515954-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515954-3">0-19-515954-3</a>, offers a narrative of the final years, in the tradition of Gibson or Bury, plus incorporates latest archaeological evidence and other recent findings.</li> <li>Jones, A. H. M. <i>The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey</i> (2 Vol. 1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801832853">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Kagan" title="Donald Kagan">Kagan, Donald</a>, ed. <i>The End of the Roman Empire: Decline or Transformation?</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-669-21520-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-669-21520-1">0-669-21520-1</a> (3rd edition 1992) – excerpts from historians</li> <li>Mitchell, Stephen, <i>A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World</i> (2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.oup.com/2005/12/the_fall_of_rom2/">"The Fall of Rome – an author dialogue" Part I</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.oup.com/2005/12/the_fall_of_rom/">Part 2</a>: Oxford professors Bryan Ward-Perkins and Peter Heather discuss <i>The Fall of Rome: And the End of Civilization</i> and <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians</i>.</li> <li>Monigliano, Arnoldo. "Gibbon's Contribution to Historical Method," <i>Studies in Historiography</i> (New York: Harper and Row, 1966).</li> <li>Jeanne Rutenburg and Arthur M. Eckstein, "The Return of the Fall of Rome," <i>International History Review</i> 29 (2007): 109–122, historiography</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_language">Foreign language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Foreign language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Musset" title="Lucien Musset">Lucien Musset</a>, <i>Les Invasions : Les vagues germaniques</i>, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1965 (3rd ed. 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-13-046715-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-13-046715-6">2-13-046715-6</a>)</li></ul> <div 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italians, the good people</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Historiography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Historiography">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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