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id="toc-Primitive_beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tower_jumping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tower_jumping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Tower jumping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tower_jumping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Kites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Man-carrying_kites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Man-carrying_kites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Man-carrying kites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Man-carrying_kites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotor_wings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotor_wings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Rotor wings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rotor_wings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hot_air_balloons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hot_air_balloons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Hot air balloons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hot_air_balloons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lighter_than_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lighter_than_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Lighter than air </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lighter_than_air-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Lighter than air subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Lighter_than_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginnings_of_modern_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_modern_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Beginnings of modern theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_modern_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balloons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balloons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Balloons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balloons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Airships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Airships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavier_than_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavier_than_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Heavier than air </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Heavier_than_air-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Heavier than air subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Heavier_than_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_and_18th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 17th and 18th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sir_George_Cayley_and_the_first_modern_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sir_George_Cayley_and_the_first_modern_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sir_George_Cayley_and_the_first_modern_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_steam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_steam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Age of steam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_steam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning_to_glide;_Otto_Lilienthal_and_the_first_human_flights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning_to_glide;_Otto_Lilienthal_and_the_first_human_flights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Learning to glide; Otto Lilienthal and the first human flights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learning_to_glide;_Otto_Lilienthal_and_the_first_human_flights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Frost </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Langley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Langley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Langley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Langley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Whitehead" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Whitehead"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Whitehead </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Whitehead-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pearse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pearse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Pearse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pearse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wright_brothers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wright_brothers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Wright brothers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wright_brothers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pioneer_Era_(1903–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pioneer_Era_(1903–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Pioneer Era (1903–1914) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pioneer_Era_(1903–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pioneers_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pioneers_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Pioneers in Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pioneers_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flight_as_an_established_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_as_an_established_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Flight as an established technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_as_an_established_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotorcraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotorcraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Rotorcraft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rotorcraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Military use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I_(1914–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I_(1914–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 World War I (1914–1918) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I_(1914–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Combat_schemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combat_schemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Combat schemes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combat_schemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_the_World_Wars_(1918–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_the_World_Wars_(1918–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Between the World Wars (1918–1939) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_the_World_Wars_(1918–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_(1939–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_(1939–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 World War II (1939–1945) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_(1939–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_era_(1945–1979)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_era_(1945–1979)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Postwar era (1945–1979) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar_era_(1945–1979)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_age_(1980–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_age_(1980–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Digital age (1980–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_age_(1980–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 21st century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 21st century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Mars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of aviation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" > 38 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ الطيران – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الطيران" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_l%27aviaci%C3%B3n" title="Historia de l'aviación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de l'aviación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বিমানচালনার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিমানচালনার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Гісторыя авіяцыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя авіяцыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27aviaci%C3%B3" title="Història de l'aviació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'aviació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie_letectv%C3%AD" title="Historie letectví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Historie letectví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftfartens_historie" title="Luftfartens historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Luftfartens historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Luftfahrt" title="Geschichte der Luftfahrt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Luftfahrt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της αεροπορίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της αεροπορίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_aviaci%C3%B3n" title="Historia de la aviación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la aviación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegazkintzaren_historia" title="Hegazkintzaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hegazkintzaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27aviation" title="Histoire de l'aviation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'aviation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_aviaci%C3%B3n" title="Historia da aviación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da aviación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="항공의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항공의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="उड्डयन का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उड्डयन का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27aviazione" title="Storia dell'aviazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'aviazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של התעופה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של התעופה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a 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Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+aviation%22">"History of aviation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+aviation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+aviation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+aviation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+aviation%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+aviation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (September 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/36px-Acap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="36" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/54px-Acap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/72px-Acap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="50" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_aviation" title="Special:EditPage/History of aviation">editing it</a>. (September 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG/220px-Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG/330px-Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG/440px-Wright_Military_Flyer_arrives_at_Fort_Myer_VA_DA-SD-05-00659.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="1013" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wright_Military_Flyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright Military Flyer">Wright Military Flyer</a> aboard a wagon in 1908</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide,_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg/170px-L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg/255px-L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg/340px-L%E2%80%99Intr%C3%A9pide%2C_Austrian_Military_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>French reconnaissance balloon <a href="/wiki/L%27Intr%C3%A9pide" title="L'Intrépide">L'Intrépide</a> of 1796, the oldest existing flying device, in the <a href="/wiki/Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Heeresgeschichtliches Museum">Heeresgeschichtliches Museum</a>, Vienna</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/220px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/330px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/440px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ornithopter" title="Ornithopter">ornithopter</a> design</figcaption></figure> The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like <a href="/wiki/Kite" title="Kite">kites</a> and daring attempts at tower jumping to <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_speed" title="Supersonic speed">supersonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypersonic_flight" title="Hypersonic flight">hypersonic flight</a> in powered, <a href="/wiki/Heavier-than-air_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavier-than-air flight">heavier-than-air</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a>. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>'s 15th-century dream of flight found expression in several rational designs, though hindered by the limitations of contemporary science.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the late 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Montgolfier_brothers" title="Montgolfier brothers">Montgolfier brothers</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot-air balloon</a> and began manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_balloon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen balloon">hydrogen balloon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wings-tom-1">[1]</a> Various theories in <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> by physicists during the same period, such as <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a>, led to the foundation of modern <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a>, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Cayley" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir George Cayley">Sir George Cayley</a>. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing balloon companies during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hallion-2">[2]</a> Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for learning the dynamics of heavier-than-air craft, most notably by Cayley, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Octave_Chanute" title="Octave Chanute">Octave Chanute</a>. By the early 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight possible for the first time. In 1903, following their pioneering research and experiments with wing design and aircraft control, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> successfully incorporated all of the required elements to create and fly the first aeroplane.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The basic configuration with its characteristic tail was established by 1909, followed by rapid design and performance improvements aided by the development of more powerful engines. The first great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible balloons pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Zeppelin" title="Ferdinand von Zeppelin">Ferdinand von Zeppelin</a>, which soon became synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a> and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large <a href="/wiki/Flying_boat" title="Flying boat">flying boats</a> became popular. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the flying boats were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new and immensely powerful <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a> revolutionized both air travel and <a href="/wiki/Military_aviation" title="Military aviation">military aviation</a>. In the latter half of the 20th century, the development of <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital electronics</a> led to major advances in flight instrumentation and "fly-by-wire" systems. The 21st century has seen the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Pilotless_drone" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilotless drone">pilotless drones</a> for military, civilian, and recreational purposes. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft designs, such as flying wings, have also become feasible. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird" with suffix -ation meaning action or progress, was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812–1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primitive_beginnings">Primitive beginnings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Primitive beginnings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines" title="Early flying machines">Early flying machines</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_aviation" title="Timeline of aviation">Timeline of aviation</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tower_jumping">Tower jumping</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tower jumping">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png/170px-Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png/255px-Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daedalus" title="Daedalus">Daedalus</a> working on <a href="/wiki/Icarus" title="Icarus">Icarus</a>' wings</figcaption></figure> Since ancient times, there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks, or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legends of <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_and_Icarus#Daedalus_and_Icarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Daedalus and Icarus">Daedalus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Icarus" title="Icarus">Icarus</a> are some of the earliest known.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Others originated in ancient Asia<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and the European Middle Ages. During this early period, the concepts of lift, stability, and control were not well understood, and most attempts resulted in serious injuries or death. The <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian</a> scientist <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Firnas" title="Abbas ibn Firnas">Abbas ibn Firnas</a> (810–887 AD) attempted to fly in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba, Spain</a>, by covering his body with <a href="/wiki/Vulture" title="Vulture">vulture</a> feathers and attached two wings to his arms.<a href="#cite_note-LynnWhite-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-SA-9">[9]</a> The 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerian</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Mohammed_al-Maqqari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari">Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari</a>, quoting a poem by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba">Muhammad I of Córdoba</a>'s 9th-century court poet Mu'min ibn Said, recounts that Firnas flew some distance before landing with some injuries, attributed to his lacking a tail (as birds use them to land).<a href="#cite_note-LynnWhite-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-10">[10]</a> In the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" title="William of Malmesbury">William of Malmesbury</a> wrote that <a href="/wiki/Eilmer_of_Malmesbury" title="Eilmer of Malmesbury">Eilmer of Malmesbury</a>, an 11th-century Benedictine monk, attached wings to his hands and feet and flew a short distance,<a href="#cite_note-LynnWhite-8">[8]</a> but broke both legs while landing, also having neglected to make himself a tail.<a href="#cite_note-:2-10">[10]</a> Many others made well-documented jumps in the following centuries. As late as 1811, <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Berblinger" title="Albrecht Berblinger">Albrecht Berblinger</a> constructed an <a href="/wiki/Ornithopter" title="Ornithopter">ornithopter</a> and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWragg1974-11">[11]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kites">Kites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kites">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fier_Drake_(1634_kite_woodcut).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fier_Drake_%281634_kite_woodcut%29.png/220px-Fier_Drake_%281634_kite_woodcut%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fier_Drake_%281634_kite_woodcut%29.png/330px-Fier_Drake_%281634_kite_woodcut%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Fier_Drake_%281634_kite_woodcut%29.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Woodcut print of a kite from John Bate's 1635 book <a href="/wiki/The_Mysteryes_of_Nature_and_Art" title="The Mysteryes of Nature and Art">The Mysteryes of Nature and Art</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Kite" title="Kite">kite</a> may have been the first form of man-made aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-wings-tom-1">[1]</a> It was invented in China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> (Mo Di) and <a href="/wiki/Lu_Ban" title="Lu Ban">Lu Ban</a> (Gongshu Ban).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang2005122-12">[12]</a> Later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Ancient and mediaeval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate and send messages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965a127-16">[16]</a> Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Fighter_kite" title="Fighter kite">fighter kite</a>, which has an abrasive line used to cut down other kites. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Man-carrying_kites">Man-carrying kites</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Man-carrying kites">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Man-lifting_kite" title="Man-lifting kite">Man-carrying kites</a> are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China for civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early recorded flight was that of the prisoner <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Huangtou" title="Yuan Huangtou">Yuan Huangtou</a>, a Chinese prince, in the 6th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Stories of man-carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD. At one time, there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites.<a href="#cite_note-pelham-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rotor_wings">Rotor wings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rotor wings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bamboo-copter" title="Bamboo-copter">Bamboo-copter</a></div> The use of a <a href="/wiki/Helicopter_rotor" title="Helicopter rotor">rotor</a> for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Bamboo-copter" title="Bamboo-copter">bamboo-copter</a>, an ancient Chinese toy.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Donahue-20">[20]</a> The similar "moulinet à noix" (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWragg197410-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hot_air_balloons">Hot air balloons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hot air balloons">edit</a>]</div> From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Sky_lantern" title="Sky lantern">sky lantern</a>. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a>, such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a> (180–234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang2005113-22">[22]</a> There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation" using balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEge19736-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines#The_Renaissance" title="Early flying machines">Early flying machines § The Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine,_c._1488.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg/220px-Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg/330px-Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg/440px-Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>One of Leonardo's sketches</figcaption></figure> Eventually, after <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Firnas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Firnas">Ibn Firnas</a>'s construction, some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most notable of these was <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, although his work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments over the next three hundred years. While his designs are rational, they are not scientific.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWragg197411-24">[24]</a> He particularly underestimated the amount of power that would be needed to propel a flying object,<a href="#cite_note-time-25">[25]</a> basing his designs on the flapping wings of a bird rather than an engine-powered propeller.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> Leonardo studied bird and bat flight,<a href="#cite_note-time-25">[25]</a> claiming the superiority of the latter owing to its unperforated wing.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> He analyzed these and anticipating many principles of aerodynamics. He understood that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairlieCayley1965163-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> did not publish his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's third law">third law of motion</a> until 1687. From the last years of the 15th century until 1505,<a href="#cite_note-time-25">[25]</a> Leonardo wrote about and sketched many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed-wing gliders, rotorcraft (perhaps inspired by whirligig toys), parachutes (in the form of a wooden-framed pyramidal tent) and a wind speed gauge.<a href="#cite_note-time-25">[25]</a> His early designs were man-powered and included ornithopters and rotorcraft; however, he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring.<a href="#cite_note-popham-29">[29]</a> In an essay titled Sul volo (On flight), Leonardo describes a flying machine called "the bird" which he built from starched linen, leather joints, and raw silk thongs. In the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Atlanticus" title="Codex Atlanticus">Codex Atlanticus</a>, he wrote, "Tomorrow morning, on the second day of January 1496, I will make the thong and the attempt."<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> According to one commonly repeated, albeit presumably fictional story, in 1505 Leonardo or one of his pupils attempted to fly from the summit of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Ceceri" title="Monte Ceceri">Monte Ceceri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-time-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lighter_than_air">Lighter than air</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lighter than air">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_modern_theories">Beginnings of modern theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Beginnings of modern theories">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Lana_de_Terzi" title="Francesco Lana de Terzi">Francesco Lana de Terzi</a> proposed in Prodromo dell'Arte Maestra (1670) that large vessels could float in the atmosphere by applying the principles of the vacuum. Lana designed an airship with four huge copper foil spheres connected to support a rider's basket, a tail, and a steering rudder. Critics argued that the thin copper spheres could not sustain ambient air pressure, and further experiments proved that his idea was impossible.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The technique of using a vacuum to create lift is called a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_airship" title="Vacuum airship">vacuum airship</a>, but it is still impossible to build with the materials available today. In 1709, <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_de_Gusm%C3%A3o" title="Bartolomeu de Gusmão">Bartolomeu de Gusmão</a> approached <a href="/wiki/John_V_of_Portugal" title="John V of Portugal">King John V of Portugal</a> and claimed to have discovered a way for airborne flight. Due to the King's illness, Gusmão's experiment was rescheduled from its initial June 24, 1709, date to August 8. The experiment was carried out in front of the king and other nobles in the <a href="/wiki/Casa_da_%C3%8Dndia" title="Casa da Índia">Casa da India</a> yard, but the paper ship or device burned down before it could take flight.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balloons">Balloons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Balloons">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ballooning" title="History of ballooning">History of ballooning</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:344px;max-width:344px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_flight_02562u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Early_flight_02562u.jpg/340px-Early_flight_02562u.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Early_flight_02562u.jpg/510px-Early_flight_02562u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Early_flight_02562u.jpg/680px-Early_flight_02562u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4911" data-file-height="2930" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_flight_02561u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Early_flight_02561u.jpg/340px-Early_flight_02561u.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Early_flight_02561u.jpg/510px-Early_flight_02561u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Early_flight_02561u.jpg/680px-Early_flight_02561u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4911" data-file-height="2947" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Lithographic depiction of pioneering events (1783 to 1846)</div></div></div></div> In France, five aviation firsts were accomplished between June 4 and December 1, 1783: <ul><li>On 4 June, a crowd gathered in <a href="/wiki/Annonay" title="Annonay">Annonay</a>, France, to witness the unmanned hot air balloon display by the <a href="/wiki/Montgolfier_brothers" title="Montgolfier brothers">Montgolfier brothers</a>. Their 500-pound balloon ascended to nearly 3,000 feet and traveled over a mile and a half. It stayed in the air for ten minutes before tipping over and catching fire.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a></li> <li>On August 27th, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers" title="Robert brothers">Robert brothers</a> unveiled the first unmanned hydrogen balloon from Paris' <a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars" title="Champ de Mars">Champ de Mars</a>. It landed almost an hour later in <a href="/wiki/Gonesse" title="Gonesse">Gonesse</a>, where terrified farmers mistook it for a monster and destroyed it.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li> <li>On October 19, in front of 2,000 spectators, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier" title="Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier">Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_d%27Arlandes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis d'Arlandes">Marquis d'Arlandes</a> boarded the Montgolfier aircraft as the first people. Later that day, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giroud_de_Villette&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giroud de Villette (page does not exist)">Giroud de Villette</a>, another pilot, took to the skies much higher.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li> <li>On 21 November, the Montgolfiers launched the first free flight with human passengers. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, along with the <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laurent_d%27Arlandes" title="François Laurent d'Arlandes">Marquis François d'Arlandes</a>, successfully petitioned for the honour. They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered by a wood fire.<a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a></li> <li>On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers" title="Robert brothers">Nicolas-Louis Robert</a> launched their manned hydrogen balloon from the <a href="/wiki/Jardin_des_Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardin des Tuileries">Jardin des Tuileries</a> in Paris, as a crowd of 400,000 witnessed. They ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m)[15] and landed at sunset in <a href="/wiki/Nesles-la-Vall%C3%A9e" title="Nesles-la-Vallée">Nesles-la-Vallée</a> after a flight of 2 hours and 5 minutes, covering 36 km. After Robert alighted Charles decided to ascend alone. This time he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 9,800 feet (3,000 m), where he saw the sun again, suffered extreme pain in his ears, and never flew again.</li></ul> Ballooning became a major "rage" in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first detailed understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere. Non-steerable balloons were employed during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">Union Army Balloon Corps</a>. The young <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Zeppelin#Army_career" title="Ferdinand von Zeppelin">Ferdinand von Zeppelin</a> first flew as a balloon passenger with the Union <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac" title="Army of the Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a> in 1863. In the early 1900s, ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used <a href="/wiki/Coal_gas" title="Coal gas">coal gas</a> as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the balloons had to be larger, however, coal gas was far more readily available and the local gas works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Airships">Airships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Airships">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">Airship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">Zeppelin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable,_25_sept_1885,_Commandant_P._Renard,_Gallica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg/220px-Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg/330px-Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg/440px-Le_premier_circuit_ferm%C3%A9_en_dirigeable%2C_25_sept_1885%2C_Commandant_P._Renard%2C_Gallica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2543" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>La France flying in 1885</figcaption></figure> Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons" and are still sometimes called dirigibles today. Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the 19th century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air flight is believed to have taken place in 1852 when <a href="/wiki/Henri_Giffard" title="Henri Giffard">Henri Giffard</a> flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine-driven craft. Another advance was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free-flight was made in a French Army electric-powered airship, <a href="/wiki/La_France_(airship)" title="La France (airship)">La France</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Renard" title="Charles Renard">Charles Renard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Krebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Krebs">Arthur Krebs</a>. The 170-foot (52 m) long, 66,000-cubic-foot (1,900 m3) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with the aid of an 8½ horsepower electric motor. However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled flights did not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see below.) <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg/170px-Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg/255px-Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg/340px-Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1802" data-file-height="2569" /></a><figcaption>Santos-Dumont's "Number 6" rounding the Eiffel Tower in the process of winning the Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize, October 1901</figcaption></figure> The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were <a href="/wiki/Non-rigid_airship" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rigid airship">non-rigid airships</a> (sometimes called "blimps".) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Santos-Dumont" title="Alberto Santos-Dumont">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a> who effectively combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine. On 19 October 1901, he flew his airship Number 6 over Paris from the <a href="/wiki/Parc_de_Saint_Cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Parc de Saint Cloud">Parc de Saint Cloud</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> and back in under 30 minutes to win the <a href="/wiki/Deutsch_de_la_Meurthe_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsch de la Meurthe prize">Deutsch de la Meurthe prize</a>. Santos-Dumont went on to design and build several aircraft. The subsequent controversy surrounding his and others' competing claims with regard to aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the development of airships. At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first successful rigid airships were also being developed. These were far more capable than fixed-wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo-carrying capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advancement was pioneered by the German count <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Zeppelin" title="Ferdinand von Zeppelin">Ferdinand von Zeppelin</a>. Construction of the first <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">Zeppelin</a> airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of Manzell, <a href="/wiki/Friedrichshafen" title="Friedrichshafen">Friedrichshafen</a>. This was intended to ease the starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype airship <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin_LZ1" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeppelin LZ1">LZ 1</a> (LZ for "Luftschiff Zeppelin") had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) <a href="/wiki/Daimler_Motoren_Gesellschaft" title="Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft">Daimler</a> engines and balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles. Its first flight, on 2 July 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m/s speed attained by the French airship La France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It was several years before the Count was able to raise enough funds for another try. German airship passenger service known as <a href="/wiki/DELAG" title="DELAG">DELAG</a> (Deutsche-Luftschiffahrts AG) was established in 1910. Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to this day, their development has been largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air craft. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heavier_than_air">Heavier than air</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Heavier than air">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines" title="Early flying machines">Early flying machines</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="17th_and_18th_centuries">17th and 18th centuries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 17th and 18th centuries">edit</a>]</div> Traveller <a href="/wiki/Evliya_%C3%87elebi" title="Evliya Çelebi">Evliya Çelebi</a> reported that in 1633, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> scientist and engineer <a href="/wiki/Lagari_Hasan_%C3%87elebi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagari Hasan Çelebi">Lagari Hasan Çelebi</a> blasted off from <a href="/wiki/Sarayburnu" title="Sarayburnu">Sarayburnu</a>, (the <a href="/wiki/Promontory" title="Promontory">promontory</a> below the <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) in a 7-winged rocket propelled by 50 <a href="/wiki/Oka_(mass)" title="Oka (mass)">okka</a> (140 lbs) of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>. The flight was said to have been undertaken at the time of the birth of <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of the Ottoman Empire">Sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a>'s daughter. As Evliya Celebi wrote, Lagari proclaimed before launching his craft "O my sultan! Be blessed, I am going to talk to Jesus!"; after ascending in the rocket, he landed in the sea, swimming ashore and joking "O my sultan! Jesus sends his regards to you!"; he was rewarded by the Sultan with silver and the rank of <a href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">sipahi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman army">Ottoman army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Evliya Çelebi also wrote of Lagari's brother, <a href="/wiki/Hez%C3%A2rfen_Ahmed_%C3%87elebi" title="Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi">Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi</a>, making a flight by <a href="/wiki/Glider_(aircraft)" title="Glider (aircraft)">glider</a> a year earlier. Italian inventor <a href="/wiki/Tito_Livio_Burattini" title="Tito Livio Burattini">Tito Livio Burattini</a>, invited by the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish</a> King <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa" title="Władysław IV Vasa">Władysław IV</a> to his court in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, built a model aircraft with four fixed <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">glider</a> wings in 1647.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate 'dragon'", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself.<a href="#cite_note-harrison27-40">[40]</a> He promised that "only the most minor injuries" would result from landing the craft.<a href="#cite_note-oconner-1985-41">[41]</a> His "Dragon Volant" is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The first published paper on aviation was <a href="/wiki/Flying_Machine_(Swedenborg)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying Machine (Swedenborg)">"Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air"</a> by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a> published in 1716.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come someone might know how better to utilise our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or leg". Swedenborg proved prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome. On 16 May 1793, the Spanish inventor <a href="/wiki/Diego_Mar%C3%ADn_Aguilera" title="Diego Marín Aguilera">Diego Marín Aguilera</a> managed to cross the river Arandilla in <a href="/wiki/Coru%C3%B1a_del_Conde" title="Coruña del Conde">Coruña del Conde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n" title="Castile and León">Castile</a>, flying 300 – 400 m, with a flying machine.<a href="#cite_note-aiaa-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> Balloon jumping replaced tower jumping, also demonstrating with typically fatal results that man-power and flapping wings were useless in achieving flight. At the same time scientific study of heavier-than-air flight began in earnest. In 1801, the French officer <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Guillaume_Resnier_de_Gou%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="fr:André Guillaume Resnier de Goué">André Guillaume Resnier de Goué</a> managed a 300-metre glide by starting from the top of the city walls of <a href="/wiki/Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Angoulême">Angoulême</a> and broke only one leg on arrival.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In 1837 French mathematician and brigadier general <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_Didion" class="extiw" title="fr:Isidore Didion">Isidore Didion</a> stated, "Aviation will be successful only if one finds an engine whose ratio with the weight of the device to be supported will be larger than current steam machines or the strength developed by humans or most of the animals".