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class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercritical water reactor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%AC" title="مفاعل الماء فوق الحرج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مفاعل الماء فوق الحرج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="সঙ্কটোত্তর উষ্ণতার জল চুল্লি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সঙ্কটোত্তর উষ্ণতার জল চুল্লি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_d%27aigua_supercr%C3%ADtica" title="Reactor d'aigua supercrítica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reactor d'aigua supercrítica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_de_agua_supercr%C3%ADtica" title="Reactor de agua supercrítica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reactor de agua supercrítica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A2%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D8%A8_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="رآکتور آب فوق بحرانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رآکتور آب فوق بحرانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9acteur_nucl%C3%A9aire_%C3%A0_eau_supercritique" title="Réacteur nucléaire à eau supercritique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réacteur nucléaire à eau supercritique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EC%9E%84%EA%B3%84%EC%95%95_%EA%B2%BD%EC%88%98_%EB%83%89%EA%B0%81%EB%A1%9C" title="초임계압 경수 냉각로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초임계압 경수 냉각로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_air_superkritis" title="Reaktor air superkritis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reaktor air superkritis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reattore_nucleare_ad_acqua_supercritica" title="Reattore nucleare ad acqua supercritica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Reattore nucleare ad acqua supercritica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkritischwaterreactor" title="Superkritischwaterreactor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Superkritischwaterreactor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%87%A8%E7%95%8C%E5%9C%A7%E8%BB%BD%E6%B0%B4%E5%86%B7%E5%8D%B4%E7%82%89" title="超臨界圧軽水冷却炉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="超臨界圧軽水冷却炉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadkrytyczny_reaktor_wodny" title="Nadkrytyczny reaktor wodny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nadkrytyczny reaktor wodny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCWR" title="SCWR – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="SCWR" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor,_hlajen_s_superkriti%C4%8Dno_vodo" title="Reaktor, hlajen s superkritično vodo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Reaktor, hlajen s superkritično vodo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylikriittisell%C3%A4_vedell%C3%A4_j%C3%A4%C3%A4hdytetty_reaktori" title="Ylikriittisellä vedellä jäähdytetty reaktori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ylikriittisellä vedellä jäähdytetty reaktori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%8E_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%8E" title="Реактор з надкритичною водою – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Реактор з надкритичною водою" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2_ph%E1%BA%A3n_%E1%BB%A9ng_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_si%C3%AAu_t%E1%BB%9Bi_h%E1%BA%A1n" title="Lò phản ứng nước siêu tới hạn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lò phản ứng nước siêu tới hạn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg/300px-Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg/450px-Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg/600px-Supercritical-Water-Cooled_Reactor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Supercritical water reactor scheme.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg/300px-Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg/450px-Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Supercritical water occurs when both temperature and pressure are very high.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>supercritical water reactor</b> (<b>SCWR</b>) is a concept <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> designed as a <a href="/wiki/Light_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water reactor">light water reactor</a> (LWR) that operates at <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical</a> pressure (i.e. greater than 22.1 megapascals [3,210 psi]). The term <i>critical</i> in this context refers to the <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a> of water, and should not be confused with the concept of <a href="/wiki/Criticality_(status)" title="Criticality (status)">criticality</a> of the nuclear reactor. </p><p>The water heated in the <a href="/wiki/Reactor_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor core">reactor core</a> becomes a supercritical fluid above the critical temperature of 374 °C (705 °F), transitioning from a fluid more resembling liquid water to a fluid more resembling <a href="/wiki/Saturated_steam" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated steam">saturated steam</a> (which can be used in a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>), without going through the distinct <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">boiling</a>. </p><p>The supercritical water reactor combines the established technologies of the <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_steam_generator" title="Supercritical steam generator">supercritical steam generator</a> (typically used to generate electricity from fossil fuels) with the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">boiling water reactor</a> (BWR), to achieve a design that is simpler and more efficient than a BWR, by operating at a higher pressure. As with a BWR, the turbine and reactor pressure vessel are in the same coolant loop, in contrast to a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> (PWR). </p><p>The development of SCWR systems is considered a promising advancement for nuclear power plants because of its high <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> (~45 % vs. ~33 % for current LWRs) and simpler design. As of 2012 the concept was being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The super-heated steam cooled reactors operating at subcritical-pressure were experimented with in both Soviet Union and in the United States as early as the 1950s and 1960s such as <a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station</a>, Pathfinder and Bonus of <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">GE</a>'s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Sunrise_(General_Electric)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Sunrise (General Electric) (page does not exist)">Operation Sunrise</a> program. These are not SCWRs. SCWRs were developed from the 1990s onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-OkaKoshizuka2001_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OkaKoshizuka2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both a LWR-type SCWR with a reactor pressure vessel and a <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a>-type SCWR with pressure tubes are being developed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A 2010 book includes conceptual design and analysis methods such as core design, plant system, plant dynamics and control, plant startup and stability, safety, <a href="/wiki/Fast_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast reactor">fast reactor</a> design etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2013 document saw the completion of a prototypical fueled loop test in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Fuel Qualification Test was completed in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 book saw reactor conceptual design of a thermal spectrum reactor (Super LWR) and a fast reactor (Super FR) and experimental results of thermal hydraulics, materials and material-coolant interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moderator-coolant">Moderator-coolant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Moderator-coolant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The SCWR operates at supercritical pressure. The reactor outlet coolant is <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical water</a>. Light water is used as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> and coolant. Above the critical point, steam and liquid become the same density and are indistinguishable, eliminating the need for pressurizers and steam generators (<a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Jet_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet pump">jet</a>/recirculation pumps, steam separators and dryers (<a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">BWR</a>). Also, by avoiding boiling, SCWR does not generate chaotic voids (bubbles) with less density and moderating effect. In a LWR this can affect heat transfer and water flow, and the feedback can make the reactor power harder to predict and control. Neutronic and thermal hydraulic coupled calculation is needed to predict the power distribution. SCWR's simplification should reduce construction costs and improve reliability and safety. </p><p>A LWR-type SCWR adopts water rods with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal insulation</a> and a CANDU-type SCWR keeps the water moderator in a Calandria tank.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (February 2025)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> A <a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast</a> LWR-type SCWR would have a higher efficiency and power density, but needs <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">mixed oxides fuel</a> (MOX) which is obtained from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear fuel reprocessing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control">Control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>SCWRs would likely have <a href="/wiki/Control_rods" class="mw-redirect" title="Control rods">control rods</a> inserted through the top, as is done in PWRs and in contrast to BWRs, which have control rods inserted at the bottom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Material">Material</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The temperature inside an SCWR is higher than those in <a href="/wiki/LWR" class="mw-redirect" title="LWR">LWRs</a>. Although supercritical fossil fuel plants have much experience in the materials, it does not include the combination of high temperature environment <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation#Effects_on_materials" title="Neutron radiation">and intense neutron radiation</a>. SCWRs need core materials (especially fuel <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(nuclear_fuel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladding (nuclear fuel)">cladding</a>) to resist the environment. R&D focuses on: </p> <ul><li>The chemistry of supercritical water <a href="/wiki/Radiolysis" title="Radiolysis">under radiation</a> (preventing stress corrosion cracking, and maintaining corrosion resistance under <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a> and high temperatures)</li> <li>Dimensional and microstructural stability (preventing <a href="/wiki/Embrittlement" title="Embrittlement">embrittlement</a>, retaining <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Creep_resistance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Creep resistance (page does not exist)">creep resistance</a> also under radiation and high temperatures)</li> <li>Materials that both resist the high temperature conditions and do not absorb too many neutrons, which affects <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor#Breeding_versus_burnup" title="Breeder reactor">fuel economy</a></li></ul> <p>In the once-through coolant cycles, such as SCWRs and supercritical fossil fired power plants, the entire reactor coolant is processed at low temperature after condensation<b>.</b> It is an advantage in managing water chemistry and stress corrosion cracking of structural materials. It is not possible in LWRs due to the recirculation of hot reactor coolant. Materials and water chemistry R&D should be done with the once-through characteristics in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercritical water">Supercritical water</a> has excellent heat transfer properties allowing a high-power density, a small core, and a small containment structure.</li> <li>The use of a <a href="/wiki/Boiler#Supercritical_steam_generator" title="Boiler">supercritical</a> <a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a> with its typically higher temperatures improves efficiency (would be ~45 % versus ~33 % of current PWR/BWRs).</li> <li>This higher efficiency would lead to better fuel economy and a lighter fuel load, lessening <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat#Power_reactors_in_shutdown" title="Decay heat">residual (decay) heat</a>.</li> <li>SCWR is typically designed as a direct cycle, whereby steam or hot supercritical water from the core is used directly in a steam turbine. This makes the design simple. As a BWR is simpler than a PWR, a SCWR is much simpler and more compact than a less-efficient BWR having the same electrical output. There are no steam separators, steam dryers, internal recirculation pumps, or recirculation flow inside the pressure vessel. The design is a once-through, direct-cycle, the simplest type of cycle possible. The stored thermal and radiologic energy in the smaller core and its (primary) cooling circuit would also be less than that of either a BWR's or a PWR's.