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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Scotland" title="Category:History of Scotland">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History of <span class="fn org label">Scotland</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arms of Scotland"><img alt="Arms of Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/40px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/60px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/80px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="599" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus"><img alt="SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/150px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/225px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_038-SCOTIA_REGNUM_cum_insulis_adjacentibus.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4276" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistoric_Scotland" title="Timeline of prehistoric Scotland">timeline</a>) 12,000 BC–700 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Iron_Age" title="Scotland in the Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">During the Roman Empire</a> 69–384</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era" title="Scotland in the modern era">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">History (timeline)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Rule</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Alpin" title="House of Alpin">House of Alpin</a> (843–878; 889–1040)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Moray" title="House of Moray">House of Moray</a> (1040–1058)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dunkeld" title="House of Dunkeld">House of Dunkeld</a> (1058–1286)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Balliol" title="House of Balliol">House of Balliol</a> (1292–1296)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan_Bruce" title="Clan Bruce">House of Bruce</a> (1306–1371)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a> (1371–1652) (1660–1707)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_under_the_Commonwealth" title="Scotland under the Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a> (1652–1660)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scandinavian Scotland</a> 793–1468</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Scotland)" title="Restoration (Scotland)">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Glorious Revolution in Scotland">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scots_language" title="History of the Scots language">The Scots language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Scotland" title="Economic history of Scotland">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Scotland" title="History of education in Scotland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Scotland" title="Military history of Scotland">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Scotland" title="Maritime history of Scotland">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Scotland" title="Demographic history of Scotland">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_of_Scotland" title="Natural history of Scotland">Natural history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in Scotland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art" title="Scottish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_kilt" title="History of the kilt">The Kilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scottish_devolution" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Scottish devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Scotland" title="History of local government in Scotland">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_National_Party" title="History of the Scottish National Party">Scottish National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_Socialist_Party" title="History of the Scottish Socialist Party">Scottish Socialist Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Scotland" title="Sport in Scotland">Sport</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_football_in_Scotland" title="History of football in Scotland">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rugby_union_in_Scotland" title="History of rugby union in Scotland">Rugby union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scotland_national_football_team" title="History of the Scotland national football team">National football team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golf_in_Scotland" title="Golf in Scotland">Golf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Scotland" title="History of Christianity in Scotland">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="History of the Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruption_of_1843" title="Disruption of 1843">Great Disruption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Jews and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Scotland#History" title="Islam in Scotland">Islam and Muslims</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Edinburgh_history" title="Timeline of Edinburgh history">Edinburgh timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Glasgow_history" title="Timeline of Glasgow history">Glasgow timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Scotland" title="Template:History of Scotland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Scotland" title="Template talk:History of Scotland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Scotland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Scotland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Romanticism in Scotland</b> was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that developed between the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries. It was part of the wider European <a href="/wiki/Romantic_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic movement">Romantic movement</a>, which was partly a reaction against the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, emphasising individual, national and emotional responses, moving beyond <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Classicist">Classicist</a> models, particularly into <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgia</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The concept of a separate national Scottish Romanticism was first articulated by the critics Ian Duncan and Murray Pittock in the Scottish Romanticism in World Literatures Conference held at UC Berkeley in 2006 and in the latter's <i>Scottish and Irish Romanticism</i> (2008), which argued for a national Romanticism based on the concepts of a distinct national public sphere and differentiated inflection of literary genres; the use of Scots language; the creation of a heroic national history through an Ossianic or Scottian 'taxonomy of glory' and the performance of a distinct national self in diaspora.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the arts, Romanticism manifested itself in literature and drama in the adoption of the mythical bard <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>, the exploration of national poetry in the work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> and in the historical novels of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>. Scott also had a major impact on the development of a national Scottish drama. Art was heavily influenced by Ossian and a new view of the Highlands as the location of a wild and dramatic landscape. Scott profoundly affected architecture through his re-building of <a href="/wiki/Abbotsford_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbotsford House">Abbotsford House</a> in the early nineteenth century, which set off the boom in the <a href="/wiki/Scots_Baronial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots Baronial">Scots Baronial</a> revival. In music, Burns was part of an attempt to produce a canon of Scottish song, which resulted in a cross fertilisation of Scottish and continental classical music, with romantic music becoming dominant in Scotland into the twentieth century. </p><p>Intellectually, Scott and figures like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> played a part in the development of historiography and the idea of the historical imagination. Romanticism also influenced science, particularly the life sciences, geology, optics and astronomy, giving Scotland a prominence in these areas that continued into the late nineteenth century. <a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish philosophy</a> was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Common_Sense_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Common Sense Realism">Scottish Common Sense Realism</a>, which shared some characteristics with Romanticism and was a major influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a>. Scott also played a major part in defining Scottish and British politics, helping to create a romanticised view of Scotland and the Highlands that fundamentally changed Scottish national identity. </p><p>Romanticism began to subside as a movement in the 1830s, but it continued to significantly affect areas such as music until the early twentieth century. It also had a lasting impact on the nature of Scottish identity and outside perceptions of Scotland. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> was a complex artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the eighteenth century in western Europe, and gained strength during and after the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1971p4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1971p4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was partly a revolt against the political norms of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> which rationalised nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature,<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1971p4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1971p4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but significantly influenced historiography,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However in Scotland it has been argued that Romanticism displayed a degree of continuity with some of the key themes of Enlightenment thought.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romanticism has been seen as "the revival of the life and thought of the Middle Ages", reaching beyond <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicist</a> models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl and industrialism, embracing the exotic, unfamiliar and distant.