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sir_George_Cayley_and_the_first_modern_aircraft">Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Cayley" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir George Cayley">Sir George Cayley</a> was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairlieCayley1965158-47">[47]</a> During the last years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">physics of flight</a> and later designed the first modern heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements, his most important contributions to aeronautics include: <ul><li>Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles of heavier-than-air flight.</li> <li>Reaching a scientific understanding of the principles of bird flight.</li> <li>Conducting scientific aerodynamic experiments demonstrating drag and streamlining, movement of the centre of pressure, and the increase in lift from curving the wing surface.</li> <li>Defining the modern aeroplane configuration comprising a fixed-wing, fuselage and tail assembly.</li> <li>Demonstrations of manned, gliding flight.</li> <li>Setting out the principles of <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a> in sustaining flight.</li></ul> Cayley's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a model of a complete design. In 1799, he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">fixed-wing</a> flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In 1804, Cayley constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier-than-air flying machine, having the layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A movable weight allowed adjustment of the model's <a href="/wiki/Centre_of_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre of gravity">centre of gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governableparachute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/170px-Governableparachute.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/255px-Governableparachute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/340px-Governableparachute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1308" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>"Governable parachute" design of 1852</figcaption></figure> In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810).<a href="#cite_note-AerNav123-51">[51]</a> In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air". He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic drag">drag</a> and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He also identified and described the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Camber_(aerodynamics)" title="Camber (aerodynamics)">cambered</a> <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihedral (aircraft)">dihedral</a>, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of <a href="/wiki/Ornithopter" title="Ornithopter">ornithopters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parachute" title="Parachute">parachutes</a>. In 1848, he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Triplane" title="Triplane">triplane</a> large and safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWragg197460-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngelucciMatricardi197714-53">[53]</a> He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size manned glider or "governable parachute" to be launched from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of launching from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853. Minor inventions included <a href="/wiki/Free_flight_(model_aircraft)#Rubber-powered" title="Free flight (model aircraft)">the rubber-powered motor</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] which provided a reliable power source for <a href="/wiki/Free_flight_(model_aircraft)" title="Free flight (model aircraft)">research models</a>. By 1808, he had even re-invented the wheel, devising the <a href="/wiki/Wire_wheels" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire wheels">tension-spoked wheel</a> in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage.<a href="#cite_note-FG54-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Age_of_steam">Age of steam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Age of steam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Steam_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam aircraft">Steam aircraft</a></div> Drawing directly from Cayley's work, Henson's 1842 design for an <a href="/wiki/Aerial_steam_carriage" title="Aerial steam carriage">aerial steam carriage</a> broke new ground. Although only a design, it was the first in history for a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Print_(BM_1871,0812.5370).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg/220px-Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg/330px-Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg/440px-Print_%28BM_1871%2C0812.5370%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>1843 artist's impression of <a href="/wiki/John_Stringfellow" title="John Stringfellow">John Stringfellow</a>'s plane <a href="/wiki/Aerial_steam_carriage" title="Aerial steam carriage">Ariel</a> flying over the Nile</figcaption></figure> 1866 saw the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Society_of_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeronautical Society of Great Britain">Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</a> and two years later the world's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">Crystal Palace</a>, London,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> where <a href="/wiki/John_Stringfellow" title="John Stringfellow">John Stringfellow</a> was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jarret3_p53-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-stokes9_p163-6,7-8-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 1848, Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10 feet (3.0 m) wingspan steam-powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the machine leaving a guidewire to fly freely, achieving thirty yards of straight and level powered flight.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Herbert_Wenham" title="Francis Herbert Wenham">Francis Herbert Wenham</a> presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aeronautical_Society" title="Royal Aeronautical Society">Royal Aeronautical Society</a>), On Aerial Locomotion. He advanced Cayley's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat-like ones because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the <a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(wing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspect ratio (wing)">aspect ratio</a> of a wing. The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the "<a href="/wiki/Gentleman_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentleman scientist">gentleman scientists</a>" who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist-philosopher and inventor <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Piers_Watt_Boulton" title="Matthew Piers Watt Boulton">Matthew Piers Watt Boulton</a>, who studied lateral flight control and was the first to patent an <a href="/wiki/Aileron" title="Aileron">aileron control system</a> in 1868.<a href="#cite_note-Magoun-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA_History-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aerospaceweb-Yoon.1-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibbs-Smith_1960-65">[65]</a> In 1871, Wenham made the first <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> using a fan, driven by a steam engine, to propel air down a 12 ft (3.7 m) tube to the model.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1874DuTemple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1874DuTemple.jpg/220px-1874DuTemple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1874DuTemple.jpg/330px-1874DuTemple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1874DuTemple.jpg/440px-1874DuTemple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_du_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix du Temple">Félix du Temple</a>'s 1874 <a href="/wiki/Monoplane_(1874)" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoplane (1874)">Monoplane</a></figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857, <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_du_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix du Temple">Félix du Temple</a> proposed a monoplane with a tailplane and retractable undercarriage. Developing his ideas with a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam, he eventually achieved a short hop with a full-size manned craft in 1874. It achieved lift-off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered glide in history. In 1865, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pierre_Mouillard" title="Louis Pierre Mouillard">Louis Pierre Mouillard</a> published an influential book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de l'Air). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeBris1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LeBris1868.jpg/220px-LeBris1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LeBris1868.jpg/330px-LeBris1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LeBris1868.jpg/440px-LeBris1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Bris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Marie Le Bris">Jean-Marie Le Bris</a> and his flying machine, Albatros II, 1868</figcaption></figure> In 1856, Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Bris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Marie Le Bris">Jean-Marie Le Bris</a> made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a height of 100 metres, over a distance of 200 metres. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png/220px-AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png/330px-AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png/440px-AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Planophore model aeroplane by Alphonse Pénaud, 1871</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_P%C3%A9naud" title="Alphonse Pénaud">Alphonse Pénaud</a>, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore", a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud's model incorporated several of Cayley's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(aerodynamics)" title="Angle of incidence (aerodynamics)">angle of incidence</a> than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A <a href="/wiki/Tailless_aircraft" title="Tailless aircraft">tailless</a> monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg/220px-Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg/330px-Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg/440px-Victor_Tatin_aeroplane_1879.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2933" data-file-height="1407" /></a><figcaption>The Aeroplane of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Tatin" title="Victor Tatin">Victor Tatin</a>, 1879.</figcaption></figure> Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud's fellow countryman <a href="/wiki/Victor_Tatin" title="Victor Tatin">Victor Tatin</a>. In 1879, he flew a model which, like Pénaud's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take off under its own power. In 1884, Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AderAvion3(1897).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg/220px-AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg/330px-AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg/440px-AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="164" /></a><figcaption>Clément Ader Avion III (1897 photograph)</figcaption></figure> In 1890, the French engineer <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Ader" title="Clément Ader">Clément Ader</a> completed the first of three steam-driven flying machines, the Éole. On 9 October 1890, Ader made an uncontrolled hop of around 50 metres (160 ft); this was the first manned aeroplane to take off under its own power.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Ader_Avion_III" title="Ader Avion III">Avion III</a> of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly:<a href="#cite_note-Jarrett5_p87-69">[69]</a> Ader later claimed success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maxim.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Maxim.gif/220px-Maxim.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Maxim.gif/330px-Maxim.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Maxim.gif/440px-Maxim.gif 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="236" /></a><figcaption>Maxim's flying machine</figcaption></figure> Sir <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Maxim" title="Hiram Maxim">Hiram Maxim</a> was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel and constructed a large machine with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a> each delivering 180 hp (130 kW). The overall weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a test rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: lacking flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above the wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail, became airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> and was badly damaged upon falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his experiments shortly afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Learning_to_glide;_Otto_Lilienthal_and_the_first_human_flights">Learning to glide; Otto Lilienthal and the first human flights</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Learning to glide; Otto Lilienthal and the first human flights">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG/220px-Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG/330px-Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG/440px-Planeur_Biot_Massia_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010388.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on display in the Musee de l'Air</figcaption></figure> Around the last decade of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining and defining the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused on stability and control in gliding flight. In 1879, Biot constructed a bird-like glider with the help of Massia and flew in it briefly. It is preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Musee_de_l%27Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Musee de l'Air">Musee de l'Air</a>, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man-carrying flying machine still in existence. The Englishman <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Horatio Phillips">Horatio Phillips</a> made key contributions to aerodynamics. He conducted extensive wind tunnel research on <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a> sections, proving the principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design. Between 1883 and 1886, the American <a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_Montgomery" title="John Joseph Montgomery">John Joseph Montgomery</a> developed a series of three manned gliders, before conducting his own independent investigations into aerodynamics and circulation of lift. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:More_otho_flying.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/More_otho_flying.JPG/220px-More_otho_flying.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/More_otho_flying.JPG/330px-More_otho_flying.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/More_otho_flying.JPG 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="243" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a>, 29 May 1895</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a> became known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He duplicated Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst), which is seen as one of the most important works in aviation history.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> He also produced a series of <a href="/wiki/Hang_glider" class="mw-redirect" title="Hang glider">hang gliders</a>, including bat-wing, monoplane and biplane forms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Derwitzer_Glider" class="mw-redirect" title="Derwitzer Glider">Derwitzer Glider</a> and <a href="/wiki/Normal_soaring_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal soaring apparatus">Normal soaring apparatus</a>, which is considered to be the first air plane in series production, making the Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal the first air plane production company in the world.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Starting in 1891, he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around the world. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> His flights in the year 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> and because of that he is often referred to as either the "father of aviation"<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> or "father of flight".<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash. Picking up where Lilienthal left off, <a href="/wiki/Octave_Chanute" title="Octave Chanute">Octave Chanute</a> took up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896, his team flew several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he documented and photographed his work. In Britain <a href="/wiki/Percy_Pilcher" title="Percy Pilcher">Percy Pilcher</a>, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew several <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">gliders</a> during the mid to late 1890s. The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Box_kite" title="Box kite">box kite</a> during this period by the Australian <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Hargrave" title="Lawrence Hargrave">Lawrence Hargrave</a> led to the development of the practical <a href="/wiki/Biplane" title="Biplane">biplane</a>. In 1894, Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and was the first to obtain lift with a heavier than air aircraft, when he flew up 16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite flying included <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Franklin_Cody" title="Samuel Franklin Cody">Samuel Franklin Cody</a> in England and Captain Génie Saconney in France. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frost">Frost</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Frost">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/William_Frost" title="William Frost">William Frost</a></div> William Frost from <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire,_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Pembrokeshire, Wales">Pembrokeshire, Wales</a> started his project in 1880 and after 16 years, he designed a flying machine and in 1894 won a patent for a "Frost Aircraft Glider". Reports say witnesses claimed the craft flew at Saundersfoot in 1896, travelling 500 yards before colliding with a tree and falling in a field.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Langley">Langley</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Langley">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Pierpont Langley">Samuel Pierpont Langley</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg/220px-Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg/330px-Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley_-_Potomac_experiment_1903.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="264" /></a><figcaption>First failure of Langley's manned Aerodrome on the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a>, 7 October 1903</figcaption></figure> After a distinguished career in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and shortly before becoming Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pierpont_Langley" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Pierpont Langley">Samuel Pierpont Langley</a> started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a>. In 1891, he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-flight control.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson2004-82">[82]</a> On 6 May 1896, Langley's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions, the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because, in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation. With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full-scale man-carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying flying machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on 18 June 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903. With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of the 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley's assistant, <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Manly" title="Charles M. Manly">Charles M. Manly</a>, then reworked the design into a five-cylinder water-cooled radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes. To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome's aerial stability was marginal.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson2004-82">[82]</a> Langley's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on 8 December, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> successfully flew their Flyer. <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Curtiss" title="Glenn Curtiss">Glenn Curtiss</a> made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different aircraft in 1914.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson2004-82">[82]</a> Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley's Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight".<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Whitehead">Whitehead</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Whitehead">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Whitehead" title="Gustave Whitehead">Gustave Whitehead</a></div> Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built early flying machines and engines. On 14 August 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers' flight, he claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his <a href="/wiki/Whitehead_No._21" title="Whitehead No. 21">Number 21 monoplane</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairfield,_Connecticut" title="Fairfield, Connecticut">Fairfield</a>, Connecticut. The flight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In March 2013, <a href="/wiki/Jane%27s_All_the_World%27s_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Jane's All the World's Aircraft">Jane's All the World's Aircraft</a>, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation, published an editorial which accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier-than-air craft.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> (custodians of the original <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as suggested.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The historians of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aeronautical_Society" title="Royal Aeronautical Society">Royal Aeronautical Society</a> noted that: "All available evidence fails to support the claim that Gustave Whitehead made sustained, powered, controlled flights predating those of the Wright brothers."<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The editors of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> agree: "The data show that not only was Whitehead not first in flight, but that he may never have made a controlled, powered flight at any time."<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pearse">Pearse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pearse">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pearse" title="Richard Pearse">Richard Pearse</a></div> Richard Pearse was a New Zealand farmer and inventor who performed pioneering aviation experiments. Witnesses interviewed many years afterward claimed that Pearse flew and landed a powered heavier-than-air machine on 31 March 1903, nine months before the Wright brothers flew. <a href="#cite_note-Rodliffe2003-89">[89]</a>: 21–30  Documentary evidence for these claims remains open to interpretation and dispute, and Pearse himself never made such claims. In a newspaper interview in 1909, he said he did not "attempt anything practical ... until 1904".<a href="#cite_note-O'Rourke-90">[90]</a> If he did fly in 1903, the flight appears to have been poorly controlled in comparison to the Wrights'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wright_brothers">Wright brothers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Wright brothers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_flight2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/First_flight2.jpg/220px-First_flight2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/First_flight2.jpg/330px-First_flight2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/First_flight2.jpg/440px-First_flight2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6603" data-file-height="4280" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>: the first sustained flight with a powered, controlled aircraft</figcaption></figure> Using a methodical approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1898 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their predecessors. Their first full-size glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested.<a href="#cite_note-Dodson-91">[91]</a> As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a higher <a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio" title="Aspect ratio">aspect ratio</a> and true three-axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-tunnel testing of airfoils and flight testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft the following year, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:271px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg/288px-19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg/432px-19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg/576px-19031228_Machine_That_Flies_-_The_Newark_Daily_Advocate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Within weeks of the first powered flight, this Ohio newspaper described "what the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright Brothers">Wright Brothers</a>' invention has accomplished" — after years of glider tests, four successful flights in a powered flier that has "no balloon attachments of any kind, but is supported in the air by a pair of aerocurves, or wings", placing "<a href="/wiki/Alberto_Santos-Dumont" title="Alberto Santos-Dumont">Santos-Dumont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrie_(airship)" title="Patrie (airship)">Lebaudys</a>, with their dirigible balloons ... in eclipse".<a href="#cite_note-NewarkDailyAdvocate_19031228-92">[92]</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/288px-19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/432px-19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/576px-19060107_Another_attempt_to_solve_aerial_navigation_problem_-_Wright_Brothers_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1260" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">This 1906 article describes how the Wrights' experiments were conducted in "strict secrecy for several years", with "not more than a dozen persons" being in on the secret.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19060107-93">[93]</a> One insider stated that the brothers had "not sought for spectacular success", and instead described their "progressive accumulation of experiences", including gradual progression from gliders to powered flight, and from straight flights to circuits requiring turning the aeroplane.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19060107-93">[93]</a> The account reported "some slight success in flying through the air at the end of the Summer of 1903".<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19060107-93">[93]</a> The Wrights were said to have solved flight control issues to achieve controlled turns on a one-mile circuit on 20 September 1904, followed by five-minute flights in the ensuing weeks, and a 24-mile, 38-minute flight in summer 1905.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19060107-93">[93]</a></div></div></div></div></div> The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest. They solved the control problem by inventing <a href="/wiki/Wing_warping" title="Wing warping">wing warping</a> for <a href="/wiki/Roll_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roll (flight)">roll</a> control, combined with simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Yaw_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaw axis">yaw</a> control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low-powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. Although wing-warping as a means of lateral control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights' design was greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for low flying speed and for taking off in a headwind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear-heavy design because the <a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">canard</a> could not be highly loaded; <a href="/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihedral (aircraft)">anhedral</a> wings were less affected by crosswinds and were consistent with the low yaw stability. According to the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_A%C3%A9ronautique_Internationale" title="Fédération Aéronautique Internationale">Fédération Aéronautique Internationale</a> (FAI),<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight at <a href="/wiki/Kill_Devil_Hills,_North_Carolina" title="Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina">Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina</a>, four miles (8 km) south of <a href="/wiki/Kitty_Hawk,_North_Carolina" title="Kitty Hawk, North Carolina">Kitty Hawk, North Carolina</a> on 17 December 1903.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-96">[96]</a> The first flight by <a href="/wiki/Orville_Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="Orville Wright">Orville Wright</a>, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, <a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilbur Wright">Wilbur Wright</a> flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local businessman, and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first well-documented ones.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-96">[96]</a> Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by the time three hundred feet had been covered, the machine was under much better control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little undulation. However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine began <a href="/wiki/Pitch_axis_(kinematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch axis (kinematics)">pitching</a> again, and, in one of its darts downward, struck the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852 feet (260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder was badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that the machine could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two".<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> They flew only about ten feet above the ground as a safety precaution, so they had little room to manoeuvre, and all four flights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing". Modern analysis by Professor Fred E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near <a href="/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio" title="Dayton, Ohio">Dayton, Ohio</a> in 1904–05. In May 1904 they introduced the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer_II" title="Wright Flyer II">Flyer II</a>, a heavier and improved version of the original Flyer. On 23 June 1905, they first flew a third machine, the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer_III" title="Wright Flyer III">Flyer III</a>. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the <a href="/wiki/Elevator_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elevator (aircraft)">elevator</a> and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers") between the elevators and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing-warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were immediate. The serious pitch instability that hampered Flyers I and II was significantly reduced, so repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III started lasting over 10 minutes, then 20, then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and needing a launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> According to the April 1907 issue of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> magazine,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier-than-air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier-than-air flying machine. Glenn H. Curtiss won the trophy in 1908 with the first pre-announced and officially recorded flight of the June Bug.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pioneer_Era_(1903–1914)">Pioneer Era (1903–1914)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pioneer Era (1903–1914)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_pioneer_era" title="Aviation in the pioneer era">Aviation in the pioneer era</a></div> This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early application, alongside balloons and kites, for private, sport and military use. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pioneers_in_Europe">Pioneers in Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pioneers in Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg/220px-14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg/330px-14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg/440px-14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2632" data-file-height="1814" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/14-bis" class="mw-redirect" title="14-bis">14-bis</a>, or Oiseau de proie</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg/220px-Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg/330px-Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg/440px-Sports_Aviation_-_Issy-les-Moulineaux_-_Delagrange_bat_les_records_du_monde_%E2%80%A6_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Early Voisin biplane</figcaption></figure> Although full details of the Wright Brothers' system of flight control had been published in <a href="/wiki/L%27Aerophile" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Aerophile">l'Aerophile</a> in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable machines. Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer <a href="/wiki/Traian_Vuia" title="Traian Vuia">Traian Vuia</a> on 18 March and 19 August 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 metres, respectively, in a self-designed, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage.<a href="#cite_note-L'Aérophile_Apr_Vuia1906-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-L'Aérophile_Sep_Vuia1906-103">[103]</a> He was followed by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Ellehammer" title="Jacob Ellehammer">Jacob Ellehammer</a> who built a monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on 12 September 1906, flying 42 metres.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> On 13 September 1906, the Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Santos-Dumont" title="Alberto Santos-Dumont">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a> made a public flight in Paris with the <a href="/wiki/14-bis" class="mw-redirect" title="14-bis">14-bis</a>, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"). This was of <a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">canard configuration</a> with pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Chateau_de_Bagatelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Chateau de Bagatelle">Chateau de Bagatelle</a> in Paris' <a href="/wiki/Bois_de_Boulogne" title="Bois de Boulogne">Bois de Boulogne</a> before a large crowd of witnesses. This well-documented event was the first flight verified by the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9ro-Club_de_France" title="Aéro-Club de France">Aéro-Club de France</a> of a powered heavier-than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On 12 November 1906, Santos-Dumont set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Only one more brief flight was made by the 14-bis in March 1907, after which it was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In March 1907, <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Voisin" title="Gabriel Voisin">Gabriel Voisin</a> flew the first example of his <a href="/wiki/Voisin_1907_biplane" title="Voisin 1907 biplane">Voisin biplane</a>. On 13 January 1908, a second example of the type was flown by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Farman" title="Henri Farman">Henri Farman</a> to win the Deutsch-Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance of more than a kilometre and landed at the point where it had taken off. The flight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flight_as_an_established_technology">Flight as an established technology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Flight as an established technology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_(1909).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg/220px-Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg/330px-Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Alberto Santos-Dumont flying the Demoiselle over Paris</figcaption></figure> Santos-Dumont later added <a href="/wiki/Aileron" title="Aileron">ailerons</a> between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral stability. His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of <a href="/wiki/Santos-Dumont_Demoiselle" title="Santos-Dumont Demoiselle">Demoiselle</a> monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15 days and became the world's first series production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved 120 km/h.<a href="#cite_note-Hydro-109">[109]</a> The fuselage consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo booms: the pilot sat in a seat between the main wheels of a <a href="/wiki/Conventional_landing_gear" title="Conventional landing gear">conventional landing gear</a> whose pair of wire-spoked mainwheels were located at the lower front of the airframe, with a tailskid half-way back beneath the rear fuselage structure. The Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a <a href="/wiki/Cruciform_tail" title="Cruciform tail">cruciform tail</a> unit hinged on a form of <a href="/wiki/Universal_joint" title="Universal joint">universal joint</a> at the aft end of the fuselage structure to function as elevator and rudder, with roll control provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings only warping "down". In 1908, Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight demonstrations at <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a> in France. The first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted an audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were astonished by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled turns.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by almost all the European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted ailerons to his Voisin biplane and shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the influential <a href="/wiki/Farman_III" title="Farman III">Farman III</a> biplane. The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than the preserve of dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July 1909, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bl%C3%A9riot" title="Louis Blériot">Louis Blériot</a> won worldwide fame by winning a £1,000 prize offered by the British <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail" title="Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a> newspaper for a flight across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, and in August around half a million people, including the President of France <a href="/wiki/Armand_Falli%C3%A8res" title="Armand Fallières">Armand Fallières</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>, attended one of the first aviation meetings, the <a href="/wiki/Grande_Semaine_d%27Aviation_de_la_Champagne" title="Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne">Grande Semaine d'Aviation</a> at <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a>. In 1914, pioneering aviator <a href="/wiki/Tony_Jannus" title="Tony Jannus">Tony Jannus</a> captained the inaugural flight of the <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg-Tampa_Airboat_Line" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line">St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line</a>, the world's first commercial <a href="/wiki/Passenger_airline" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger airline">passenger airline</a>. Historians disagree about whether the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers_patent_war" title="Wright brothers patent war">Wright brothers patent war</a> impeded development of the aviation industry in the United States compared to Europe. The patent war ended during World War I when the government pressured the industry into forming a <a href="/wiki/Patent_pool" title="Patent pool">patent pool</a>, and major litigants had left the industry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rotorcraft">Rotorcraft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Rotorcraft">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/220px-Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/330px-Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg/440px-Elicottero_sperimentale_Enrico_Forlanini_1877_Museo_scienza_e_tecnologia_Milano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>Experimental <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a> by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Forlanini" title="Enrico Forlanini">Enrico Forlanini</a> (1877), exposed at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_nazionale_della_scienza_e_della_tecnologia_Leonardo_da_Vinci" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo nazionale della scienza e della tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci">Museo nazionale della scienza e della tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci</a> of <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure> In 1877, the Italian engineer, inventor and aeronautical pioneer <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Forlanini" title="Enrico Forlanini">Enrico Forlanini</a> developed an unmanned <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a> powered by a <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>. It rose to a height of 13 metres (43 feet), where it remained for 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-imss-111">[111]</a> Milan has dedicated to Enrico Forlanini its city airport, also named <a href="/wiki/Linate_Airport" title="Linate Airport">Linate Airport</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> as well as the nearby park, the Parco Forlanini.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In Milan he also has an avenue named after him, <a href="/wiki/Viale_Enrico_Forlanini" title="Viale Enrico Forlanini">Viale Enrico Forlanini</a>. The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a tethered flight in 1907 by the <a href="/wiki/Breguet-Richet_Gyroplane" title="Breguet-Richet Gyroplane">Breguet-Richet Gyroplane</a>. Later the same year the <a href="/wiki/Cornu_helicopter" title="Cornu helicopter">Cornu helicopter</a>, also French, made the first rotary-winged free flight at Lisieux, France. However, these were not practical designs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_use">Military use</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Military use">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines" title="Early flying machines">Early flying machines</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg/220px-Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg/330px-Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg/440px-Aviation_in_Britain_Before_the_First_World_War_RAE-O227.