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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Internet backbone</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/300px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" width="300" height="300" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/450px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/600px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing two <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresses" title="IP addresses" class="mw-redirect">IP addresses</a>. This is a small look at the backbone of the Internet.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <b>Internet backbone</b> may be defined by the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_backbone" title="Network backbone" class="mw-redirect">principal data routes</a> between large, strategically interconnected <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_router" title="Core router">core routers</a> on the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. These data routes are hosted by commercial, government, academic and other high-capacity network centers, the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_point" title="Internet exchange point">Internet exchange points</a> and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_access_point" title="Network access point">network access points</a>, that interchange Internet traffic between the countries, continents and across the oceans. <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a>, often <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tier_1_network" title="Tier 1 network">Tier 1 networks</a>, participate in Internet backbone exchange traffic by privately negotiated <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnect_agreement" title="Interconnect agreement">interconnection agreements</a>, primarily governed by the principle of settlement-free <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering" title="Peering">peering</a>.</p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Architectural_principles"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Architectural principles</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Infrastructure"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Infrastructure</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Modern_backbone"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Modern backbone</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Tier_1_providers"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Tier 1 providers</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Economy_of_the_backbone"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Economy of the backbone</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Peering_agreements"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Peering agreements</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Transit_agreements"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Transit agreements</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Regulation"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Regulation</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Regional_backbone"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Regional backbone</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Europe"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Europe</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Caucasus"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Caucasus</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Japan"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Japan</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></div> <p>The first packet-switched computer network was the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>. It used a backbone of routers called <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processors</a>. Other packet-switched computer networks began to proliferate in the 1970s, eventually adopting TCP/IP protocols or being replaced by newer networks. The National Science Foundation created <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSFNET" title="NSFNET" class="mw-redirect">NSFNET</a> in 1986 by funding six networking sites using <span style="white-space:nowrap">56<span style="margin-left:0.2em">kbit/s</span></span> interconnecting links and peering to the ARPANET. In 1987, this new network was upgraded to <span style="white-space:nowrap">1.5<span style="margin-left:0.2em">Mbit/s</span></span> <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-carrier" title="T-carrier">T1</a> links for thirteen sites. These sites included regional networks that in turn connected over 170 other networks. <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCI_Communications" title="MCI Communications">MCI</a> and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit</a> upgraded the backbone to <span style="white-space:nowrap">45<span style="margin-left:0.2em">Mbit/s</span></span> bandwidth (<a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-carrier" title="T-carrier">T3</a>) in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> The combination of the ARPANET and NSFNET became known as the Internet. Within a few years, the dominance of the NSFNet backbone led to the decommissioning of the redundant ARPANET infrastructure in 1990.</p> <p>In the early days of the Internet, backbone providers exchanged their traffic at government-sponsored <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_access_point" title="Network access point">network access points</a> (NAPs), until the government privatized the Internet, and transferred the NAPs to commercial providers.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Architectural_principles">Architectural principles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Architectural principles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The Internet, and consequently its backbone networks, do not rely on central control or coordinating facilities, nor do they implement any global network policies. The <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilience_(network)" title="Resilience (network)">resilience</a> of the Internet results from its principal architectural features, most notably the idea of placing as few network <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state</a> and control functions as possible in the network elements, and instead relying on the endpoints of communication to handle most of the processing to ensure data integrity, reliability, and authentication. In addition, the high degree of <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">redundancy</a> of today's network links and sophisticated real-time <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> protocols provide alternate paths of communications for load balancing and congestion avoidance.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Infrastructure">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The Internet backbone is a conglomeration of multiple, redundant networks owned by numerous companies. It is typically a <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optic" title="Fiber optic" class="mw-redirect">fiber optic</a> trunk line. The trunk line consists of many fiber optic cables bundled together to increase the capacity. The backbone is able to reroute traffic in case of a failure.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> The data speeds of backbone lines have changed with the times. In 1998<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, all of the United States backbone networks had utilized the slowest data rate of 45 Mbit/s. However the changing technologies allowed for 41 percent of backbones to have <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_rates" title="Data rates" class="mw-redirect">data rates</a> of 2,488 Mbit/s or faster by the mid 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic</a> cables are the medium of choice for Internet backbone providers for many <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#Comparison_with_electrical_transmission" title="Fiber-optic communication">reasons</a>. Fiber-optics allow for fast data speeds and large <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>; they suffer relatively little <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a>, allowing them to cover long distances with few repeaters; they are also immune to <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosstalk" title="Crosstalk" class="mw-redirect">crosstalk</a> and other forms of electromagnetic interference which plague electrical transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_backbone">Modern backbone</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern backbone">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" width="48" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290"/></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>may not represent a <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit">improve this article</a> and discuss the issue on the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Internet_backbone" title="Talk:Internet backbone">talk page</a>.