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also associated with political revolutions, beginning with those in <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">Americana</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">France</a> and movements for independence, particularly in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greece</a>. It is often thought to incorporate an emotional assertion of the self and of individual experience along with a sense of the infinite, <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(literary)" title="Sublime (literary)">sublime</a>. In art there was a stress on imagination, landscape and a spiritual correspondence with nature. It has been described by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Drabble" title="Margaret Drabble">Margaret Drabble</a> as "an unending revolt against classical form, conservative morality, authoritarian government, personal insincerity, and human moderation".<sup id="cite_ref-Drabble_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drabble-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature_and_drama">Literature and drama</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Literature and drama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/170px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/255px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg/340px-PG_1063Burns_Naysmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4448" data-file-height="5448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nasmyth" title="Alexander Nasmyth">Alexander Nasmyth</a>'s portrait of 1787</figcaption></figure> <p>Although after <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">union with England</a> in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(poet)" title="Allan Ramsay (poet)">Allan Ramsay</a> (1684–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the <a href="/wiki/Habbie_stanza" class="mw-redirect" title="Habbie stanza">Habbie stanza</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Poetic_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetic form">poetic form</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a>. <i>Fingal</i>, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also popularised in France by figures that included <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> (1759–96) and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the <a href="/wiki/National_poet" title="National poet">national poet</a> of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "<a href="/wiki/Auld_Lang_Syne" title="Auld Lang Syne">Auld Lang Syne</a>" is often sung at <a href="/wiki/Hogmanay" title="Hogmanay">Hogmanay</a> (the last day of the year), and "<a href="/wiki/Scots_Wha_Hae" title="Scots Wha Hae">Scots Wha Hae</a>" served for a long time as an unofficial <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, <i><a href="/wiki/Waverley_(novel)" title="Waverley (novel)">Waverley</a></i> in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rob_Roy_(novel)" title="Rob Roy (novel)">Rob Roy</a></i> (1817), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_Midlothian" title="The Heart of Midlothian">The Heart of Midlothian</a></i> (1818) and <i><a href="/wiki/Ivanhoe" title="Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe</a></i> (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists <a href="/wiki/James_Hogg" title="James Hogg">James Hogg</a> (1770–1835), <a href="/wiki/Allan_Cunningham_(author)" title="Allan Cunningham (author)">Allan Cunningham</a> (1784–1842) and <a href="/wiki/John_Galt_(novelist)" title="John Galt (novelist)">John Galt</a> (1779–1839).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Edinburgh_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Edinburgh Review">The Edinburgh Review</a></i> (founded in 1802) and <i><a href="/wiki/Blackwood%27s_Magazine" title="Blackwood's Magazine">Blackwood's Magazine</a></i> (founded in 1817), which significantly influenced the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles nationalism."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatre_Royal,_Edinburgh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/220px-Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/330px-Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/440px-Theatre_Royal%2C_Edinburgh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Edinburgh" title="Theatre Royal, Edinburgh">Theatre Royal, Edinburgh</a>, as it was from 1769–1830</figcaption></figure> <p>Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> and fears of Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "<a href="/wiki/Closet_dramas" class="mw-redirect" title="Closet dramas">closet dramas</a>", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Baillie" title="Joanna Baillie">Joanna Baillie</a> (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic literature">Gothic</a> Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007pp229-30-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Scottish national drama that emerged in the early nineteenth century was largely historical in nature and based around a core of adaptations of Scott's Waverley novels.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007pp229-30-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existing repertoire of Scottish-themed plays included Shakespeare's <i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macbeth (play)">Macbeth</a></i> (c. 1605), <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Mary_Stuart_(Schiller_play)" title="Mary Stuart (Schiller play)">Maria Stuart</a></i> (1800), <a href="/wiki/John_Home" title="John Home">John Home</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Douglas_(play)" title="Douglas (play)">Douglas</a></i> (1756) and Ramsay's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gentle_Shepherd" title="The Gentle Shepherd">The Gentle Shepherd</a></i> (1725), with the last two being the most popular plays among amateur groups. Ballets with Scottish themes included <i>Jockey and Jenny</i> and <i>Love in the Highlands</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007p231_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007p231-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott was keenly interested in drama, becoming a shareholder in the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Edinburgh" title="Theatre Royal, Edinburgh">Theatre Royal, Edinburgh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007pp185-6_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007pp185-6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baillie's Highland themed <i><a href="/wiki/The_Family_Legend" title="The Family Legend">The Family Legend</a></i> was first produced in Edinburgh in 1810 with the help of Scott, as part of a deliberate attempt to stimulate a national Scottish drama.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott also wrote five plays, of which <i>Hallidon Hill</i> (1822) and <i>MacDuff's Cross</i> (1822) were patriotic Scottish histories.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007pp185-6_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007pp185-6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adaptations of the Waverley novels, first performed primarily in minor theatres, rather than the larger <a href="/wiki/Patent_theatre" title="Patent theatre">Patent theatres</a>, included <i>The Lady in the Lake</i> (1817), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_Midlothian" title="The Heart of Midlothian">The Heart of Midlothian</a></i> (1819) (specifically described as a "romantic play" for its first performance), and <i>Rob Roy</i>, which underwent over 1,000 performances in Scotland in this period. Also adapted for the stage were <i><a href="/wiki/Guy_Mannering" title="Guy Mannering">Guy Mannering</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bride_of_Lammermoor" title="The Bride of Lammermoor">The Bride of Lammermoor</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Abbot" title="The Abbot">The Abbot</a></i>. These highly popular plays saw the social range and size of the audience for theatre expand and helped shape theatre-going practices in Scotland for the rest of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007p231_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007p231-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art in Scotland">Art in Scotland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg/220px-JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg/330px-JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg/440px-JacobMoreNG_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacob_More" title="Jacob More">Jacob More</a>'s <i>The Falls of Clyde: Corra Linn</i>, c. 1771</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ossian cycle itself became a common subject for Scottish artists, and works based on its themes were created by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Runciman" title="Alexander Runciman">Alexander Runciman</a> (1736–85) and <a href="/wiki/David_Allan_(painter)" title="David Allan (painter)">David Allan</a> (1744–96).<sup id="cite_ref-Chilvers2009p554_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chilvers2009p554-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Houghton2003pp34-5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Houghton2003pp34-5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general, from viewing them as hostile, empty regions occupied by backward and marginal people, to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature, occupied by rugged primitives, who were now depicted in a dramatic fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-Withers2001pp151-3_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Withers2001pp151-3-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Produced before his departure to Italy, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_More" title="Jacob More">Jacob More</a>'s (1740–93) series of four paintings "Falls of Clyde" (1771–73) have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as "a kind of natural national monument" and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-Withers2001pp151-3_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Withers2001pp151-3-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The effect of Romanticism can also be seen in the works of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century artists such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Raeburn" title="Henry Raeburn">Henry Raeburn</a> (1756–1823), <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nasmyth" title="Alexander Nasmyth">Alexander Nasmyth</a> (1758–1840) and John Knox (1778–1845). Raeburn was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland. He was born in Edinburgh and returned there after a trip to Italy in 1786. He is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life, going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers, doctors, professors, writers and ministers,<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell2003pp142-3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell2003pp142-3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding elements of Romanticism to the tradition of Reynolds.