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nieuport_IV" title="Nieuport IV">Nieuport IV</a>, operated by most of the world's air forces before WW1 for reconnaissance and bombing, including during the <a href="/wiki/Italian-Turkish_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-Turkish war">Italian-Turkish war</a></figcaption></figure> Almost as soon as they were invented, aeroplanes were used for military purposes. The first country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance, bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the <a href="/wiki/Italian-Turkish_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-Turkish war">Italian-Turkish war</a> (September 1911 – October 1912). This war also saw Ottoman soldiers shoot down a warplane for the first time in history, the first warplane reconnaissance mission flown on 23 October 1911 by the Italian air force's Captain Carlo Piazza, and the first bombing mission flown on 1 November 1911 by Italy's Second Lieutenant Giolio Gavotti.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Bulgaria later followed this example. Its aeroplanes attacked and reconnoitred <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman</a> positions during the <a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War 1912–13</a>. The first war to see major use of aeroplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> both used aeroplanes and airships extensively. While the concept of using the aeroplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted before World War I,<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> departments. <a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephones</a> were also being explored on aeroplanes, notably the <a href="/wiki/SCR-68_Airplane_Radio_Telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="SCR-68 Airplane Radio Telephone">SCR-68</a>, as communication between pilots and ground commander grew more and more important. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_(1914–1918)">World War I (1914–1918)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: World War I (1914–1918)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation in World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg/170px-GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg/255px-GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg/340px-GermanFightingMonoplane1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="925" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Etrich_Taube" title="Etrich Taube">Taube</a> <a href="/wiki/Monoplane" title="Monoplane">monoplane</a>, illustration from 1917</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Combat_schemes">Combat schemes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Combat schemes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flying_ace" title="Flying ace">Flying ace</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_flying_aces" class="mw-redirect" title="List of World War I flying aces">List of World War I flying aces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aerial_victory_standards_of_World_War_I" title="Aerial victory standards of World War I">Aerial victory standards of World War I</a></div> It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in late 1914, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Garros_(aviator)" title="Roland Garros (aviator)">Roland Garros</a> attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but while <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Pegoud" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolphe Pegoud">Adolphe Pegoud</a> became known as the first "<a href="/wiki/Flying_ace" title="Flying ace">ace</a>", getting credit for five victories before also becoming the first ace to die in action, it was German <a href="/wiki/Luftstreitkr%C3%A4fte" title="Luftstreitkräfte">Luftstreitkräfte</a> <a href="/wiki/Leutnant" title="Leutnant">Leutnant</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Wintgens" title="Kurt Wintgens">Kurt Wintgens</a> who, on 1 July 1915, scored the very first aerial victory by a <a href="/wiki/Fokker_E.I" title="Fokker E.I">purpose-built fighter plane</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Synchronization_gear" title="Synchronization gear">synchronized machine gun</a>. Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing individual combat with their enemies. Several pilots became famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well known is <a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen" title="Manfred von Richthofen">Manfred von Richthofen</a>, better known as the "Red Baron", who shot down 80 planes in <a href="/wiki/Air-to-air_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-to-air combat">air-to-air combat</a> with several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the <a href="/wiki/Fokker_Dr.I" title="Fokker Dr.I">Fokker Dr.I</a>. On the Allied side, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Paul_Fonck" class="mw-redirect" title="René Paul Fonck">René Paul Fonck</a> is credited with the most all-time victories at 75, even when later wars are considered. France, Britain, Germany, and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw action during the war,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] with German aviation technologist <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Junkers" title="Hugo Junkers">Hugo Junkers</a> showing the way to the future through his <a href="/wiki/Junkers_J_1" title="Junkers J 1">pioneering use of all-metal aircraft</a> from late 1915. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_the_World_Wars_(1918–1939)">Between the World Wars (1918–1939)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Between the World Wars (1918–1939)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_between_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation between the World Wars">Aviation between the World Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg/330px-Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg/495px-Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg/660px-Pioneers_of_the_World%27s_Aerial_Highways.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption>Map of record breaking flights of the 1920s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_(map).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg/170px-Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg/255px-Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg/340px-Aerial_travel_for_Business_or_Pleasure_-_Thos_Cook_%26_Son_-_1919_-_pp_16%2B_%28map%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>"Map of Air Routes and Landing Places in Great Britain, as temporarily arranged by the Air Ministry for civilian flying", published in 1919, showing <a href="/wiki/Hounslow_Aerodrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Hounslow Aerodrome">Hounslow</a>, near London, as the hub</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg/220px-DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg/330px-DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg/440px-DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3944" /></a><figcaption>Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flagg_biplane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flagg_biplane.jpg/220px-Flagg_biplane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flagg_biplane.jpg/330px-Flagg_biplane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flagg_biplane.jpg/440px-Flagg_biplane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3583" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Flagg biplane from 1933</figcaption></figure> The years between <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> saw great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes evolved from low-powered <a href="/wiki/Biplane" title="Biplane">biplanes</a> made from wood and fabric to sleek, high-powered <a href="/wiki/Monoplane" title="Monoplane">monoplanes</a> made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Junkers" title="Hugo Junkers">Hugo Junkers</a> during the World War I period and its adoption by American designer <a href="/wiki/William_Bushnell_Stout" title="William Bushnell Stout">William Bushnell Stout</a> and Soviet designer <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tupolev" title="Andrei Tupolev">Andrei Tupolev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many American pilots became <a href="/wiki/Barnstorming" title="Barnstorming">barnstormers</a>, flying into small towns across the country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually, the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The air races drove engine and airframe development—the <a href="/wiki/Schneider_Trophy" title="Schneider Trophy">Schneider Trophy</a>, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker <a href="/wiki/Monoplane" title="Monoplane">monoplane</a> designs culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_S.6B" title="Supermarine S.6B">Supermarine S.6B</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Earhart" title="Amelia Earhart">Amelia Earhart</a> was perhaps the most famous of those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve records such as the crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Prizes for distance and speed records also drove development forwards. On 14 June 1919, Captain <a href="/wiki/Alcock_and_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcock and Brown">John Alcock</a> and Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Alcock_and_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcock and Brown">Arthur Brown</a> co-piloted a <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vimy" title="Vickers Vimy">Vickers Vimy</a> non-stop from St. John's, <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> to Clifden, Ireland, winning the £13,000 ($65,000).<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail_aviation_prizes" title="Daily Mail aviation prizes">Northcliffe prize</a>. The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial crossing using astronomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators <a href="/wiki/Gago_Coutinho" title="Gago Coutinho">Gago Coutinho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacadura_Cabral" title="Sacadura Cabral">Sacadura Cabral</a> in 1922, from <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, Portugal, to <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, Brazil, using an aircraft fitted with an artificial horizon for aeronautical use.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In 1924, Major General <a href="/wiki/Mason_Patrick" title="Mason Patrick">Mason Patrick</a> lead a group of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Service" title="United States Army Air Service">U.S. Army Air Service</a> members to complete the <a href="/wiki/First_aerial_circumnavigation" title="First aerial circumnavigation">first aerial circumnavigation</a> of the world. This flight around the world came with many logistical challenges, traveling 26,343 miles over the span of 175 days. This flight led to improved foreign relations through by promoting commercial collaboration, and greater public interest in aviation, prompting governments to put more resources into developing their aviation forces.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> On May 21, 1927, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Orteig_Prize" title="Orteig Prize">Orteig Prize</a> of $25,000 for the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. This caused what was known in aviation at the time as the "Lindbergh boom", which increased public interest in aviation.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Australian Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsford_Smith" title="Charles Kingsford Smith">Charles Kingsford Smith</a> was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Ocean in the Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first trans-Pacific flight to Australia, making three stops to complete the journey. Kingsford-Smith and his crew made their first stop in Hawaii from Oakland, California, and from Hawaii to Suva, Fiji. During the last segment of their journey from Fiji to Brisbane, Australia, they encountered severe thunderstorms, thrown nearly 140 miles off their course. The flight concluded on June 9, 1928 after flying 7,230 miles, Kingsford-Smith and his crew landed in Brisbane, Australia, receiving $25,000 from the Australian government for their achievement.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Accompanying him were Australian aviator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ulm" title="Charles Ulm">Charles Ulm</a> as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, navigator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later continued his journey being the first in 1929 to <a href="/wiki/First_aerial_circumnavigation" title="First aerial circumnavigation">circumnavigate the world</a>, crossing the equator twice.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The first lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His Majesty's Airship <a href="/wiki/R34_(airship)" class="mw-redirect" title="R34 (airship)">R34</a> and crew when they flew from <a href="/wiki/East_Lothian" title="East Lothian">East Lothian</a>, Scotland to <a href="/wiki/Long_Island" title="Long Island">Long Island</a>, New York and then back to <a href="/wiki/RNAS_Pulham" title="RNAS Pulham">Pulham</a>, England.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> By 1929, airship technology had advanced to the point that the first round-the-world flight was completed by the <a href="/wiki/LZ_127_Graf_Zeppelin" title="LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin">Graf Zeppelin</a> in September and in October, the same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic service.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> However, the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction by fire of the zeppelin LZ 129 <a href="/wiki/Hindenburg_disaster" title="Hindenburg disaster">Hindenburg</a> just before landing at <a href="/wiki/Lakehurst,_New_Jersey" title="Lakehurst, New Jersey">Lakehurst, New Jersey</a> on 6 May 1937, killing 35 of the 97 people aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the <a href="/wiki/Wingfoot_Air_Express_Crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Wingfoot Air Express Crash">Wingfoot Express</a> disaster (1919) to the loss of the <a href="/wiki/R101" title="R101">R101</a> (1930), the <a href="/wiki/USS_Akron_(ZRS-4)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Akron (ZRS-4)">Akron</a> (1933) and the <a href="/wiki/USS_Macon_(ZRS-5)" title="USS Macon (ZRS-5)">Macon</a> (1935) had already cast doubt on airship safety. The disasters of the U.S. Navy's rigids showed the importance of solely using <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> as the lifting medium.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Following the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship making <a href="/wiki/International_flight" title="International flight">international flights</a>, the <a href="/wiki/LZ_127_Graf_Zeppelin" title="LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin">Graf Zeppelin</a> was retired (June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship <a href="/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Graf Zeppelin II">Graf Zeppelin II</a>, made a number of flights, primarily over Germany, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Germany began World War II. Both remaining German zeppelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the German <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> air force.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in its development of powered aircraft, developed <a href="/wiki/Gliding" title="Gliding">gliding</a> as a sport, especially at the <a href="/wiki/Wasserkuppe" title="Wasserkuppe">Wasserkuppe</a>, during the 1920s. In its various forms, in the 21st-century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000 participants.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg/170px-Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg/255px-Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg/340px-Popular_Aviation_June_1928.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption>1928 issue of <a href="/wiki/Popular_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Aviation">Popular Aviation</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Flying_(magazine)" title="Flying (magazine)">Flying</a> magazine), which became the largest aviation magazine with a circulation of 100,000.<a href="#cite_note-Time_June_1929-134">[134]</a></figcaption></figure>In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Doolittle#Instrument_flight" title="Jimmy Doolittle">Jimmy Doolittle</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Flight_instruments" title="Flight instruments">instrument flight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> 1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the <a href="/wiki/Dornier_Do_X" title="Dornier Do X">Dornier Do X</a> with a wingspan of 48 m. On its 70th test flight on 21 October 1929, there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years. In 1923, The first successful <a href="/wiki/Rotorcraft" title="Rotorcraft">rotorcraft</a> appeared in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Autogyro" title="Autogyro">autogyro</a>, invented by Spanish engineer <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cierva" title="Juan de la Cierva">Juan de la Cierva</a> and first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but spins freely as it moves through the air, while a separate engine powers the aircraft to move forward. This was the basis of further development and prototypes that led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a>. In 1930 <a href="/wiki/Corradino_D%27Ascanio" title="Corradino D'Ascanio">Corradino D'Ascanio</a>, an Italian engineer, developed a <a href="/wiki/Coaxial" title="Coaxial">coaxial</a> helicopter with the important inclusion of three small propellers on the craft, which controlled the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes" title="Aircraft principal axes">pitch, roll, and yaw</a> of the aircraft. Later helicopters saw several adjustments to their rotors but the first modern helicopter was not constructed until 1947 by <a href="/wiki/Igor_Sikorsky" title="Igor Sikorsky">Igor Sikorsky</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Only five years after the German Dornier Do-X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s era, the <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-20" title="Tupolev ANT-20">Maksim Gorky</a> in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction. In the 1930s, development of the <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a> began in Germany and in Britain and they began testing in 1939 before World War II. The jet engine saw considerable development during the war, with a few jet powered aircraft being used in the war.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg/220px-Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg/330px-Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg/440px-Sabiha_Breguet_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>First female combat pilot, <a href="/wiki/Sabiha_G%C3%B6k%C3%A7en" title="Sabiha Gökçen">Sabiha Gökçen</a>, reviews her <a href="/wiki/Breguet_19" class="mw-redirect" title="Breguet 19">Breguet 19</a></figcaption></figure> After enrolling in the Military Aviation Academy in Eskisehir in 1936 and undertaking training at the First Aircraft Regiment, <a href="/wiki/Sabiha_G%C3%B6k%C3%A7en" title="Sabiha Gökçen">Sabiha Gökçen</a>, flew fighter and bomber planes becoming the first Turkish, female aviator and the world's first, female, combat pilot. During her flying career, she achieved some 8,000 hours, 32 of which were combat missions.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_(1939–1945)">World War II (1939–1945)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: World War II (1939–1945)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_II" title="Aviation in World War II">Aviation in World War II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_of_World_War_II" title="List of aircraft of World War II">List of aircraft of World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_helicopters_used_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="List of helicopters used in World War II">List of helicopters used in World War II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_aircraft_production" title="World War II aircraft production">World War II aircraft production</a></div> <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of aircraft but also the associated flight-based weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large-scale <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic bombing</a> campaigns were launched, <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft#World_War_II" title="Fighter aircraft">fighter escorts</a> introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with <a href="/wiki/Dive_bomber" title="Dive bomber">dive bombers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fighter-bomber" title="Fighter-bomber">fighter-bombers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground-attack aircraft">ground-attack aircraft</a>. New technologies like <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment of air defence. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg/220px-Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg/330px-Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg/440px-Messerschmitt_Me_262_Schwable.