<sup id="cite_ref-TsiklauriTalbert2005_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TsiklauriTalbert2005-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Water is liquid at room temperature, cheap, non-toxic and transparent, simplifying inspection and repair (compared to <a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">liquid metal cooled reactors</a>).</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron reactor">fast</a> SCWR could be a <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">breeder reactor</a>, like the proposed <a href="/wiki/Clean_and_Environmentally_Safe_Advanced_Reactor" title="Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor">Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor</a> and could burn the long-lived <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> isotopes.</li> <li>A heavy-water SCWR could breed fuel from <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> (4x more abundant than uranium). Similar to a <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> it could also use unenriched <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a> if enough moderation is provided</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_heat" title="Process heat">Process heat</a> can be delivered at higher temperatures than other water-cooled reactors allow</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Lower water inventory (due to compact primary loop) means less heat capacity to buffer transients and accidents (e.g., loss of feedwater flow or large break <a href="/wiki/Loss-of-coolant_accident" title="Loss-of-coolant accident">loss-of-coolant accident</a>) resulting in accident and transient temperatures that are too high for conventional metallic cladding.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald-8Q-2003_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-8Q-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>However, it is not too high for stainless steel cladding. Safety analysis of LWR type SCWR showed that safety criteria are met with margins at accidents and abnormal transients including total loss of flow and loss of coolant accident.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald-8Q-2003_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-8Q-2003-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 97, 104">: 97, 104 </span></sup> No double ended break occurs because of the once-through coolant cycle. Core is cooled by the induced flow at the loss of coolant accident. The water inventory in the top dome of the reactor vessel serves as an in-vessel accumulator. The SCWR safety principle is not to maintain coolant inventory, but to maintain core coolant flow rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is easier to monitor than water level at accidents. There was an error in the water level signal in the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and the operators shut down the ECCS. </p> <ul><li>Higher pressure combined with higher temperature and also a higher temperature rises across the core (compared to PWR/BWRs) result in increased mechanical and thermal stresses on vessel materials that are difficult to solve.</li></ul> <p>However, a LWR type design, reactor pressure vessel inner wall is cooled by the inlet coolant as PWR. Outlet coolant nozzles are equipped with thermal sleeves. A pressure-tube design, where the core is divided up into smaller tubes for each fuel channel, has potentially fewer issues here, as smaller diameter tubing can be much thinner than massive single pressure vessels, and the tube can be insulated on the inside with inert ceramic insulation so it can operate at low (calandria water) temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-ChowKhartabil2007_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChowKhartabil2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The coolant greatly reduces its density at the end of the core, resulting in a need to place extra moderator there.</li></ul> <p>However, a LWR type SCWR design adopts water rods in the fuel assemblies as BWRs. The coolant density in water rods is kept high with thin thermal insulation, not fully insulated. Most designs of CANDU type SCWR use an internal calandria where part of the feedwater flow is guided through top tubes through the core, that provide the added moderation (feedwater) in that region. This has the added advantage of being able to cool the entire vessel wall with feedwater, but results in a complex and materially demanding (high temperature, high temperature differences, high radiation) internal calandria and plena arrangement. A pressure-tube design has the characteristics as most of the moderator is in the calandria at low temperature and pressure, reducing the coolant density effect on moderation, and the actual pressure tube can be kept cool by the calandria water.<sup id="cite_ref-ChowKhartabil2007_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChowKhartabil2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Extensive material development and research on supercritical water chemistry under radiation is needed.</li></ul> <p>However, the entire SCWR coolant is cleaned after condensation. This is an advantage in managing water chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking" title="Stress corrosion cracking">Stress corrosion cracking</a> of structural materials. It is not possible in LWRs where hot coolant circulates. </p> <ul><li>Special start-up procedures needed to avoid instability before the water reaches supercritical conditions.</li></ul> <p>However, Instability is managed by power to coolant flow rate ratio as a BWR.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coolant density change is smaller in SCWRs than BWRs. </p> <ul><li>A fast SCWR needs a relatively complex reactor core to have a negative <a href="/wiki/Void_coefficient" title="Void coefficient">void coefficient</a>.</li></ul> <p>However, single coolant flow pass core is feasible.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>As with all alternatives to currently widespread designs (mostly subcritical water cooled, water moderated thermal reactors of some kind) there will be fewer suppliers of technology and parts and less expertise at least initially than for decades old proven technology or its evolutionary improvements such as <a href="/wiki/Generation_III%2B_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Generation III+ reactor">generation III+ reactors</a>.</li></ul> <p>However, LWRs were developed in the 1950s based on the subcritical fossil fired power technologies. The success of LWRs is based on that experience.