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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 7 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-7" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">7 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجة بغداد اليهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجة بغداد اليهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="عربی یهودی بغداد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عربی یهودی بغداد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab_Yahudi_Bagdad" title="Bahasa Arab Yahudi Bagdad – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Arab Yahudi Bagdad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%92%D7%93%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ערבית יהודית בגדאדית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערבית יהודית בגדאדית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%94" title="ภาษาอาหรับยิวแบกแดด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอาหรับยิวแบกแดด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_Ba%C4%9Fdat_Arap%C3%A7as%C4%B1" title="Yahudi Bağdat Arapçası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudi Bağdat Arapçası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22">"Baghdad Jewish Arabic"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Baghdad+Jewish+Arabic%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2009</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Jewish Baghdadi Arabic</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">haki mal yihud, el-haki malna</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic languages">Arabic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">Qeltu</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Baghdad Jewish Arabic</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Baghdad Jewish Arabic</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عربية يهودية بغدادية</span>, <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">עַרָבִיָּה יְהוּדִיַּה בַּגדָאדִיַּה</span></span>) or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autonym" class="extiw" title="wikt:autonym">autonym</a> <b><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">haki mal yihud</i></span></b> (Jewish Speech) or <b><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">el-haki malna</i></span></b> (our speech)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">variety of Arabic</a> spoken by the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and other towns of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. This dialect differs from the <a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a> spoken by Jews in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamian</a> cities such as <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anah" title="Anah">Anah</a>. Baghdadi and Northern Mesopotamian are subvarieties of <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a>. </p><p>As with most <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a> communities, there are likely to be few, if any, speakers of the Judeo-Iraqi Arabic dialects who still reside within Iraq. Rather these dialects have been maintained or are facing critical endangerment within respective Judeo-Iraqi diasporas, namely those of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. In 2014, the film <i><a href="/wiki/Farewell_Baghdad_(2014_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Farewell Baghdad (2014 film)">Farewell Baghdad</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مطير الحمام</span>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">מפריח היונים</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'The Dove Flyer'), which is performed mostly in Jewish Baghdadi Arabic dialect, became the first film to be almost completely performed in Judeo-Iraqi Arabic. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Baghdad Jewish Arabic (and Baghdadi Christian Arabic) resembles <a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a>, and more distantly <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian Arabic</a>, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi Arabic</a> spoken by Baghdadi Muslims. Muslims speak a <i>gilit</i> dialect (from their pronunciation of the Arabic word for "I said") while the others are <i>qeltu</i> dialects. Another resemblance between Baghdad Jewish Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic is the pronunciation of <i>ra</i> as a <a href="/wiki/Guttural_R" title="Guttural R">uvular</a>. This peculiarity goes back centuries: in medieval Iraqi Judaeo-Arabic manuscripts the letters <i>ra</i> and <i>ghayn</i> are frequently interchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is thought that the <i>qeltu</i> dialects represent the older Arabic dialect of Mesopotamia while the <i>gilit</i> dialect is of <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> origin. Another factor may be the northern origins of the Jewish community of Baghdad after 1258 (see below under <a href="#History">History</a>). </p><p>Like Northern Mesopotamian and Syrian Arabic, Jewish Baghdadi Arabic shows some signs of an <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> substrate. Violette Shamosh<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> records that, at the <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Passover Seder</a>, she could understand some of the passages in Aramaic but none of the passages in Hebrew. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Mongol invasion</a> wiped out most of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Later, the original qeltu Baghdadi dialect became extinct as a result of massive Bedouin immigrations to Lower Mesopotamia and was replaced by the Bedouin influenced <i>gilit</i> dialect. The Jews of Baghdad are a largely indigenous population and they also preserve the pre-Mongol invasion dialect of Baghdad in its Jewish form, which is similar but a bit different from the general pre-Mongol Baghdadi dialect due to the linguistic influences of Hebrew and Judeo-Babylonian Aramaic, instead of the general Babylonian Aramaic that existed before the Islamic invasion. </p><p>As with other respective religious and ethnic communities coexisting in Baghdad, the Jewish community had spoken as well as written almost exclusively in their distinctive dialect, largely drawing their linguistic influences from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic languages</a> as well as from languages such as <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>. Simultaneous fluency and literacy in the Arabic used by the dominant Muslim communities had also been commonplace. </p><p>With waves of persecution and thus emigration, the dialect has been carried to and until recently used within respective Judeo-Iraqi diaspora communities, spanning <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and numerous other international