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Me 262</a>, world first operational jet fighter</figcaption></figure> The first jet aircraft to fly was the <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_178" title="Heinkel He 178">Heinkel He 178</a> (Germany), flown by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Warsitz" title="Erich Warsitz">Erich Warsitz</a> in 1939, followed by the world's first operational jet aircraft, the <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Messerschmitt Me 262</a>, in July 1942 and world's first jet-powered bomber, the <a href="/wiki/Arado_Ar_234" class="mw-redirect" title="Arado Ar 234">Arado Ar 234</a>, in June 1943. British developments, like the <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Meteor" title="Gloster Meteor">Gloster Meteor</a>, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in World War II. The first cruise missile (<a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1</a>), the first ballistic missile (<a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2</a>), the first (and to date only) operational rocket-powered combat aircraft <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163" class="mw-redirect" title="Messerschmitt Me 163">Me 163</a>—with attained velocities of up to 1,130 km/h (700 mph) in test flights—and the first vertical take-off manned point-defence interceptor, the <a href="/wiki/Bachem_Ba_349" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachem Ba 349">Bachem Ba 349</a> Natter, were also <a href="/wiki/Vergeltungswaffe" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergeltungswaffe">developed by Germany</a>. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of experienced pilots and the declining war industry of Germany. Not only aeroplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War, with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Focke_Achgelis_Fa_223" class="mw-redirect" title="Focke Achgelis Fa 223">Focke Achgelis Fa 223</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Flettner_Fl_282" title="Flettner Fl 282">Flettner Fl 282</a> <a href="/wiki/Synchropter" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchropter">synchropter</a> in 1941 in Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Sikorsky_R-4" title="Sikorsky R-4">Sikorsky R-4</a> in 1942 in the USA. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postwar_era_(1945–1979)">Postwar era (1945–1979)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Postwar era (1945–1979)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DeHavilland_Comet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/DeHavilland_Comet.jpg/220px-DeHavilland_Comet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/DeHavilland_Comet.jpg/330px-DeHavilland_Comet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/DeHavilland_Comet.jpg/440px-DeHavilland_Comet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">D.H. Comet</a>, the world's first jet airliner. As in this picture, it also saw <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">RAF</a> service</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv/220px--First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="158" data-durationhint="83" data-mwtitle="First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a8/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="400" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a8/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="200" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a8/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv/First_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="334" data-height="240" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFirst_flights_in_aviation_history.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>A 1945 newsreel covering various firsts in human flight</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postwar_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar aviation">Postwar aviation</a></div> Following World War II, <a href="/wiki/Commercial_aviation" title="Commercial aviation">commercial aviation</a> expanded quickly, primarily relying on former military aircraft to carry passengers and cargo. There was an excess of large bombers, such as the B-29 and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Lancaster</a>, which were easily converted for commercial use.<a href="#cite_note-:02-142">[142]</a> The <a href="/wiki/DC-3" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-3">DC-3</a> specifically played a key role, enabling longer and more efficient flights.<a href="#cite_note-:02-142">[142]</a> The British <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> became the first commercial jet airliner and was introduced into scheduled service by 1952. The aircraft was a breakthrough in technical achievements, but had several intense failures. The square design of the windows caused stress cracks from metal fatigue, caused by cycles of cabin pressurization and depressurization.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This eventually led to severe structural failures in the fuel area. These issues were resolved too late, since competing jet airliners were already flying. <a href="#cite_note-:1-143">[143]</a> On September 15, 1956, the USSR’s airline <a href="/wiki/Aeroflot" title="Aeroflot">Aeroflot</a>  became the first to offer continuous, regular jet services using the <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-104" title="Tupolev Tu-104">Tupolev Tu-104</a>. Soon after, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">Boeing 707</a> and  <a href="/wiki/DC-8" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-8">DC-8</a> also set new standards in comfort, safety, and passenger experience. These were the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a>, the introduction of large-scale commercial air travel. <a href="#cite_note-:12-144">[144]</a> In October 1947, <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Yeager" title="Chuck Yeager">Chuck Yeager</a> became the first to fly faster than the speed of sound when he piloted the rocket-powered <a href="/wiki/Bell_X-1" title="Bell X-1">Bell X-1</a> past the <a href="/wiki/Sound_barrier" title="Sound barrier">sound barrier</a>. <a href="#cite_note-:13-145">[145]</a> The air speed record for an aircraft was set by the <a href="/wiki/X-15" class="mw-redirect" title="X-15">X-15</a> at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or <a href="/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 6.1 in 1967. This record was later broken by the <a href="/wiki/NASA_X-43" title="NASA X-43">X-43</a> in 2004, excluding spacecraft. <a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Military aircraft had a strategic advantage during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> with the invention of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bombs</a> in 1945. Even just a small fleet of <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bombers</a>  could inflict catastrophic damage, which caused for the development of effective defenses. One early development was <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft" title="Interceptor aircraft">interceptor aircraft</a>. By 1955, the focus shifted toward guided <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missiles</a>. This eventually led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBMs), which have nuclear capabilities. An early example of ICBMs occurred in 1957 when the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>. <a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> became the first human in space when he completed a single orbit around Earth in 108 minutes aboard <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok I</a>. Following this, the United States sent <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> on a suborbital flight using a <a href="/wiki/Mercury_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury program">Mercury program</a> capsule. In 1963, Canada became the third nation to enter space with the launch of its satellite, <a href="/wiki/Alouette_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Alouette I">Alouette I</a>. The race culminated in <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">the landing</a> on the moon in 1969. <a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> In 1967, the <a href="/wiki/X-15" class="mw-redirect" title="X-15">X-15</a> set the air speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or <a href="/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record was renewed by <a href="/wiki/NASA_X-43" title="NASA X-43">X-43</a> in the 21st century. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg/170px-Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg/255px-Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg/340px-Apollo_11_Launch_-_GPN-2000-000630.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> lifts off on its mission to land a man on the Moon</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Harrier_jump_jet" title="Harrier jump jet">Harrier jump jet</a>, capable of vertical landing and takeoff, first flew in 1969. This was also the year of the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a>. Additionally, the Aérospatiale-BAC <a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> supersonic passenger airliner had its <a href="/wiki/Maiden_flight" title="Maiden flight">maiden flight</a>. The Boeing 747 was the largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to fly at the time, now replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a>, capable of transporting 853 passengers. Aeroflot started flying the <a href="/wiki/Tu-144" class="mw-redirect" title="Tu-144">Tu-144</a>—the first supersonic passenger plane in 1975. The next year, <a href="/wiki/British_Airways" title="British Airways">British Airways</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a> began supersonic flights over the Atlantic. <a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> In 1979, the <a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Albatross" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Albatross">Gossamer Albatross</a> achieved the status of the first human-powered aircraft to fly over the English channel, which had been a dream for centuries. <a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_age_(1980–present)">Digital age (1980–present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Digital age (1980–present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_digital_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation in the digital age">Aviation in the digital age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg/220px-Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg/330px-Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg/440px-Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1955" data-file-height="1027" /></a><figcaption>Concorde, G-BOAB, in storage at <a href="/wiki/London_Heathrow_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="London Heathrow Airport">London Heathrow Airport</a> following the end of all Concorde flying. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and final flight in 2000</figcaption></figure> The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was revolutionary progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology. This part of the century instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in flight <a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">avionics</a> and in aircraft design and manufacturing techniques. In 1986, <a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutan" title="Dick Rutan">Dick Rutan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeana_Yeager" title="Jeana Yeager">Jeana Yeager</a> flew an aircraft, the <a href="/wiki/Rutan_Voyager" title="Rutan Voyager">Rutan Voyager</a>, around the world unrefuelled, and without landing. In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Piccard" title="Bertrand Piccard">Bertrand Piccard</a> became the first person to circle the earth in a balloon. Digital <a href="/wiki/Fly-by-wire" title="Fly-by-wire">fly-by-wire</a> systems allow an aircraft to be designed with <a href="/wiki/Relaxed_static_stability" class="mw-redirect" title="Relaxed static stability">relaxed static stability</a>. Initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon</a>, this is now being used to reduce drag on commercial airliners. The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest national and international participation in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> It publicized and encouraged a number of programmes, projects and events intended to educate people about the history of aviation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> 21st-century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as <a href="/wiki/Low_cost_airlines" class="mw-redirect" title="Low cost airlines">low cost airlines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_cost_carrier_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Low cost carrier terminal">facilities</a>. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities, though severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Around 20,000 city pairs<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> are served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996. There appears to be newfound interest<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning demand in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial stoppage of the <a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> due to reduced demand following a fatal accident and rising costs. At the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favour of remotely operated or completely autonomous <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned aerial vehicles">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (UAVs). In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft <a href="/wiki/Global_Hawk" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Hawk">Global Hawk</a> flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefuelled. This is the longest point-to-point flight ever undertaken by an unmanned aircraft and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003, the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a computer-controlled model aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the control of a remote operator. Major disruptions to <a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">air travel</a> in the 21st century included the <a href="/wiki/Closings_and_cancellations_following_the_September_11_attacks" title="Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks">closing of U.S. airspace</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, and the closing of most of European airspace after the <a href="/wiki/2010_eruption_of_Eyjafjallaj%C3%B6kull" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull">2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull</a>. In 2015, André Borschberg and <a href="/wiki/Solar_Impulse" title="Solar Impulse">Bertrand Piccard</a> flew a record distance of 4,481 miles (7,211 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar-powered plane, <a href="/wiki/Solar_Impulse" title="Solar Impulse">Solar Impulse 2</a>. The flight took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the potential energy gained during the day.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> On 14 July 2019, Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Franky_Zapata" title="Franky Zapata">Franky Zapata</a> attracted worldwide attention when he participated at the Bastille Day military parade riding his invention, a jet-powered <a href="/wiki/Flyboard_Air" title="Flyboard Air">Flyboard Air</a>. He subsequently succeeded in crossing the English Channel on his device on 4 August 2019, covering the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Sangatte in northern France to St Margaret's Bay in Kent, UK, in 22 minutes, with a midpoint fueling stop included.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> 24 July 2019 was the busiest day in aviation, for <a href="/wiki/Flightradar24" title="Flightradar24">Flightradar24</a> recorded a total of over 225,000 flights that day. It includes helicopters, private jets, gliders, sight-seeing flights, as well as personal aircraft. The website has been tracking flights since 2006.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> On 10 June 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Pipistrel_Velis_Electro" title="Pipistrel Velis Electro">Pipistrel Velis Electro</a> became the first electric aeroplane to secure a <a href="/wiki/Type_certificate" title="Type certificate">type certificate</a> from <a href="/wiki/EASA" class="mw-redirect" title="EASA">EASA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sarsfield2020-06-10-157">[157]</a> In the early 21st Century, the first fifth-generation military fighters were produced, starting with the <a href="/wiki/F-22_Raptor" class="mw-redirect" title="F-22 Raptor">F-22 Raptor</a> and currently Russia, America and China have 5th gen aircraft (2019).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> had a significant impact on the aviation industry due to <a href="/wiki/Travel_restrictions_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic">the resulting travel restrictions</a> as well as slump in demand among travellers, and may also affect the future of air travel.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> For example, the mandatory use of <a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">face masks</a> on aeroplanes was a common feature of flying in 2020 and 2021.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars">Mars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Mars">edit</a>]</div> On 19 April 2021, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> successfully flew its diminutive unmanned helicopter <a href="/wiki/Ingenuity_(helicopter)" title="Ingenuity (helicopter)">Ingenuity</a> on Mars, humanity's first controlled powered aircraft flight on another planet. The helicopter rose to a height of three metres and hovered in a stable holding position for 30 seconds; a video of the flight was made by its accompanying rover, <a href="/wiki/Perseverance_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseverance rover">Perseverance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA2021-04-19-160">[160]</a> Ingenuity, which was initially designed for five demonstration flights, flew 72 times traveling 11 miles in nearly three years. As a homage to all of its aerial predecessors, it carries a postage stamp sized piece of wing fabric from the 1903 <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>. Ingenuity's last flight was 18 January 2024, a span of 2 years, 333 days since its first takeoff (the duration in Martian days, or <a href="/wiki/Sol_(day_on_Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sol (day on Mars)">sols</a>, was 1035). Broken and damaged rotor blades suffered during its final landing forced the helicopter's retirement.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_20240125-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/28px-Aviacionavion.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/42px-Aviacionavion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/56px-Aviacionavion.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Aviation" title="Portal:Aviation">Aviation portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claims_to_the_first_powered_flight" title="Claims to the first powered flight">Claims to the first powered flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_firsts_in_aviation" title="List of firsts in aviation">List of firsts in aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_aviation" title="Timeline of aviation">Timeline of aviation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wings-tom-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wings-tom_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wings-tom_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrouch2004" class="citation book cs1">Crouch, Tom (2004). Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age. New York, New York: W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-32620-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-32620-9"><bdi>0-393-32620-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wings%3A+A+History+of+Aviation+from+Kites+to+the+Space+Age&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-393-32620-9&rft.aulast=Crouch&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hallion-2"><a href="#cite_ref-hallion_2-0">^</a> Hallion (2003) </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.stm">"Flying through the ages"</a> BBC News. Retrieved 2024-10-18. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term%3Daviation">"Online Etymology Dictionary | Origin, history and meaning of English words"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061354/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aviation">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary+%26%23124%3B+Origin%2C+history+and+meaning+of+English+words&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%253Daviation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassardCroixLe_QuéauVeillard2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cassard, Jean-Christophe; Croix, Alain; Le Quéau, Jean-René; Veillard, Jean-Yves (2008). Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne (in French). Morlaix: Vreizh Skol. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-915623-45-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-915623-45-1"><bdi>978-2-915623-45-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+d%27histoire+de+Bretagne&rft.place=Morlaix&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Vreizh+Skol&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2-915623-45-1&rft.aulast=Cassard&rft.aufirst=Jean-Christophe&rft.au=Croix%2C+Alain&rft.au=Le+Qu%C3%A9au%2C+Jean-Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Veillard%2C+Jean-Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1961" class="citation book cs1">Wells, H. G. (1961). The Outline of History: Volume 1. Doubleday. p. 153.