</span> <small><i>(September 2011)</i></small></span></td> </tr> </table> <p>Because of the enormous overlap between long-distance telephone networks and backbone networks, the largest long-distance voice carriers such as <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Inc." title="AT&T Inc." class="mw-redirect">AT&T Inc.</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCI_Communications" title="MCI Communications">MCI</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_Nextel" title="Sprint Nextel" class="mw-redirect">Sprint</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CenturyLink" title="CenturyLink">CenturyLink</a> also own some of the largest Internet backbone networks. These backbone providers sell their services to <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a> (ISPs).<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Each ISP has its own contingency network and is equipped with an outsourced backup. These networks are intertwined and crisscrossed to create a redundant network. Many companies operate their own backbones, that are all interconnected at various <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_point" title="Internet exchange point">Internet exchange points</a> (IXPs) around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> In order for data to navigate this web, it is necessary to have backbone routers, which are <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a> powerful enough to handle information on the Internet backbone and are capable of directing data to other routers in order to send it to its final destination. Without them, information would be lost.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tier_1_providers">Tier 1 providers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tier 1 providers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The largest providers, known as <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tier_1_network" title="Tier 1 network">tier 1</a> providers, have such comprehensive networks that they never purchase <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_transit" title="Internet transit">transit</a> agreements from other providers.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> As of 2013 there are only seven tier 1 providers in the telecommunications industry. Current Tier 1 carriers include <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_3_Communications" title="Level 3 Communications">Level 3 Communications</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeliaSonera_International_Carrier" title="TeliaSonera International Carrier">TeliaSonera International Carrier</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CenturyLink" title="CenturyLink">CenturyLink</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodafone" title="Vodafone">Vodafone</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon" class="mw-redirect">Verizon</a>, <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_Nextel" title="Sprint Nextel" class="mw-redirect">Sprint</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T Corporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Economy_of_the_backbone">Economy of the backbone</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economy of the backbone">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Peering_agreements">Peering agreements</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Peering agreements">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Backbone providers of roughly equivalent market share regularly create agreements called <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering#Peering_agreement" title="Peering">peering agreements</a>, which allow the use of another's network to hand off traffic where it is ultimately delivered. Usually they do not charge each other for this, as the companies get revenue from their customers regardless.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-topbits_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-topbits-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Transit_agreements">Transit agreements</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transit agreements">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Backbone providers of unequal market share usually create agreements called <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_transit" title="Internet transit">transit agreements</a>, and usually contain some type of monetary agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-topbits_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-topbits-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Regulation">Regulation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Regulation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Antitrust</a> authorities have acted to ensure that no provider grows large enough to dominate the backbone market. In the United States, the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> has decided not to monitor the competitive aspects of the Internet backbone interconnection relationships as long as the market continues to function well.<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Regional_backbone">Regional backbone</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Regional backbone">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt">Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Egypt">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The government of <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> shut down the four major ISPs on January 27, 2011 at approximately 5:20 p.m. EST.<sup id="cite_ref-wired_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> Evidently the networks had not been physically interrupted, as the Internet transit traffic through Egypt, such as traffic flowing from Europe to Asia, was unaffected. Instead, the government shut down the <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_gateway_protocol" title="Border gateway protocol" class="mw-redirect">border gateway protocol</a> (BGP) sessions announcing local routes. BGP is responsible for routing traffic between ISPs.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Only one of Egypt's ISPs was allowed to continue operations. The ISP Noor Group provided connectivity only to Egypt's stock exchange as well as some government ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-wired_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> Other ISPs started to offer free dial-up Internet access in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Europe">Europe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> is a major contributor to the growth of the international backbone as well as a contributor to the growth of Internet bandwidth. As of 2003, Europe is credited with 82 percent of the world's international cross-border bandwidth.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The company <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_3_Communications" title="Level 3 Communications">Level 3 Communications</a> has begun to launch a line of dedicated Internet access and <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">virtual private network</a> services which gives large companies direct access to the tier 3 backbone. Connecting companies directly to the backbone will provide enterprises faster Internet service which meets a large market demand.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Caucasus">Caucasus</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Caucasus">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Certain countries around Caucasus have very simple backbone networks; for example, in 2011, a woman in <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> pierced a fiber backbone line with a shovel and left the neighboring country of <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> without Internet access for 12 hours. The country has since made major developments to the fiber backbone infrastructure, but progress is slow due to lack of government funding. <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Japan">Japan</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s Internet backbone needs to be very efficient due to the high demand for the Internet and technology in general. Japan had over 86 million Internet users in 2009, and it is projected to climb to nearly 91 million Internet users by 2015. Since Japan has a demand for fiber to the home, Japan is looking into tapping a <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic</a> backbone line of <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephone" title="Nippon Telegraph and Telephone">Nippon Telegraph and Telephone</a> (NTT), a domestic backbone carrier, in order to deliver this service at cheaper prices.