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became a knight in 1822 and the <a href="/wiki/Painter_and_Limner" title="Painter and Limner">King's limner and painter for Scotland</a> in 1823.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell2003pp142-3_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell2003pp142-3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London, but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career. He produced work in a range of forms, including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns, which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background, but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and has been seen as "the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition".<sup id="cite_ref-Chilvers2009p433_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chilvers2009p433-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of Knox continued the theme of landscape, directly linking it with the Romantic works of Scott,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he was also among the first artists to depict the urban landscape of Glasgow.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_baronial_architecture" title="Scottish baronial architecture">Scottish baronial architecture</a></div> <p>The Gothic revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of Romanticism, and according to <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Jackson_(historian)" title="Alvin Jackson (historian)">Alvin Jackson</a>, the Scots baronial style was "a Caledonian reading of the gothic".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture are from Scotland. <a href="/wiki/Inveraray_Castle" title="Inveraray Castle">Inveraray Castle</a>, constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam, incorporates <a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">turrets</a> into a conventional <a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian-style</a> house. His son Robert Adam's houses in this style include <a href="/wiki/Mellerstain" class="mw-redirect" title="Mellerstain">Mellerstain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wedderburn_Castle" title="Wedderburn Castle">Wedderburn</a> in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian. The trend is most clearly seen at <a href="/wiki/Culzean_Castle" title="Culzean Castle">Culzean Castle</a>, Ayrshire, remodelled by Robert from 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbotsford07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Abbotsford07.jpg/220px-Abbotsford07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Abbotsford07.jpg/330px-Abbotsford07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Abbotsford07.jpg/440px-Abbotsford07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbotsford_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbotsford House">Abbotsford House</a>, re-built for <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, helped to launch the <a href="/wiki/Scots_Baronial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots Baronial">Scots Baronial</a> revival.</figcaption></figure> <p>Important for the re-adoption of the Scots Baronial in the early nineteenth century was <a href="/wiki/Abbotsford_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbotsford House">Abbotsford House</a>, the residence of Scott. Re-built for him from 1816, it became a model for the revival of the style. Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth-century houses included <a href="/wiki/Battlements" class="mw-redirect" title="Battlements">battlemented</a> gateways, <a href="/wiki/Crow-stepped_gable" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow-stepped gable">crow-stepped gables</a>, pointed turrets and <a href="/wiki/Machicolations" class="mw-redirect" title="Machicolations">machicolations</a>. The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as <a href="/wiki/William_Burn" title="William Burn">William Burn</a> (1789–1870), <a href="/wiki/David_Bryce" title="David Bryce">David Bryce</a> (1803–1876),<sup id="cite_ref-Hull2006p154_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hull2006p154-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Blore" title="Edward Blore">Edward Blore</a> (1787–1879), <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvert_(architect)" title="Edward Calvert (architect)">Edward Calvert</a> (c. 1847–1914) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stodart_Lorimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Stodart Lorimer">Robert Stodart Lorimer</a> (1864–1929). Examples in urban contexts include the building of <a href="/wiki/Cockburn_Street,_Edinburgh" title="Cockburn Street, Edinburgh">Cockburn Street</a> in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Monument" title="Wallace Monument">Wallace Monument</a> at Stirling (1859–69).<sup id="cite_ref-GlendinningMacInnes&MacKechniep6_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlendinningMacInnes&MacKechniep6-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebuilding of <a href="/wiki/Balmoral_Castle" title="Balmoral Castle">Balmoral Castle</a> as a baronial palace, and its adoption as a royal retreat by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> from 1855–58, confirmed the popularity of the style.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In ecclesiastical architecture, a style similar to that developed in England was adopted. Important figures in this movement included <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Pilkington" title="Frederick Thomas Pilkington">Frederick Thomas Pilkington</a> (1832–98), who developed a new style of church building which accorded with the fashionable <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">High Gothic</a>, but which adapted it for the worship needs of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(1843-1900)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)">Free Church of Scotland</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Barclay_Viewforth_Church" title="Barclay Viewforth Church">Barclay Viewforth Church</a>, Edinburgh (1862–64).<sup id="cite_ref-Stamp1995pp108-10_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stamp1995pp108-10-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rowand_Anderson" title="Robert Rowand Anderson">Robert Rowand Anderson</a> (1834–1921), who trained in the office of <a href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott" title="George Gilbert Scott">George Gilbert Scott</a> in London before returning to Edinburgh, worked mainly on small churches in the "First Pointed" (or Early English) style that is characteristic of Scott's former assistants. By 1880, his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public and private buildings in Scotland, such as the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Portrait_Gallery" title="Scottish National Portrait Gallery">Scottish National Portrait Gallery</a>; the Dome of Old College, Medical Faculty and McEwan Hall, <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh University">Edinburgh University</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Central_Hotel_(Glasgow)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Hotel (Glasgow)">Central Hotel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Central_railway_station" title="Glasgow Central railway station">Glasgow Central station</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Catholic Apostolic Church</a> in Edinburgh; and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Stuart_House" title="Mount Stuart House">Mount Stuart House</a> on the Isle of Bute.<sup id="cite_ref-Glendinningetal1996p552_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glendinningetal1996p552-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music">Music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Music of Scotland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Thomson_(1757%E2%80%931851)_by_Henry_Raeburn_(1756-1823).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg/170px-George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg/255px-George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg/340px-George_Thomson_%281757%E2%80%931851%29_by_Henry_Raeburn_%281756-1823%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1336" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>George Thomson by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Raeburn" title="Henry Raeburn">Henry Raeburn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One characteristic of Romanticism was the conscious creation of bodies of nationalist <a href="/wiki/Art_music" title="Art music">art music</a>. In Scotland this form was dominant from the late eighteenth century to the early twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1790s Robert Burns embarked on an attempt to produce a corpus of Scottish national song, building on the work of antiquarians and musicologists such as <a href="/wiki/William_Tytler" title="William Tytler">William Tytler</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">James Beattie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ritson" title="Joseph Ritson">Joseph Ritson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Working with music engraver and seller James Johnson, he contributed about a third of the eventual songs of the collection known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Scots_Musical_Museum" title="Scots Musical Museum">Scots Musical Museum</a></i>, issued between 1787 and 1803 in six volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burns collaborated with <a href="/wiki/George_Thomson_(musician)" title="George Thomson (musician)">George Thomson</a> in <i>A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs</i>, published from 1793 to 1818, which adapted Scottish folk songs with "classical" arrangements. Thompson was inspired by hearing Scottish songs sung by visiting Italian <a href="/wiki/Castrati" class="mw-redirect" title="Castrati">castrati</a> at the St Cecilia Concerts in Edinburgh. He collected Scottish songs and obtained musical arrangements from the best European composers, who included <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>. Burns was employed in editing the lyrics. <i>A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs</i> was published in five volumes between 1799 and 1818. It helped make Scottish songs part of the European cannon of classical music,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Thompson's work brought elements of Romanticism, such as harmonies based on those of Beethoven, into Scottish classical music.