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supercritical fossil fired power plants were developed after 1950s. Components such as valves, piping, turbines, feedwater pumps and heaters for operation at turbine throttle pressure up to 30 MPa (4,400 psi) and temperature up to 630 °C (903 K; 1,166 °F) are present for commercial applications.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SCWRs are natural evolution of LWRs. The competitiveness of LWRs in the electricity market is being challenged in the US due to <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a> from historical summaries of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">Energy Information Administration</a>’s (EIA’s) <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_electricity" title="Levelized cost of electricity">Levelized cost of electricity</a> (LCOE) projections (2010-2020) in <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a>. LWRs are the dominant design with the largest share of nuclear power generation and are the current offering for new construction in the world. Innovation dynamics show that innovation does not come from companies with the largest market share.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparing SCWRs and LWRs is not relevant in terms of innovation dynamics<b>.</b> If <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">Small modular reactor</a> (SMR) is competitive, a SMR version of SCWRs will increase its advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_shim" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical shim">chemical shim</a> might behave drastically different as the solution properties of supercritical water are vastly different from those of liquid water. Currently most pressurized water reactors employ <a href="/wiki/Boric_acid" title="Boric acid">boric acid</a> to control reactivity early in <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a>.</li></ul> <p>However, chemical shim cannot be used in SCWRs as well as BWRs, due to the positive coolant void coefficient. SCWRs use borated water as the secondary shut-down similar to BWRs. </p> <ul><li>Depending on design <a href="/wiki/Online_refueling" class="mw-redirect" title="Online refueling">online refuelling</a> may be impossible. While <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDUs</a> are capable of online refuelling, other water moderated reactors are not.</li></ul> <p>However, the <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a> of LWRs is already high in USA, over 90%. Pressure vessel type SCWRs do not require online refuelling. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced moderation water reactor</a>, a concept that is in some ways similar and in others overlapping to the SCWR concept, and is under development apart from the Generation IV program.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">Generation III reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Boiling_Water_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Boiling Water Reactor">Advanced Boiling Water Reactor</a> (<a href="/wiki/ABWR" class="mw-redirect" title="ABWR">ABWR</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor</a> (<a href="/wiki/ESBWR" class="mw-redirect" title="ESBWR">ESBWR</a>) (generation III+)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span 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.reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gen-4.org/gif/jcms/c_40679/technology-system-scwr">"Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)"</a>. <i>www.gen-4.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Boston: Harvard Business School Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875847405" title="Special:BookSources/9780875847405"><bdi>9780875847405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+the+Dynamics+of+Innovation&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+Business+School+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780875847405&rft.aulast=Utterback&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupercritical+water+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFECC_smart" class="citation web cs1">ECC smart. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecc-smart.eu/">"Joint European Canadian Chinese Development of Small Modular Reactor Technology"</a>. <i>ecc-smart.eu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 22,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ecc-smart.eu&rft.atitle=Joint+European+Canadian+Chinese+Development+of+Small+Modular+Reactor+Technology&rft.au=ECC+smart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecc-smart.eu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupercritical+water+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_water_reactor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130928114555/http://wins.engr.wisc.edu/research/scw/intl/SCIEM-III/SCW-INEL-Cor-Des-Crit.ppt">Archived</a> 2013-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PowerPoint presentation).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wins.engr.wisc.edu/research/scw/intl/SCIEM-III/SCWinstab-Yang.ppt">ANL SCWR Stability Analysis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130928114551/http://wins.engr.wisc.edu/research/scw/intl/SCIEM-III/SCWinstab-Yang.ppt">Archived</a> 2013-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PowerPoint presentation).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041015134545/http://neri.inel.gov/universities_workshop/proceedings/pdfs/scwr.pdf">INL ADVANCED REACTOR, FUEL CYCLE,AND ENERGY PRODUCTS WORKSHOP FOR UNIVERSITIES</a> (PDF).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TE_1474_web.pdf">Natural circulation in water cooled nuclear power plants</a> (IAEA-TECDOC-1474)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100422134942/http://nuclear.inl.gov/gen4/scwr.shtml">INL SCWR page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041015183645/http://gif.inel.gov/roadmap/pdfs/supercritical-water-cooled_reactor.pdf">INL presentation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060620115029/http://nuclear.inl.gov/gen4/docs/scwr_annual_progress_report_gen-iv_fy-03.pdf">INL Progress Report for the FY-03 Generation-IV R&D Activities for the Development of the SCWR in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218062110/http://www.gen-4.org/Technology/systems/scwr.htm">Generation IV 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reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" 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class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment" title="Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment">OMRE</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, 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