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Outline+of+History%3A+Volume+1&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=H.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a>, Biography of Wang Mang, 或言能飞, 一日千里, 可窥匈奴.莽辄试之, 取大鸟翮为两翼, 头与身皆著毛, 通引环纽, 飞数百步堕 </li> <li id="cite_note-LynnWhite-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LynnWhite_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LynnWhite_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LynnWhite_8-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lynn Townsend White, Jr.">Lynn Townsend White, Jr.</a> (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), pp. 97–111 [101] </li> <li id="cite_note-SA-9"><a href="#cite_ref-SA_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080503200416/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196401/first.flights.htm">"First Flights"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Aramco World">Saudi Aramco World</a>. 15 (1): 8–9. January–February 1964. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196401/first.flights.htm">the original</a> on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Aramco+World&rft.atitle=First+Flights&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=1964-01%2F1964-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudiaramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F196401%2Ffirst.flights.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoolman1980" class="citation book cs1">Moolman, Valerie (1980). The road to Kitty Hawk. The Epic of flight. Time-Life Books. 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Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08321-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08321-6"><bdi>978-0-691-08321-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Montgolfier+brothers+and+the+invention+of+aviation%2C+1783-1784%3A+with+a+word+on+the+importance+of+ballooning+for+the+science+of+heat+and+the+art+of+building+railroads&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08321-6&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=Charles+Coulston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080602012700/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Lighter_than_air/Early_Balloon_Flight_in_Europe/LTA1.htm">"Early Balloon Flight in Europe"</a>. web.archive.org. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web.archive.org&rft.atitle=Early+Balloon+Flight+in+Europe&rft.date=2008-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080602012700%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.centennialofflight.gov%2Fessay%2FLighter_than_air%2FEarly_Balloon_Flight_in_Europe%2FLTA1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1983" class="citation book cs1">Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1983). The Montgolfier brothers and the invention of aviation, 1783-1784: with a word on the importance of ballooning for the science of heat and the art of building railroads. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08321-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08321-6"><bdi>978-0-691-08321-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Montgolfier+brothers+and+the+invention+of+aviation%2C+1783-1784%3A+with+a+word+on+the+importance+of+ballooning+for+the+science+of+heat+and+the+art+of+building+railroads&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08321-6&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=Charles+Coulston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Walker (1971) Volume I, Page 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Winter, Frank H. (1992). "Who First Flew in a Rocket?", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 45 (July 1992), p. 275-80 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2006" class="citation cs2">Harding, John (2006), Flying's strangest moments: extraordinary but true stories from over one thousand years of aviation history, <a href="/wiki/Anova_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anova Books">Robson Publishing</a>, p. 5, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86105-934-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-86105-934-5"><bdi>1-86105-934-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flying%27s+strangest+moments%3A+extraordinary+but+true+stories+from+over+one+thousand+years+of+aviation+history&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Robson+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-86105-934-5&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1965). <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. IV (part 2). p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA591">591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05803-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05803-2"><bdi>978-0-521-05803-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pages=591&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05803-2&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison27-40"><a href="#cite_ref-harrison27_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2000" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, James Pinckney (2000). Mastering the Sky. <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JwJsr5QjkRMC&pg=PA27">27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885119-68-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885119-68-1"><bdi>978-1-885119-68-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+the+Sky&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-885119-68-1&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=James+Pinckney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oconner-1985-41"><a href="#cite_ref-oconner-1985_41-0">^</a> Qtd. in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Conner1985" class="citation news cs1">O'Conner, Patricia T. (17 November 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/17/books/in-short-nonfiction-man-was-meant-to-fly-but-not-at-first.html">"In Short: Nonfiction; Man Was Meant to Fly, But Not at First"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615181139/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/17/books/in-short-nonfiction-man-was-meant-to-fly-but-not-at-first.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Short%3A+Nonfiction%3B+Man+Was+Meant+to+Fly%2C+But+Not+at+First&rft.date=1985-11-17&rft.aulast=O%27Conner&rft.aufirst=Patricia+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F11%2F17%2Fbooks%2Fin-short-nonfiction-man-was-meant-to-fly-but-not-at-first.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200722.html">"Burattini's Flying Dragon"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Flight_International" title="Flight International">Flight International</a>. 9 May 1963. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819221108/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%200722.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flight+International&rft.atitle=Burattini%27s+Flying+Dragon&rft.date=1963-05-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fpdfarchive%2Fview%2F1963%2F1963%2520-%25200722.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2016" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, Clive (4 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/aeronautical-journal/article/abs/swedenborgs-flying-saucer/7DEBFB59401AF7B7F3DB098315DE346B">"Swedenborg's flying saucer"</a>. The Aeronautical Journal. 84 (836): 282–284.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Aeronautical+Journal&rft.atitle=Swedenborg%27s+flying+saucer&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=836&rft.pages=282-284&rft.date=2016-07-04&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Faeronautical-journal%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fswedenborgs-flying-saucer%2F7DEBFB59401AF7B7F3DB098315DE346B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aiaa-44"><a href="#cite_ref-aiaa_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161110054948/https://www.aiaa.org/Secondary.aspx?id=370">"American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics – History – Spain"</a>. Aiaa.org. 22 April 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aiaa.org/Secondary.aspx?id=370">the original</a> on 10 November 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Spain&rft.pub=Aiaa.org&rft.date=2019-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aiaa.org%2FSecondary.aspx%3Fid%3D370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aerosteles.net/stelefr-angouleme-resnier">"Premier vol humain - Angoulême 1801 | Aérostèles"</a>. www.aerosteles.net (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604050924/https://www.aerosteles.net/stelefr-angouleme-resnier">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aerosteles.net&rft.atitle=Premier+vol+humain+-+Angoul%C3%AAme+1801+%26%23124%3B+A%C3%A9rost%C3%A8les&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aerosteles.net%2Fstelefr-angouleme-resnier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDidion1837" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Didion, Isidor (1 September 1837). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q">"Rapport sur la plus grande vitesse que l'on peut obtenir par la navigation aérienne"</a>. Gallica.bnf.fr (in French). Congrès scientifique de France, 5th Session, Metz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230214092452/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gallica.bnf.fr&rft.atitle=Rapport+sur+la+plus+grande+vitesse+que+l%27on+peut+obtenir+par+la+navigation+a%C3%A9rienne&rft.date=1837-09-01&rft.aulast=Didion&rft.aufirst=Isidor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k411514q&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> He answered to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q/f27.item">12th and last question</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181022193800/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k411514q/f27.item">Archived</a> 22 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the congress: "Will it be possible to improve the aerostatic art, by a better combination of means used until now, in order to leave up aerostats and conduct them", thus showing the interest of the scientists of that time (first half of the 19th) century on that question. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairlieCayley1965158-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairlieCayley1965158_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairlieCayley1965">Fairlie & Cayley 1965</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm">"Aviation History"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090413155148/http://aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009. <q>In 1799 he set forth for the first time in history the concept of the modern aeroplane. Cayley had identified the drag vector (parallel to the flow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to the flow).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aviation+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aviation-history.com%2Fearly%2Fcayley.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet">"Sir George Cayley (British Inventor and Scientist)"</a>. Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120723034932/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2009. <q>English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft. Cayley established the modern configuration of an aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 1799.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sir+George+Cayley+%28British+Inventor+and+Scientist%29&rft.btitle=Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F100795%2FSir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Gibbs-Smith 2003, p. 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-AerNav123-51"><a href="#cite_ref-AerNav123_51-0">^</a> Cayley, George. "On Aerial Navigation" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt1.pdf">Part 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511071413/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt1.pdf">Archived</a> 11 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt2.pdf">Part 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511041814/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt2.pdf">Archived</a> 11 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt3.pdf">Part 3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511052409/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/OnAerialNavigationPt3.pdf">Archived</a> 11 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, 1809–1810. (Via <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/i/Cayley/Cayley.html">Raw text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193751/http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/i/Cayley/Cayley.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved: 30 May 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWragg197460-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWragg197460_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWragg1974">Wragg 1974</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngelucciMatricardi197714-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAngelucciMatricardi197714_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAngelucciMatricardi1977">Angelucci & Matricardi 1977</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FG54-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FG54_54-0">^</a> Pritchard, J. Laurence. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%203051.html">Summary of First Cayley Memorial Lecture at the Brough Branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817172032/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%203051.html">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Flight_International" title="Flight International">Flight</a> number 2390 volume 66 page 702, 12 November 1954. Retrieved: 29 May 2010. "In thinking of how to construct the lightest possible wheel for aerial navigation cars, an entirely new mode of manufacturing this most useful part of locomotive machines occurred to me: vide, to do away with wooden spokes altogether, and refer the whole firmness of the wheel to the strength of the rim only, by the intervention of tight cording." </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettigrew1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pettigrew, James Bell (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Flight_and_Flying">"Flight and Flying" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 502–519.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Flight+and+Flying&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=502-519&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Pettigrew&rft.aufirst=James+Bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jarret3_p53-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Jarret3_p53_56-0">^</a> Jarrett 2002, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-stokes9_p163-6,7-8-57"><a href="#cite_ref-stokes9_p163-6,7-8_57-0">^</a> Stokes 2002, pp. 163–166, 167–168. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxide">Scientific American</a>. Munn & Company. 13 March 1869. p. 169. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231121/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxide#v=snippet&q=carbonic%20oxide&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 20 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+American&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Munn+%26+Company&rft.date=1869-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRmM9AQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dcarbonic%2Boxide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmachines.org/strng.html">"John Stringfellow"</a>. Flying Machines. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180228122732/http://www.flyingmachines.org/strng.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flying+Machines&rft.atitle=John+Stringfellow&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmachines.org%2Fstrng.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParramore2003" class="citation book cs1">Parramore, Thomas C. (1 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zrpb67qFXUIC&dq=1857+Temple+flight&pg=PT63">First to Fly: North Carolina and the Beginnings of Aviation</a>. UNC Press Books. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5470-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5470-9"><bdi>978-0-8078-5470-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517060335/https://books.google.com/books?id=zrpb67qFXUIC&pg=PT63&dq=1857+Temple+flight">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+to+Fly%3A+North+Carolina+and+the+Beginnings+of+Aviation&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2003-03-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-5470-9&rft.aulast=Parramore&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzrpb67qFXUIC%26dq%3D1857%2BTemple%2Bflight%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1591057.stm">"High hopes for replica plane"</a>. BBC News. 10 October 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315043205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1591057.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 4 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=High+hopes+for+replica+plane&rft.date=2001-10-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fengland%2F1591057.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magoun-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Magoun_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagounHodgins1931" class="citation book cs1">Magoun, F. Alexander; <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hodgins" title="Eric Hodgins">Hodgins, Eric</a> (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLVAAAAMAAJ">A History of Aircraft</a>. Whittlesey House. p. 308.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Aircraft&rft.pages=308&rft.pub=Whittlesey+House&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Magoun&rft.aufirst=F.+Alexander&rft.au=Hodgins%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnLVAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA_History-63"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_History_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4103/ch2.htm">"The Cross-licensing Agreement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041113150229/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4103/ch2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2004. Retrieved 7 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=The+Cross-licensing+Agreement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4103%2Fch2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aerospaceweb-Yoon.1-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Aerospaceweb-Yoon.1_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoon2002" class="citation web cs1">Yoon, Joe (17 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/history/q0103.shtml">"Origins of Control Surfaces"</a>. AerospaceWeb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150921150602/http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/history/q0103.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AerospaceWeb&rft.atitle=Origins+of+Control+Surfaces&rft.date=2002-11-17&rft.aulast=Yoon&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aerospaceweb.org%2Fquestion%2Fhistory%2Fq0103.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibbs-Smith_1960-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Gibbs-Smith_1960_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs-Smith2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Harvard_Gibbs-Smith" title="Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith">Gibbs-Smith, C.H.</a> (2000) [1960]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4dTAAAAMAAJ">Aviation: An Historical Survey From Its Origins To The End Of The Second World War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum</a>. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-900747-52-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-900747-52-3"><bdi>978-1-900747-52-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aviation%3A+An+Historical+Survey+From+Its+Origins+To+The+End+Of+The+Second+World+War&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Science+Museum&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-900747-52-3&rft.aulast=Gibbs-Smith&rft.aufirst=C.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4dTAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080309163035/http://media.nasaexplores.com/lessons/01-007/9-12_2.pdf">"Wind Tunnels"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 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London: NMSI. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9"><bdi>1-900747-52-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aviation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=NMSI&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-900747-52-9&rft.aulast=Gibbs-Smith&rft.aufirst=C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs-Smith2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Harvard_Gibbs-Smith" title="Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith">Gibbs-Smith, C.H.</a> (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9"><bdi>1-900747-52-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aviation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=NMSI&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-900747-52-9&rft.aulast=Gibbs-Smith&rft.aufirst=C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jarrett5_p87-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Jarrett5_p87_69-0">^</a> Jarrett 2002, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray" class="citation web cs1">Gray, Carroll. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040816100229/http://www.flyingmachines.org/maxim.html">"Hiram Stevens Maxim 1840-1916"</a>. flyingmachines.