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also involved in the collection and publication of Scottish songs was Scott, whose first literary effort was <i><a href="/wiki/Minstrelsy_of_the_Scottish_Border" title="Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border">Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</a></i>, published in three volumes (1802–03). This collection first drew the attention of an international audience to his work, and some of his lyrics were set to music by <a href="/wiki/Schubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Schubert">Schubert</a>, who also created a setting of Ossian.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hamish_MacCunn.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hamish_MacCunn.JPG/170px-Hamish_MacCunn.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hamish_MacCunn.JPG/255px-Hamish_MacCunn.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hamish_MacCunn.JPG/340px-Hamish_MacCunn.JPG 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hamish_MacCunn" title="Hamish MacCunn">Hamish MacCunn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the most influential composer of the first half of the nineteenth century was the German <a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a>, who visited Britain ten times, for a total of twenty months, from 1829. Scotland inspired two of his most famous works, the overture <i><a href="/wiki/Hebrides_Overture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrides Overture">Fingal's Cave</a></i> (also known as the <i>Hebrides Overture</i>) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._3_(Mendelssohn)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Mendelssohn)">Scottish Symphony</a></i> (Symphony No. 3). On his last visit to England in 1847, he conducted his own <i>Scottish Symphony</i> with the Philharmonic Orchestra before Queen Victoria and <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert, Prince Consort">Prince Albert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Max Bruch</a> (1838–1920) composed the <i><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Fantasy" title="Scottish Fantasy">Scottish Fantasy</a></i> (1880) for violin and orchestra, which includes an arrangement of the tune "Hey Tuttie Tatie", best known for its use in the song <i><a href="/wiki/Scots_Wha_Hae" title="Scots Wha Hae">Scots Wha Hae</a></i> by Burns.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the late nineteenth century, there was in effect a national school of orchestral and operatic music in Scotland. Major composers included <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(composer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (composer)">Alexander Mackenzie</a> (1847–1935), <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace_(Scottish_composer)" title="William Wallace (Scottish composer)">William Wallace</a> (1860–1940), <a href="/wiki/Learmont_Drysdale" title="Learmont Drysdale">Learmont Drysdale</a> (1866–1909), <a href="/wiki/Hamish_MacCunn" title="Hamish MacCunn">Hamish MacCunn</a> (1868–1916) and <a href="/wiki/John_Blackwood_McEwen" title="John Blackwood McEwen">John McEwen</a> (1868–1948).<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mackenzie, who studied in Germany and Italy and mixed Scottish themes with German Romanticism,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is best known for his three <i>Scottish Rhapsodies</i> (1879–80, 1911), <i>Pibroch</i> for violin and orchestra (1889) and the <i>Scottish Concerto</i> for piano (1897), all involving Scottish themes and folk melodies.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace's work included an overture, <i>In Praise of Scottish Poesie</i> (1894); his pioneering symphonic poem about his namesake, medieval nationalist <i>William Wallace AD 1305–1905</i> (1905); and a cantata, <i>The Massacre of the Macpherson</i> (1910).<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drysdale's work often dealt with Scottish themes, including the overture <i>Tam O’ Shanter</i> (1890), the cantata <i>The Kelpie</i> (1891), the tone poem <i>A Border Romance</i> (1904), and the cantata <i>Tamlane</i> (1905).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacCunn's overture <i><a href="/wiki/The_Land_of_the_Mountain_and_the_Flood" title="The Land of the Mountain and the Flood">The Land of the Mountain and the Flood</a></i> (1887), his <i>Six Scotch Dances</i> (1896), his operas <i><a href="/wiki/Jeanie_Deans_(opera)" title="Jeanie Deans (opera)">Jeanie Deans</a></i> (1894) and <i>Dairmid</i> (1897) and choral works on Scottish subjects<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been described by I. G. C. Hutchison as the musical equivalent of Abbotsford and Balmoral.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McEwen's more overtly national works include <i>Grey Galloway</i> (1908), the <i>Solway Symphony</i> (1911) and <i>Prince Charlie</i>, A Scottish Rhapsody (1924).<sup id="cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/170px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/255px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg/340px-Sir_Henry_Raeburn_-_Portrait_of_Sir_Walter_Scott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1649" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Raeburn" title="Henry Raeburn">Raeburn's</a> portrait of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> in 1822</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to Enlightenment histories, which have been seen as attempting to draw general lessons about humanity from history, the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a> in his <i>Ideas upon Philosophy and the History of Mankind</i> (1784), set out the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i>, a unique national spirit that drove historical change. As a result, a key element in the influence of Romanticism on intellectual life was the production of national histories.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nature and existence of a national Scottish historiography has been debated among historians. Those authors who consider that such a national history did exist in this period indicate that it can be found outside of the production of major historical narratives, in works of <a href="/wiki/Antiquarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarianism">antiquarianism</a> and fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ichijo2004pp3-4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important element in the emergence of a Scottish national history was an interest in antiquarianism, with figures like <a href="/wiki/John_Pinkerton" title="John Pinkerton">John Pinkerton</a> (1758–1826) collecting sources such as ballads, coins, medals, songs and artefacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Kidd2003p251_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kidd2003p251-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enlightenment historians had tended to react with embarrassment to Scottish history, particularly the feudalism of the Middle Ages and the religious intolerance of the Reformation. In contrast many historians of the early nineteenth century rehabilitated these areas as suitable for serious study.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lawyer and antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Cosmo_Innes" title="Cosmo Innes">Cosmo Innes</a>, who produced works on <i>Scotland in the Middle Ages</i> (1860), and <i>Sketches of Early Scottish History</i> (1861), has been likened to the pioneering history of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Heinrich_Pertz" title="Georg Heinrich Pertz">Georg Heinrich Pertz</a>, one of the first writers to collate the major historical accounts of German history.<sup id="cite_ref-Bently2012p206_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bently2012p206-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Fraser_Tytler" title="Patrick Fraser Tytler">Patrick Fraser Tytler</a>'s nine-volume history of Scotland (1828–43), particularity his sympathetic view of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, have led to comparisons with <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a>, considered the father of modern scientific historical writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Bently2012p206_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bently2012p206-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tytler was co-founder with Scott of the Bannatyne Society in 1823, which helped further the course of historical research in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%27Crie_the_Younger" title="Thomas M'Crie the Younger">Thomas M'Crie</a>'s (1797–1875) biographies of <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Melville" title="Andrew Melville">Andrew Melville</a>, figures generally savaged in the Enlightenment, helped rehabilitate their reputations.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007p9_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007p9-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Forbes_Skene" title="William Forbes Skene">W. F. Skene</a>'s (1809–92) three part study of <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (1886–91) was the first serious investigation of the region and helped spawn the Scottish <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown2007p9_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2007p9-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Issues of race became important, with Pinkerton, James Sibbald (1745–1803) and <a href="/wiki/John_Jamieson" title="John Jamieson">John Jamieson</a> (1758–1839) subscribing to a theory of Picto-Gothicism, which postulated a Germanic origin for the Picts and the Scots language.<sup id="cite_ref-Kidd2003p251_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kidd2003p251-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Carlyle_daguerreotype,_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Thomas_Carlyle_daguerreotype%2C_1848.jpg/170px-Thomas_Carlyle_daguerreotype%2C_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Thomas_Carlyle_daguerreotype%2C_1848.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a>, a major figure in Romantic historical writing</figcaption></figure> <p>Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> (1795–1881), born in Scotland and later a resident of London. He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as <a href="/wiki/Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Schiller">Schiller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> to the attention of a British audience.<sup id="cite_ref-Cumming2004pp200&223_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cumming2004pp200&223-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An essayist and historian, he invented the phrase "hero-worship", lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> and Napoleon.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i><a href="/wiki/The_French_Revolution:_A_History" title="The French Revolution: A History">The French Revolution: A History</a></i> (1837) dramatised the plight of the French aristocracy, but stressed the inevitability of history as a force.