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="noprint portal tright" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em"> <table style="background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;max-width:175px"> <tr style="vertical-align:middle"> <td style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/42px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/56px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></td> <td style="padding:0 0.2em;vertical-align:middle;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></td> </tr> </table> </div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbone_network" title="Backbone network">Backbone network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapsed_backbone" title="Collapsed backbone" class="mw-redirect">Collapsed backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default-free_zone" title="Default-free zone">Default-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_backbone" title="Distributed backbone" class="mw-redirect">Distributed backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbone" title="Mbone">Mbone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_service_provider" title="Network service provider">Network service provider</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_backbone" title="Parallel backbone" class="mw-redirect">Parallel backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_name_server" title="Root name server">Root name server</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">Routing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_backbone" title="Serial backbone" class="mw-redirect">Serial backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">Switching</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunking" title="Trunking">Trunking</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Kende, M. 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"The Digital Handshake: Connecting Internet Backbones". <i>Journal of Communications Law & Policy</i> <b>11</b>: 1–45.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=The+Digital+Handshake%3A+Connecting+Internet+Backbones&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Kende%2C+M.&rft.aulast=Kende&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Communications+Law+%26+Policy&rft.pages=1-45&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=11" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-crossroads-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Jonathan E. 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"The digital divide and the competitive behaviour of Internet backbone providers: Part 1 - issues and arguments". <i>The Journal of Policy, Regulation and Strategy for Telecommunications, Information and Media</i> <b>5</b> (5): 25. <a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/https://dx.doi.org/10.1108%2F14636690310500439">10.1108/14636690310500439</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=The+digital+divide+and+the+competitive+behaviour+of+Internet+backbone+providers%3A+Part+1+-+issues+and+arguments&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.aulast=Roseman&rft.au=Roseman%2C+D.&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14636690310500439&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Policy%2C+Regulation+and+Strategy+for+Telecommunications%2C+Information+and+Media&rft.pages=25&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=5" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-topbits-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-topbits_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-topbits_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://www.tech-faq.com/internet-backbone.html">"Internet Backbone"</a>. Topbits Website<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.btitle=Internet+Backbone&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tech-faq.com%2Finternet-backbone.html&rft.pub=Topbits+Website&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-wired-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wired_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wired_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Singel, Ryan (28 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/01/egypt-isp-shutdown/">"Egypt Shut Down Its Net With a Series of Phone Calls"</a>. Wired<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft.aulast=Singel&rft.au=Singel%2C+Ryan&rft.btitle=Egypt+Shut+Down+Its+Net+With+a+Series+of+Phone+Calls&rft.date=28+January+2011&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fthreatlevel%2F2011%2F01%2Fegypt-isp-shutdown%2F&rft.pub=Wired&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Van Beijnum, Iljitsch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/01/how-egypt-or-how-your-government-could-shut-down-the-internet.ars">"How Egypt did (and your government could) shut down the Internet"</a>. Ars Technica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.aufirst=Iljitsch&rft.aulast=Van+Beijnum&rft.au=Van+Beijnum%2C+Iljitsch&rft.btitle=How+Egypt+did+%28and+your+government+could%29+shut+down+the+Internet&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2Fnews%2F2011%2F01%2Fhow-egypt-or-how-your-government-could-shut-down-the-internet.ars&rft.pub=Ars+Technica&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Murphy, Kevin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://domainincite.com/dns-not-to-blame-for-egypt-blackout/">"DNS not to blame for Egypt blackout"</a>. Domain Incite<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Kevin&rft.btitle=DNS+not+to+blame+for+Egypt+blackout&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdomainincite.com%2Fdns-not-to-blame-for-egypt-blackout%2F&rft.pub=Domain+Incite&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">"Global Internet backbone back up to speed for 2003 after dramatic slow down in 2002". <i>TechTrends</i> <b>47</b> (5): 47. 2003.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=Global+Internet+backbone+back+up+to+speed+for+2003+after+dramatic+slow+down+in+2002&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=TechTrends&rft.pages=47&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=47" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">"Europe - Level 3 launches DIA, VPN service portfolios in Europe". <i>Europe Intelligence Wire</i>. 28 January 2011.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=Europe+-+Level+3+launches+DIA%2C+VPN+service+portfolios+in+Europe&rft.date=28+January+2011&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe+Intelligence+Wire&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Lomsadze, Giorgi (8 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704630004576249013084603344.html">"A Shovel Cuts Off Armenia's Internet"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=A+Shovel+Cuts+Off+Armenia%27s+Internet&rft.aufirst=Giorgi&rft.aulast=Lomsadze&rft.au=Lomsadze%2C+Giorgi&rft.date=8+April+2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052748704630004576249013084603344.html&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">"Japan telecommunications report - Q2 2011". <i>Japan Telecommunications Report</i> (1). 2011.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+backbone&rft.atitle=Japan+telecommunications+report+-+Q2+2011&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Japan+Telecommunications+Report&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150319094718/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_backbone&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maps_of_Internet_backbone_networks" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maps of Internet backbone networks">Maps of Internet backbone networks</a></b></i>.</td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://www.level3.com/en/about-us/">About Level 3</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://navigators.com/isp.html">Russ Haynal's ISP Page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://www.nthelp.com/maps.htm">US Internet backbone maps</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://www.opte.org/maps/">Automatically generated backbone map of the Internet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319094718/http://ipv6.nlsde.buaa.edu.cn/">IPv6 Backbone Network Topology</a></li> </ul>    <noscript><img src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319094718im_/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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