urban hubs. After the mass emigration of Jews from Iraq to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> between the 1940s and 1960s, Israel came to hold the single largest linguistic community of Judeo-Iraqi Arabic speakers. With successive generations being born and raised in Israel, it is mainly the older people who still actively or passively speak Judeo-Baghdadi and other forms of Judeo-Iraqi Arabic. Israelis of Iraqi descent in turn are largely unilingual <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> speakers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Jews of Baghdad also have a written <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> that differs from the spoken language and uses <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew characters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a sizeable published religious literature in the language, including several <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Arabic#Jewish" title="Bible translations into Arabic">Bible translations</a> and the <i>Qanūn an-nisā'</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">قانون النساء</span></span>) of the <a href="/wiki/Hakham" title="Hakham">hakham</a> <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Hayyim" title="Yosef Hayyim">Yosef Hayyim</a>. </p><p>The following method of describing the letters of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> was used by teachers in Baghdad until quite recently:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Letter</th> <th colspan="3">Description </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%90" class="mw-redirect" title="א">א</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ábu 'áġbaʿ ġūs </td> <td rowspan="2">'alēf </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has four heads </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%91" class="mw-redirect" title="ב">ב</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġazūna </td> <td rowspan="2">bē </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a niche </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%92" class="mw-redirect" title="ג">ג</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ábu jənḥ </td> <td rowspan="2">gimāl </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has a wing </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%93" class="mw-redirect" title="ד">ד</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">nájaġ </td> <td rowspan="2">dāl </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a hatchet </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%94" class="mw-redirect" title="ה">ה</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġə́jla məqṭūʿa </td> <td rowspan="2">hē </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">its leg is severed </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%95" class="mw-redirect" title="ו">ו</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ə́bġi </td> <td rowspan="2">wāw </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a needle </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%96" class="mw-redirect" title="ז">ז</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">dəmbūs </td> <td rowspan="2">zān </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a pin </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%97" class="mw-redirect" title="ח">ח</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'əmm ġəjeltēn ṣāġ </td> <td rowspan="2">ḥēṯ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has two intact legs </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%98" class="mw-redirect" title="ט">ט</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġə́jla b-báṭna </td> <td rowspan="2">ṭēṯ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">its leg is in its stomach </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%99" class="mw-redirect" title="י">י</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ə́xtak lə-zġayyġi </td> <td rowspan="2">yōd </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">your young sister </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="כ">כ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġazūna mdáwwġa </td> <td rowspan="2">kāf </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a round niche </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="ל">ל</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">l-jámal </td> <td rowspan="2">lamād </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">the camel </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="מ">מ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġāsa zbibāyi </td> <td rowspan="2">mīm </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">its head is a raisin </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="נ">נ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">čəngāl </td> <td rowspan="2">nūn </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a hook </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="ס">ס</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">mdáwwaġ </td> <td rowspan="2">səmmāx </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">circular </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="ע">ע</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ábu ġasēn </td> <td rowspan="2">ʿān </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has two heads </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="פ">פ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">b-ṯə́mma zbibāyi </td> <td rowspan="2">pē </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has a raisin in its mouth </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="צ">צ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġasēn w-mə́ḥni </td> <td rowspan="2">ṣād </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">two heads and bent </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="ק">ק</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġə́jlu ṭwīli </td> <td rowspan="2">qōf </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">its leg is long </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ר">ר</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">məčrūx </td> <td rowspan="2">rōš </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">curved </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="ש">ש</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">'ábu tláṯ-ġūs </td> <td rowspan="2">šīn </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">has three heads </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%D7%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="ת">ת</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">ġə́jla məʿġūja </td> <td rowspan="2">tā </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">its leg is crooked </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:190%;"><a href="/wiki/%EF%AD%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="ﭏ">ﭏ</a></span> </th> <td