<sup id="cite_ref-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With French historian <a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Jules Michelet</a>, he is associated with the use of the "historical imagination".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Romantic historiography this led to a tendency to emphasise sentiment and identification, inviting readers to sympathise with historical personages and even to imagine interactions with them.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to many continental Romantic historians, Carlyle remained largely pessimistic about human nature and events. He believed that history was a form of prophecy that could reveal patterns for the future. In the late nineteenth century he became one of a number of Victorian <a href="/wiki/Sage_writing" title="Sage writing">sage writers</a> and social commentators.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Romantic writers often reacted against the <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> of Enlightenment historical writing, putting forward the figure of the "poet-historian" who would mediate between the sources of history and the reader, using insight to create more than chronicles of facts. For this reason, Romantic historians such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Nicolas_Augustin_Thierry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry">Thierry</a> saw Walter Scott, who had spent considerable effort uncovering new documents and sources for his novels, as an authority in historical writing.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott is now seen primarily as a novelist, but also produced a nine-volume biography of Napoleon,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been described as "the towering figure of Romantic historiography in Transatlantic and European contexts", having a profound effect on how history, particularly that of Scotland, was understood and written.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians that acknowledged his influence included <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay,_1st_Baron_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay">Macaulay</a>, and Ranke.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax,_Mrs_William_Somerville,_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="4001" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a>, a major influence on Humboldtian science in Britain</figcaption></figure> <p>Romanticism has also been seen as affecting scientific enquiry. Romantic attitudes to science varied, from distrust of the scientific enterprise to endorsing a non-mechanical science that rejected the mathematicised and the abstract theorising associated with Newton. Major trends in continental science associated with Romanticism include <i><a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a></i>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a> (1775–1854), which focused on the necessity of reuniting man with nature,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a>, based on the work of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859). As defined by Susan Cannon, this form of inquiry placed a stress on observation, accurate scientific instruments and new conceptual tools; disregarded the boundaries between different disciplines; and emphasised working in nature rather than the artificial laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-Helirbon2003p386_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helirbon2003p386-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Privileging observation above calculation, Romantic scientists were often attracted to the areas where investigation, rather than calculation and theory, was most important, particularly the life sciences, geology, optics and astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns2003pxviii_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns2003pxviii-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>James Allard identifies the origins of Scottish "Romantic medicine" in the work of Enlightenment figures, particularly the brothers <a href="/wiki/William_Hunter_(anatomist)" title="William Hunter (anatomist)">William</a> (1718–83) and <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a> (1728–93), who were, respectively, the leading anatomist and surgeon of their day and in the role of Edinburgh as a major centre of medical teaching and research.<sup id="cite_ref-Allardpp379-80_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allardpp379-80-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key figures that were influenced by the Hunters' work and by Romanticism include <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(physician,_born_1735)" title="John Brown (physician, born 1735)">John Brown</a> (1735–88), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Beddoes" title="Thomas Beddoes">Thomas Beddoes</a> (1760–1808) and <a href="/wiki/John_Barclay_(anatomist)" title="John Barclay (anatomist)">John Barclay</a> (1758–1826). Brown argued in <i>Elementa Medicinae</i> (1780) that life is an essential "vital energy" or "excitability" and that disease is either the excessive or diminished redistribution of the normal intensity of the human organ, which became known as <a href="/wiki/Brunonian_system_of_medicine" title="Brunonian system of medicine">Brunonianism</a>. This work was highly influential, particularly in Germany, on the development of Naturphilosophie.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work was translated and edited by Beddoes, another graduate of Edinburgh, whose own work, <i>Hygeia, or Essays Moral and Medical</i> (1807) expanded on these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Allardpp379-80_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allardpp379-80-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following in this vein, Barclay in the 1810 edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> identified <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> as the branch of medicine closest to <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also important were the brothers <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(surgeon)" title="John Bell (surgeon)">John</a> (1763–1820) and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bell" title="Charles Bell">Charles Bell</a> (1774–1842), who made significant advances in the study of the <a href="/wiki/Vascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular system">vascular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London,_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg/170px-Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg/255px-Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg/340px-Transactions_of_the_Linnean_Society_of_London%2C_Volume_10_-_tab._3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4080" data-file-height="5154" /></a><figcaption>A plate from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a>'s paper "<a href="/wiki/On_the_natural_order_of_plants_called_Proteaceae" title="On the natural order of plants called Proteaceae">On the natural order of plants called Proteaceae</a>" (1810)</figcaption></figure> <p>The University of Edinburgh was also a major supplier of surgeons for the royal navy, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jameson" title="Robert Jameson">Robert Jameson</a> (1774–1854), Professor of Natural History at Edinburgh, ensured that a large number of these were surgeon-naturalists, who were vital in the Humboldtian and imperial enterprise of investigating nature throughout the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Helirbon2003p386_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helirbon2003p386-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a> (1773–1858), one of the major figures in the early exploration of Australia. His later use of the microscope paralleled that noted among German students of Naturphilosophie, and he is credited with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> and the first observation of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>'s work <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Geology" title="Principles of Geology">Principles of Geology</a></i> (1830) is often seen as the foundation of modern geology. It was indebted to Humboldtian science in its insistence on measurements of nature,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, according to Noah Heringman, retains a much of the "rhetoric of the sublime", which is characteristic of Romantic attitudes to landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romantic thinking was also evident in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Miller" title="Hugh Miller">Hugh Miller</a>, stonemason and geologist, who followed in the tradition of Naturphilosophie, arguing that nature was a pre-ordained progression towards the human race.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publisher, historian, antiquarian and scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher_born_1802)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Chambers (publisher born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a> (1802–71) became a friend of Scott, writing a biography of him after the author's death. Chambers also became a geologist, researching in Scandinavia and Canada. His most influential work was the anonymously published <i><a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a></i> (1844), which was the most comprehensive written argument in favour of evolution before the work of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1809–82).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work was strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_anatomy" title="Transcendental anatomy">transcendental anatomy</a>, which, drawing on Goethe and <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_Oken" title="Lorenz Oken">Lorenz Oken</a> (1779–1851),<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> looked for ideal patterns and structure in nature<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had been pioneered in Scotland by figures including <a href="/wiki/Robert_Knox_(surgeon)" title="Robert Knox (surgeon)">Robert Knox</a> (1791–1862).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Brewster" title="David Brewster">David Brewster</a> (1781–1868), physicist, mathematician and astronomer, undertook key work in optics, where he provided a compromise between Goethe's Naturphilosophie-influenced studies and Newton's system, which Goethe attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work would be important in later biological, geological<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and astrological discoveries. Diligent measurement in South Africa allowed <a href="/wiki/Thomas_James_Henderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas James Henderson">Thomas Henderson</a> (1798–1844) make the observations that would allow him to be the first to calculate the distance to <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a>, before returning to Edinburgh to become the first <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal_for_Scotland" title="Astronomer Royal for Scotland">Astronomer Royal for Scotland</a> from 1834.