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmachines.org/maxim.html">the original</a> on 16 August 2004. Retrieved 14 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=flyingmachines.org&rft.atitle=Hiram+Stevens+Maxim+1840-1916&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Carroll&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmachines.org%2Fmaxim.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs-Smith2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Harvard_Gibbs-Smith" title="Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith">Gibbs-Smith, C.H.</a> (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. pp. 76–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-900747-52-9"><bdi>1-900747-52-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aviation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=76-8&rft.pub=NMSI&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-900747-52-9&rft.aulast=Gibbs-Smith&rft.aufirst=C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsches-museum.de/forschung/bibliothek/unsere-schaetze/mobilitaet/vogelflug-als-grundlage-der-fliegekunst">"Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst - Bibliothek Deutsches Museum"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220227144755/https://www.deutsches-museum.de/forschung/bibliothek/unsere-schaetze/mobilitaet/vogelflug-als-grundlage-der-fliegekunst">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vogelflug+als+Grundlage+der+Fliegekunst+-+Bibliothek+Deutsches+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsches-museum.de%2Fforschung%2Fbibliothek%2Funsere-schaetze%2Fmobilitaet%2Fvogelflug-als-grundlage-der-fliegekunst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aeroreport.de/en/good-to-know/like-a-bird">"Like a bird | MTU AEROREPORT"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220226135425/https://aeroreport.de/en/good-to-know/like-a-bird">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Like+a+bird+%26%23124%3B+MTU+AEROREPORT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faeroreport.de%2Fen%2Fgood-to-know%2Flike-a-bird&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/eotto.htm">"Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211220021702/http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/eotto.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Otto-Lilienthal-Museum+Anklam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lilienthal-museum.de%2Folma%2Feotto.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307224806/https://www.dlr.de/content/en/dossiers/2019/lilienthal-glider-project.html">"The Lilienthal glider project"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/dossiers/2019/lilienthal-glider-project.html">the original</a> on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Lilienthal+glider+project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlr.de%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Fdossiers%2F2019%2Flilienthal-glider-project.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lilienthal-museum.de/olma/e34.htm">"Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220703015730/http://lilienthal-museum.de/olma/e34.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2022. 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Retrieved 19 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NASA%27s+Ingenuity+Mars+Helicopter+Succeeds+in+Historic+First+Flight&rft.date=2021-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress-release%2Fnasa-s-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-succeeds-in-historic-first-flight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA_20240125-161"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_20240125_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends">"After Three Years on Mars, NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter Mission Ends"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240125203205/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jet+Propulsion+Laboratory&rft.atitle=After+Three+Years+on+Mars%2C+NASA%27s+Ingenuity+Helicopter+Mission+Ends&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fafter-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngelucciMatricardi1977" class="citation book cs1">Angelucci, Enzo; Matricardi, Paolo (1977). World War II Airplanes. Vol. 2. Chicago, Illinois: Rand McNally and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-528-88171-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-528-88171-X"><bdi>0-528-88171-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II+Airplanes&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Rand+McNally+and+Company&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-528-88171-X&rft.aulast=Angelucci&rft.aufirst=Enzo&rft.au=Matricardi%2C+Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDengWang2005" class="citation book cs1">Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng">Ancient Chinese Inventions</a>. China Intercontinental Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5085-0837-8" title="Special:BookSources/7-5085-0837-8"><bdi>7-5085-0837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Chinese+Inventions&rft.pub=China+Intercontinental+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=7-5085-0837-8&rft.aulast=Deng&rft.aufirst=Yinke&rft.au=Wang%2C+Pingxing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientchinesein0000deng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEge1973" class="citation book cs1">Ege, L. (1973). Balloons and airships. Blandford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Balloons+and+airships&rft.pub=Blandford&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Ege&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairlieCayley1965" class="citation book cs1">Fairlie, Gerard; Cayley, Elizabeth (1965). The life of a genius. Hodder and Stoughton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+a+genius&rft.pub=Hodder+and+Stoughton&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Fairlie&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rft.au=Cayley%2C+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallion2003" class="citation book cs1">Hallion, Richard P. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall">Taking Flight:Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516035-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516035-5"><bdi>0-19-516035-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+Flight%3AInventing+the+Aerial+Age%2C+from+Antiquity+through+the+First+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-516035-5&rft.aulast=Hallion&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftakingflightinve0000hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoolman1980" class="citation book cs1">Moolman, Valerie (1980). The Road to Kitty Hawk. New York: <a href="/wiki/Time-Life_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-Life Books">Time-Life Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-3260-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-3260-8"><bdi>978-0-8094-3260-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Kitty+Hawk&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Time-Life+Books&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8094-3260-8&rft.aulast=Moolman&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1965a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1965a). <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. IV (part 1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1961" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lynn Townsend White, Jr.">White, Lynn Townsend Jr.</a> (Spring 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition". Technology and Culture. 2 (2): 97–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3101411">10.2307/3101411</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3101411">3101411</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:112025572">112025572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Eilmer+of+Malmesbury%2C+an+Eleventh+Century+Aviator%3A+A+Case+Study+of+Technological+Innovation%2C+Its+Context+and+Tradition&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-111&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A112025572%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3101411%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3101411&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Lynn+Townsend+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWragg1974" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, D.W. (1974). Flight before flying. Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85045-165-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85045-165-5"><bdi>0-85045-165-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flight+before+flying&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-85045-165-5&rft.aulast=Wragg&rft.aufirst=D.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-09-511.pdf">Celebrating a History of Flight</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922053458/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-09-511.pdf">Archived</a> 22 September 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, NASA Office of Aerospace Technology HQ, United States Air Force</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Bruno" title="Harry Bruno">Bruno, Harry</a> (1944) Wings over America: The Story of American Aviation, Halcyon House, Garden City, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Camm" title="Sydney Camm">Camm, Sydney</a> (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73566">Aeroplane construction</a>, Crosby Lockwood and son, London</li> <li>Hynes, Samuel (1988). Flights of Passage: Reflections of a World War II Aviator. New York: Frederic C. Beil / Annapolis:Naval Institute Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJourdain1908" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Owen_Squier" title="George Owen Squier">Jourdain, Pierre-Roger</a> (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145">"Aviation In Frances In 1908"</a>, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 145–159, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220415124709/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145">archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2022, retrieved 7 August 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Board+of+Regents+of+the+Smithsonian+Institution&rft.atitle=Aviation+In+Frances+In+1908&rft.pages=145-159&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Jourdain&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgtQWAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost1910" class="citation cs2">Post, Augustus (September 1910), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&pg=PA13389">"How To Learn To Fly: The Different Machines And What They Cost"</a>, <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a>, XX: 13389–13402, retrieved 10 July 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=How+To+Learn+To+Fly%3A+The+Different+Machines+And+What+They+Cost&rft.volume=XX&rft.pages=13389-13402&rft.date=1910-09&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Augustus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsrkfU461xAC%26pg%3DPA13389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> Includes photos, diagrams and specifications of many c. 1910 aircraft.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquier1908" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Owen_Squier" title="George Owen Squier">Squier, George Owen</a> (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117">"The Present Status of Military Aeronautics"</a>, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 117–144, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231131/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2024, retrieved 7 August 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Board+of+Regents+of+the+Smithsonian+Institution&rft.atitle=The+Present+Status+of+Military+Aeronautics&rft.pages=117-144&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Squier&rft.aufirst=George+Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgtQWAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> Includes photos and specifics of many c. 1908 dirigibles and aeroplanes.</li></ul> </div> <ul><li>Van Vleck, Jenifer (2013). Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Aviation_history#Q471043" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Aviation history">Aviation history</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_aviation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of aviation">History of aviation</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._C._Vivian1920" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._C._Vivian" title="E. C. Vivian">E. C. Vivian</a> (October 1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/874/874-h/874-h.htm">History of Aeronautics</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Aeronautics&rft.date=1920-10&rft.au=E.+C.+Vivian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F874%2F874-h%2F874-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/gt.html">"The Gaston and Albert Tissandier Collection"</a>. Rare Book & Special Collections. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <q>Publications relating to the history of aeronautics, (1,800 titles dispersed in the collection)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rare+Book+%26+Special+Collections&rft.atitle=The+Gaston+and+Albert+Tissandier+Collection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Frr%2Frarebook%2Fcoll%2Fgt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll_F._Gray" class="citation web cs1">Carroll F. Gray. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmachines.org">"Flying Machines"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flying+Machines&rft.au=Carroll+F.+Gray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmachines.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Whalley" class="citation web cs1">Peter Whalley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://firstflight.open.ac.uk/history/index.html">"History of Flight - Key events"</a>. Knowledge Media Institute. <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Knowledge+Media+Institute&rft.atitle=History+of+Flight+-+Key+events&rft.au=Peter+Whalley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffirstflight.open.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aia-aerospace.org/research-center/history/">"Historical archive since 1919"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Industries_Association" title="Aerospace Industries Association">Aerospace Industries Association</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+archive+since+1919&rft.pub=Aerospace+Industries+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aia-aerospace.org%2Fresearch-center%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://magazineaviation.ca/alberto-santos-dumont-est-peut-etre-le-veritable-pere-de-laviation/">"Alberto Santos-Dumont Est Peut-Être Le Véritable 'Père De L'aviation'"</a>. Magazine Aviation. (in French)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll_F._Gray2002" class="citation news cs1">Carroll F. Gray (August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html">"The five first flights"</a>. WW1 AERO - The Journal of the Early Aeroplane.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WW1+AERO+-+The+Journal+of+the+Early+Aeroplane&rft.atitle=The+five+first+flights&rft.date=2002-08&rft.au=Carroll+F.+Gray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thewrightbrothers.org%2Ffivefirstflights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJürgen_Schmidhuber2003" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Schmidhuber" title="Jürgen Schmidhuber">Jürgen Schmidhuber</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/planetruth.html">"First Powered Flight - Plane Truth"</a>. Nature. No. 421. p. 689.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=First+Powered+Flight+-+Plane+Truth&rft.issue=421&rft.pages=689&rft.date=2003&rft.au=J%C3%BCrgen+Schmidhuber&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idsia.ch%2F~juergen%2Fplanetruth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Harris2003" class="citation news cs1">Richard Harris (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110713071455/http://home.iwichita.com/rh1/hold/av/avhist/antique/firstfly.htm">"First Flyers—They're not who you think..."</a> In Flight USA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.iwichita.com/rh1/hold/av/avhist/antique/firstfly.htm">the original</a> on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=In+Flight+USA&rft.atitle=First+Flyers%E2%80%94They%27re+not+who+you+think...&rft.date=2003-12&rft.au=Richard+Harris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.iwichita.com%2Frh1%2Fhold%2Fav%2Favhist%2Fantique%2Ffirstfly.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_P._Hallion2008" class="citation news cs1">Richard P. Hallion (July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/airplanes-that-transformed-aviation-46502830/?all">"Airplanes that Transformed Aviation"</a>. Air & Space Magazine. Smithsonian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+%26+Space+Magazine&rft.atitle=Airplanes+that+Transformed+Aviation&rft.date=2008-07&rft.au=Richard+P.+Hallion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airspacemag.com%2Fhistory-of-flight%2Fairplanes-that-transformed-aviation-46502830%2F%3Fall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/nhl/learn/themes/Aviation.pdf">"American Aviation Heritage"</a> (PDF). National Park Service. March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Aviation+Heritage&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnhl%2Flearn%2Fthemes%2FAviation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/transportation/searchterm/air*/field/subjec/mode/all/conn/and/cosuppress/">"Transportation Photographs - Airplanes"</a>. Digital Collections. University of Washington Libraries. in the Pacific Northwest region and Western United States during the first half of the 20th century.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Collections&rft.atitle=Transportation+Photographs+-+Airplanes&rft.pages=in+the+Pacific+Northwest+region+and+Western+United+States+during+the+first+half+of+the+20th+century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.lib.washington.edu%2Fcdm%2Fsearch%2Fcollection%2Ftransportation%2Fsearchterm%2Fair%2A%2Ffield%2Fsubjec%2Fmode%2Fall%2Fconn%2Fand%2Fcosuppress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.lib.uh.edu/search/query:Strut/fields:all/mode:all/op:and/alias:p15195coll2/page:1">"Strut design airplanes"</a>. University of Houston Digital Library. 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Strut+design+airplanes&rft.pub=University+of+Houston+Digital+Library&rft.date=1911&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.lib.uh.edu%2Fsearch%2Fquery%3AStrut%2Ffields%3Aall%2Fmode%3Aall%2Fop%3Aand%2Falias%3Ap15195coll2%2Fpage%3A1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Maloney2009" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Michael Maloney (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cwideprods.co.uk/a-dream-of-flight/">A Dream of Flight</a> (Documentary on the first powered flight by a Briton in Britain, JTC Moore Brabazon, in 1909). Countrywide Productions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Dream+of+Flight&rft.pub=Countrywide+Productions&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Michael+Maloney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cwideprods.co.uk%2Fa-dream-of-flight%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_aviation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of aviation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_aviation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of aviation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines" title="Early flying machines">Early flying machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_pioneer_era" title="Aviation in the pioneer era">Pioneer era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_interwar_period" title="Aviation in the interwar period">The interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_II" title="Aviation in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-war_aviation" title="Post-war aviation">Post–World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_Digital_Age" title="Aviation in the Digital Age">Digital Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topic histories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aviation_medicine" title="History of aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ballooning" title="History of ballooning">Ballooning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_ballooning" title="History of military ballooning">military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hang_gliding" title="History of hang gliding">Hang gliding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_unmanned_aerial_vehicles" title="History of unmanned aerial vehicles">Unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_unmanned_combat_aerial_vehicles" title="History of unmanned combat aerial vehicles">combat</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claims_to_the_first_powered_flight" title="Claims to the first powered flight">Claims to the first powered flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_aircraft" title="Mars aircraft">Mars aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_aviation" title="Timeline of women in aviation">Women in aviation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Template:Aviation_timelines_navbox" title="Template:Aviation timelines navbox">Aviation timelines navbox</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&oldid=1259530144">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_aviation&oldid=1259530144</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_aviation" title="Category:History of aviation">History 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