colspan="2">sálām </td> <td rowspan="2">'alēf-lamād </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Salaam_(peace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salaam (peace)">Salaam (peace)</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Jewish Baghdadi consonants<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Palato-<br />alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>plain</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarized</a></small> </th> <th><small>plain</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarized</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">mˠ</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">nˠ</a></span>)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">tˠ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">bˠ</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">ðˠ</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">lˠ</a></span>) </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>JB is relatively conservative in preserving <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> phonemes. Classical Arabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span> has remained as a uvular (or post-velar) stop,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like Christian Baghdad Arabic, but unlike in Muslim Baghdad Arabic where it is pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span>. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> is retained as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span>, like in Christian Baghdadi, but unlike the Muslim dialect where it is sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ]</span>. Classical Arabic interdental <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>θ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ðˠ/</span> are preserved, like in Muslim Baghdadi Arabic (Christian Baghdadi Arabic merges them into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>dˤ/</span>). <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dˤ/</span> has merged into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðˠ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a few rare minimal pairs with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lˠ,<span class="wrap"> </span>bˠ/</span> (e.g. <i>wáḷḷa</i> 'by God! (an oath)' vs. <i>wálla</i> 'he went away', <i>ḅāḅa</i> 'father, dad' vs. <i>bāba</i> 'her door'). In other words, there are velarized segments which cannot be demonstrated to be phonemic, but which cannot be substituted, e.g. <i>ṃāṃa</i> 'mother, mummy'.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a certain degree of velarization harmony. </p><p><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> is one of the primary distinguishing features of Jewish (as opposed to Muslim, but not Christian) Baghdadi Arabic. Older Arabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> has shifted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> (as in Christian, but not Muslim, Baghdadi Arabic). However <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> has been re-introduced in non-Arabic loans (e.g. <i>brāxa</i> 'blessing' < <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Heb.</a> ברכה, <i>qūri</i> 'teapot' < <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Pers.</a> <i>qūrī</i>). Modern loan words from other <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic dialects</a> also have this sound; this sometimes leads to cases where the same word may have two forms depending on context, e.g. <i>ʿáskaġ</i> 'army' vs. <i>ḥākəm ʿáskari</i> 'martial law'. There are many instances where this alternation leads to a subtle change in meaning, e.g. <i>faġġ</i> 'he poured, served food' vs. <i>farr</i> 'he threw'.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ,<span class="wrap"> </span>tʃ/</span> were originally of foreign origin, but have pervaded the language to the extent that native speakers do not perceive or even realize their non-native origin.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Jewish Baghdadi vowels<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Front </th> <th> </th> <th>Back </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː<span class="wrap"> </span>i</span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u<span class="wrap"> </span>uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː<span class="wrap"> </span>e</span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o<span class="wrap"> </span>oː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a<span class="wrap"> </span>aː</span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suprasegmentals">Suprasegmentals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Suprasegmentals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress is usually on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, but sometimes on the antipenultimate (mostly in loans or compound words).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Perfect inflectional suffixes<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3"></th> <th>Unstressed</th> <th>Stressed </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-tu</td> <td>-tō (tū/u)<sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-t</td> <td>-t </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-ti</td> <td>-tē (tī/i)<sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-ət</td> <td>-ət </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-na</td> <td>-nā </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>-təm</td> <td>-təm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>-u</td> <td>-ō (ū/u)<sup>1</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Paradigm of kátab 'to write' in perfect alone and with a 3ms indirect object<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>ktábtu </td> <td>ktəbtōlu </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>ktabt </td> <td>ktábtlu </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>ktábti </td> <td>ktəbtēlu </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>kátab </td> <td>ktáblu </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>kátbət </td> <td>kətbə́tlu </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>ktábna </td> <td>ktəbnālu </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>ktábtəm </td> <td>ktabtə́mlu </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>kátbu </td> <td>kətbōlu </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <ol><li>before 3f.s. direct pronominal suffix</li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Imperfect inflectional affixes<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>'a- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>tə- </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>t- ... ēn </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>yə-<sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>tə- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>nə- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>t- ... ōn </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>y- ... ōn<sup>1</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Paradigm of kátab 'to write' in imperfect<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>'áktəb </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>tə́ktəb </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>tkətbēn<sup>2</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>yə́ktəb </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>tə́ktəb </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>nə́ktəb </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>tkətbōn<sup>2</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>ykətbōn<sup>2</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <ol><li>may be actualized as <i>i</i> before another consonant, e.g. yqūl > iqūl 'he'll say'</li> <li><i>n</i> is elided when a direct or indirect object pronoun suffix is present, e.g. <i>tkətbēla</i> 'you (f.s.) will write to her'</li></ol> <dl><dd>when the 3f.s. direct object pronoun suffix is present, ē > ī/iy and ō > ū/uw, e.g. <i>tkətbīha</i>/<i>tkətbíya</i> 'you (f.s.) will write it (f.s.)'</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Direct object pronominal suffixes<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>ni<sup>1</sup>, (y)(y)i<sup>2</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>ak<sup>3</sup>, k<sup>4</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>ək<sup>3</sup>, ki<sup>4</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>nu<sup>3</sup>, u<sup>4</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>ha<sup>5</sup>, a<sup>3,5</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>na </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>kəm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>həm<sup>4</sup>, əm<sup>3</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Indirect object pronominal suffixes<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-li </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-lak </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-lək </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-lu </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-la </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-lna </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>-lkəm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>-ləm </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Double object pronominal suffixes<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="5">s. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-lyā (lyānu) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-lyāk (lkyā, kəlyā) </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-lyāki </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3 </th> <th><small>m</small> </th> <td>-lyānu (lyā) </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>f</small> </th> <td>-lyāha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">pl. </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>-lnyā </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>-lyākəm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td>-lyāhəm </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> <ol><li>after verbal forms (and rarely particles)</li> <li>after nouns and particles</li> <li>after a consonant</li> <li>after a vowel</li> <li>(<i>ha</i> and <i>a</i> may both occur after some vowels, and in some instances <i>ha</i> may become <i>ya</i> or <i>wa</i>)</li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">History of the Jews in Iraq</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though in a few phrases it has become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span>, e.g. <i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>īd mən wára w-<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>īd mən jəddām</i> 'one hand behind and one in front' (said when someone returns emptyhanded).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Used to specify the indirect object while leaving the direct object unspecified, e.g. <i>jabəlyāk</i> 'he brought it/him/her/them to you (m.s.)'.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ella Shohat (2017) The Invention of Judeo-Arabic, Interventions, 19:2, 153-200, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369801X.2016.1218785">10.1080/1369801X.2016.1218785</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avishur, <i>Studies in Judaeo-Arabic Translations of the Bible</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Memories of Eden: A Journey through Baghdad</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 190-191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 26-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 29-31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 87-88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 128-129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 169-173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour 1991, pp. 176-178.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Blanc, Haim. <i>Communal Dialects in Baghdad</i>: Harvard 1964.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Kees Versteegh</a>, et al. <i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics</i>: Brill 2006.</li> <li>Mansour, Jacob. <i>The Jewish Baghdadi Dialect: Studies and Texts in the Judaeo-Arabic Dialect of Baghdad</i>: The Babylonian Jewry Heritage Centre 1991.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbū-Haidar1991" class="citation book cs1">Abū-Haidar, Farīda (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0kOclNALY3wC"><i>Christian Arabic of Baghdad</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447032094" title="Special:BookSources/9783447032094"><bdi>9783447032094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Arabic+of+Baghdad&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9783447032094&rft.aulast=Ab%C5%AB-Haidar&rft.aufirst=Far%C4%ABda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0kOclNALY3wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaghdad+Jewish+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://semarch.uni-hd.de/sprecher.php4?&ORT_ID=9">Jewish Baghdadi recordings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iraqijews.info/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F-%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%99-%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99/">Baghdadi Jewish Arabic-Hebrew dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200202210626/https://iraqijews.info/%d7%9e%d7%99%d7%9c%d7%95%d7%9f-%d7%a2%d7%99%d7%a8%d7%a7%d7%99-%d7%a2%d7%91%d7%a8%d7%99/">Archived</a> 2020-02-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (In Hebrew)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> 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