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by Humboldt, and much praised by him, was <a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a> (1780–1872), mathematician, geographer, physicist, astronomer and one of the few women to gain recognition in science in the period.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major contribution to the "magnetic crusade" declared by Humboldt was made by Scottish-born astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Lamont_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Lamont (astronomer)">John Lamont</a> (1805–79), head of the observatory in Munich, when he found a decennial period (ten-year cycle) in the Earth's magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_IV_in_kilt,_by_Wilkie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg/170px-George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg/255px-George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg/340px-George_IV_in_kilt%2C_by_Wilkie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Wilkie_(artist)" title="David Wilkie (artist)">David Wilkie</a>'s flattering portrait of the <a href="/wiki/Kilt" title="Kilt">kilted</a> <a href="/wiki/King_George_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="King George IV">King George IV</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobite</a> risings, a movement to restore <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a> King <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II of England</a> to the throne, the British government enacted a series of laws that attempted to speed the process of the destruction of the clan system. Measures included a ban on the bearing of arms, the wearing of tartan and limitations on the activities of the Episcopalian Church. Most of the legislation was repealed by the end of the eighteenth century as the Jacobite threat subsided. </p><p>Soon after, there was a process of the rehabilitation of highland culture. Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army, which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in 1815, but by the nineteenth century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people of the region. In the 1820s, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sievers2007_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sievers2007-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and further popularised by the works of Scott. His "staging" of the royal <a href="/wiki/Visit_of_King_George_IV_to_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Visit of King George IV to Scotland">visit of King George IV to Scotland</a> in 1822 and the king's wearing of tartan resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry. Individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period, and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "Highlandism", by which all of Scotland was identified with the culture of the Highlands, was cemented by Queen Victoria's interest in the country, her adoption of Balmoral as a major royal retreat and her interest in "tartanry".<sup id="cite_ref-Sievers2007_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sievers2007-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The romanticisation of the Highlands and the adoption of Jacobitism into mainstream culture have been seen as defusing the potential threat to the Union with England, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">House of Hanover</a> and the dominant <a href="/wiki/Whig_(British_political_party)" class="mw-redirect" title="Whig (British political party)">Whig</a> government.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many countries Romanticism played a major part in the emergence of radical independence movements through the development of national identities. <a href="/wiki/Tom_Nairn" title="Tom Nairn">Tom Nairn</a> argues that Romanticism in Scotland did not develop along the lines seen elsewhere in Europe, leaving a "rootless" intelligentsia, who moved to England or elsewhere and so did not supply a cultural nationalism that could be communicated to the emerging working classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Ichijo2004p37_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ichijo2004p37-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graeme Moreton and Lindsay Paterson both argue that the lack of interference of the British state in civil society meant that the middle classes had no reason to object to the union.<sup id="cite_ref-Ichijo2004p37_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ichijo2004p37-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atsuko Ichijo argues that national identity cannot be equated with a movement for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreton suggests that there was a Scottish nationalism, but that it was expressed in terms of "Unionist nationalism".<sup id="cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ichijo2004pp3-4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A form of political radicalism remained within Scottish Romanticism, surfacing in events like the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_the_People" title="Society of the Friends of the People">Friends of the People</a> in 1792 and in 1853 the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Vindication_of_Scottish_Rights" title="National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights">National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2008p.187_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2008p.187-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was in effect a federation of romantics, radical churchmen and administrative reformers.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Scottish identity was not directed into nationalism until the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson2008p.187_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson2008p.187-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Common_Sense_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Common Sense Realism">Scottish Common Sense Realism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DugaldStewart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/DugaldStewart.jpg/170px-DugaldStewart.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/DugaldStewart.jpg/255px-DugaldStewart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/DugaldStewart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Dugald Stewart</a>, a major figure in the popularisation of <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Common_Sense_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Common Sense Realism">Common Sense Realism</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The dominant school of philosophy in Scotland in the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century is known as Common Sense Realism. It argued that there are certain concepts, such as our existence, the existence of solid objects and some basic moral "first principles", that are intrinsic to our make-up and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived. It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Gutjhar2011p39_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutjhar2011p39-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origins of these arguments are in a reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Scepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scepticism">scepticism</a> that became dominant in the Enlightenment, particularly that articulated by Scottish philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711–76). This branch of thinking was first formulated by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a> (1710–96) in his <i>An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense</i> (1764).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was popularised in Scotland by figures including <a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Dugald Stewart</a> (1753–1828) and in England by James Beattie. Stewart's students included Walter Scott, Walter Chambers and Thomas Brown,<sup id="cite_ref-Redekop2004_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redekop2004-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this branch of thought would later be a major influence on Charles Darwin.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Hamilton,_9th_Baronet" title="Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet">William Hamilton</a> (1788–1856) attempted to combine Reid's approach with the philosophy of Kant.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common Sense Realism not only dominated Scottish thought but also had a major impact in France,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the United States, Germany and other countries. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Cousin" title="Victor Cousin">Victor Cousin</a> (1792–1867) was the most important proponent in France, becoming Minister of Education and incorporating the philosophy into the curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-Redekop2004_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redekop2004-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Germany the emphasis on careful observation influenced Humboldt's ideas about science and was a major factor in the development of <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_McCosh" title="James McCosh">James McCosh</a> (1811–94) brought Common Sense Realism directly from Scotland to North American in 1868 when he became president of <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, which soon became a stronghold of the movement. <a href="/wiki/Noah_Porter" title="Noah Porter">Noah Porter</a> (1811–92) taught Common Sense Realism to generations of students at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Yale">Yale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Redekop2004_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redekop2004-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, it would be a major influence on the development of one of the most important offshoots of Romanticism in New England, <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a>, particularly in the writing of <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> (1803–82).<sup id="cite_ref-Redekop2004_103-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redekop2004-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline">Decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:McTaggart,_The_Storm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg/220px-McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg/330px-McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg/440px-McTaggart%2C_The_Storm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_McTaggart" title="William McTaggart">William McTaggart</a>'s <i>The Storm</i>, 1890, incorporating elements of Impressionism into the Scottish landscape tradition</figcaption></figure> <p>In literature, Romanticism is often thought to have ended in the 1830s,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a few commentators, like <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Drabble" title="Margaret Drabble">Margaret Drabble</a>, describing it as over by 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-Drabble_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drabble-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romanticism continued much longer in some places and areas of endeavour, particularly in music, where it has been dated from 1820 to 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The death of Scott in 1832 has been seen as marking the end of the great romantic generation,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Scottish literature and culture in general lost some of its international prominence from this point. Scott's reputation as a writer also went into decline in the late nineteenth century, only recovering in the twentieth.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic and social change, particularly the better communications brought by the railways, decreased the ability of Edinburgh to function as an alternative cultural capital to London, with its publishing industry moving to London.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of opportunities in politics and letters led many talented Scots to leave for England and elsewhere. The sentimental <a href="/wiki/Kailyard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kailyard">Kailyard</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/J._M._Barrie" title="J. M. Barrie">J. M. Barrie</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald" title="George MacDonald">George MacDonald</a>, of those that continued to pursue Scottish topics at the end of the nineteenth century, was seen by <a href="/wiki/Tom_Nairn" title="Tom Nairn">Tom Nairn</a> as "sub-romantic".<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In art, the tradition of Scottish landscape painting continued into the later nineteenth century, but Romanticism gave way to influences including French <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a> and eventually <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Scots baronial style continued to be popular until the end of the nineteenth century, when other styles began to dominate.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Romanticism persisted in music much longer than in almost every area, it fell out of fashion in the twentieth century and anti-Romantic currents in Britain virtually buried Victorian and Edwardian music not written by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Edward Elgar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan" title="Arthur Sullivan">Arthur Sullivan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of the historical imagination was replaced with the source-based empiricism championed by Ranke.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marinel Ash has noted that after the death of Scott, Scottish national history lost its momentum, and the Scottish literati stopped writing Scottish histories. <a href="/wiki/Colin_Kidd" title="Colin Kidd">Colin Kidd</a> has observed a change of attitudes to historical writing and suggests that this was one reason for a lack of the development of political nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ichijo2004pp3-4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In science, the rapid expansion of knowledge increased a tendency towards specialisation and professionalism and a decline of the polymath "man of letters" and amateurs that had dominated Romantic science.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common Sense Realism began to decline in Britain in the face of the English <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> outlined by <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> in his <i>An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy</i> (1865).<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg/170px-Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg/255px-Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg/340px-Lev_Nikolayevich_Tolstoy_1848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="923" /></a><figcaption>The young <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, one of the many writers directly influenced by Scottish Romanticism</figcaption></figure> <p>Scotland can make a claim to have begun the Romantic movement with writers such as Macpherson and Burns.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Scott it produced a figure of international fame and influence, whose virtual invention of the historical novel would be picked up by writers across the world, including <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Alexandre Dumas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> in Russia and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tradition of Scottish landscape painting significantly influenced art in Britain and elsewhere through figures like <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>, who took part in the emerging Scottish "grand tour".<sup id="cite_ref-Szasz200p136_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szasz200p136-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Scottish baronial style influenced buildings in England and was taken by Scots to North America,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Australia<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-LanEncyNZ_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LanEncyNZ-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In music, the early efforts of men like Burns, Scott and Thompson helped insert Scottish music into European, particularly German, classical music, and the later contributions of composers like MacCuun were part of a Scottish contribution to the British revival of interest in classical music in the late nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The idea of history as a force and the romantic concept of revolution were highly influential on transcendentalists like Emerson, and through them on American literature in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romantic science maintained the prominence and reputation that Scotland had begun to obtain in the Enlightenment and helped in the development of many emerging fields of investigation, including geology and biology. According to Robert D. Purington, "to some the nineteenth century seems to be the century of Scottish science".<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Politically the initial function of Romanticism as pursued by Scott and others helped to diffuse some of the tension created by Scotland's place in the Union, but it also helped to ensure the survival of a common and distinct Scottish national identity that would play a major part in Scottish life and emerge as a significant factor in Scottish politics from the second half of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Externally, modern images of Scotland worldwide, its landscape, culture, sciences and arts, are still largely defined by those created and popularised by Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_Scotland&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPittock2008" class="citation book cs1">Pittock, Murray (2008). <i>Scottish and Irish Romanticism</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199232796" title="Special:BookSources/9780199232796"><bdi>9780199232796</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scottish+and+Irish+Romanticism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199232796&rft.aulast=Pittock&rft.aufirst=Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism+in+Scotland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://townsendcenter.berkeley.edu/publications/re-mapping-romanticism-scottish-question">"Re-Mapping Romanticism: The Scottish Question | Townsend Center for the Humanities"</a>. <i>townsendcenter.berkeley.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chandler, <i>A Dream of Order: the Medieval Ideal in Nineteenth-Century English Literature</i> (London: Taylor & Francis, 1971), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Levin, <i>History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman</i> (1967).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Swift, <i>Romanticism, Literature And Philosophy: Expressive Rationality in Rousseau, Kant, Wollstonecraft And Contemporary Theory</i> (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826486444" title="Special:BookSources/0826486444">0826486444</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin," <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> 2005 149(3): 304–315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPittock2008" class="citation book cs1">Pittock, Murray (2008). <i>Scottish and Irish Romanticism</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scottish+and+Irish+Romanticism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Pittock&rft.aufirst=Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanticism+in+Scotland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. R. Agrawal, <i>The Medieval Revival and its Influence on the Romantic Movement</i> (Abhinav, 1990), p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drabble-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drabble_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drabble_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Drabble, <i>The Oxford Companion to English Literature</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, fifth edn., 1985), pp. 842–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Buchan, <i>Crowded with Genius</i> (London: Harper Collins, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1">0-06-055888-1</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. 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Thomson, <i>The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian"</i> (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", <i>Eighteenth-Century Life</i>, vol. 29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 25–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. S. Whetter, <i>Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-6142-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-6142-3">0-7546-6142-3</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Davidson, <i>The Origins of Scottish Nationhood</i> (Pluto Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7453-1608-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7453-1608-5">0-7453-1608-5</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Maunder, <i>FOF Companion to the British Short Story</i> (Infobase Publishing, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816074968" title="Special:BookSources/0816074968">0816074968</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P. Klancher, <i>A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age</i> (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631233555" title="Special:BookSources/0631233555">0631233555</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. 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Benchimol, ed., <i>Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0754664465" title="Special:BookSources/0754664465">0754664465</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown2007pp229-30-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown2007pp229-30_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">I. 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Nelson, eds, <i>James Hogg and the Literary Marketplace: Scottish Romanticism and the Working-Class Author</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0754665690" title="Special:BookSources/0754665690">0754665690</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chilvers2009p554-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chilvers2009p554_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. 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Campbell, <i>Edinburgh: A Cultural and Literary History</i> (Signal Books, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1902669738" title="Special:BookSources/1902669738">1902669738</a>, pp. 142–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. C. Ochterbeck', ed., <i>Michelin Green Guide: Great Britain Edition</i> (Michelin, 5th edn., 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1906261083" title="Special:BookSources/1906261083">1906261083</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chilvers2009p433-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chilvers2009p433_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Chilvers, ed., <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, fourth edn., 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/019953294X" title="Special:BookSources/019953294X">019953294X</a>, p. 433.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. J. Hill, <i>Picturing Scotland Through the Waverley Novels: Walter Scott and the Origins of the Victorian Illustrated Novel</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0754668061" title="Special:BookSources/0754668061">0754668061</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Kemp, <i>The Pleasures and Treasures of Britain: A Discerning Traveller's Companion</i> (Dundurn, 1992), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1550021591" title="Special:BookSources/1550021591">1550021591</a>, p. 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Jackson, <i>The Two Unions: Ireland, Scotland, and the Survival of the United Kingdom, 1707–2007</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/019959399X" title="Special:BookSources/019959399X">019959399X</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. D. Whyte and K. A. Whyte, <i>The Changing Scottish Landscape, 1500–1800</i> (London: Taylor & Francis, 1991), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415029929" title="Special:BookSources/0415029929">0415029929</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hull2006p154-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hull2006p154_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Hull, <i>Britain's Medieval Castles</i> (London: Greenwood, 2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275984141" title="Special:BookSources/0275984141">0275984141</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GlendinningMacInnes&MacKechniep6-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GlendinningMacInnes&MacKechniep6_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie, <i>A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0849-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0849-2">978-0-7486-0849-2</a>, pp. 276–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry-Russell Hitchcock, <i>Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries</i> (Yale University Press, fourth edn., 1989), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300053207" title="Special:BookSources/0300053207">0300053207</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stamp1995pp108-10-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stamp1995pp108-10_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Stamp, "The Victorian kirk: Presbyterian architecture in nineteenth century Scotland", in C. Brooks, ed., <i>The Victorian Church: Architecture and Society</i> (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0719040205" title="Special:BookSources/0719040205">0719040205</a>, pp. 108–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glendinningetal1996p552-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glendinningetal1996p552_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie, <i>A History of Scottish Architecture: From the Renaissance to the Present Day</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0849-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0849-4">0-7486-0849-4</a>, p. 552.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardiner2005p195-6-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner2005p195-6_41-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Gardiner, <i>Modern Scottish Culture</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748620273" title="Special:BookSources/0748620273">0748620273</a>, pp. 195–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Matherson, "Robert Burns and national song", in D. Duff and C. Jones, eds, <i>Scotland, Ireland, and the Romantic Aesthetic</i> (Associated University Presse, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0838756182" title="Special:BookSources/0838756182">0838756182</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald A. Low, ed., <i>The Songs of Robert Burns</i> (London: Routledge, 1993), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0203991117" title="Special:BookSources/0203991117">0203991117</a>, p. 1054.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. A. Low, ed., <i>The Songs of Robert Burns</i> (London: Routledge, 1993), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0203991117" title="Special:BookSources/0203991117">0203991117</a>, pp. 16–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. E. Hull, <i>Music; Classical, Romantic & Modern</i> (Ayer Publishing, 1927), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0836958039" title="Special:BookSources/0836958039">0836958039</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Conway_(music_historian)" title="David Conway (music historian)">D. Conway</a>, " 'Short, Dark and Jewish-Looking': Felix Mendelssohn in Britain", <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Year_Book" title="Jewish Year Book">Jewish Year Book</a></i> (2009), ed. S. Massil, p. xviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Simon_P._Keefe" title="Simon P. Keefe">Simon P. Keefe</a>, ed., <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Companions_to_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Companions to Music">The Cambridge Companion to the Concerto</a></i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052183483X" title="Special:BookSources/052183483X">052183483X</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scottishcomposers.wordpress.com/2010/08/18/alexander-mackenzie/">"Alexander Mackenzie"</a> <i>Scottish Composers: the Land With Music</i>, retrieved 11 May 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevenson-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Stevenson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/william-wallace-q6604/biography">"William Wallace"</a>, <i>Allmusic</i>, retrieved 11 May 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scottishcomposers.wordpress.com/2010/08/21/learmont-drysdale/">"Learmont-Drysdale"</a> <i>Scottish Composers: the Land With Music</i>, retrieved 11 May 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. G. C. Hutchison, "Workshop of Empire: The Nineteenth Century" in J. Wormald, ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mFt2S33o8G8C&dq=Hammish+McCunn&pg=PT310"><i>Scotland: A History</i></a> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0191622435" title="Special:BookSources/0191622435">0191622435</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. J. Williams, ed., <i>Theatre Histories: An Introduction</i> (London: Taylor & Francis, 2nd edn., 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415462231" title="Special:BookSources/0415462231">0415462231</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ichijo2004pp3-4-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ichijo2004pp3-4_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Ichijo, <i>Scottish Nationalism and the Idea of Europe: Concepts Of Europe and the Nation</i> (London: Routledge, 2004), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0714655910" title="Special:BookSources/0714655910">0714655910</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kidd2003p251-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kidd2003p251_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kidd2003p251_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Kidd, <i>Subverting Scotland's Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity 1689–1830</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521520193" title="Special:BookSources/0521520193">0521520193</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, <i>Introduction</i>, in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, <i>The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199563691" title="Special:BookSources/0199563691">0199563691</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bently2012p206-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bently2012p206_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bently2012p206_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Bently, "Shape and pattern in British historical writing, 1815–1945, in <i>S. MacIntyre, J. Maiguashca and A. Pok, eds, </i>The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945<i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199533091" title="Special:BookSources/0199533091">0199533091</a>, p. 206.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Santini, <i>The Impetus of Amateur Scholarship: Discussing and Editing Medieval Romances in Late-Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Britain</i> (Peter Lang, 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3034303289" title="Special:BookSources/3034303289">3034303289</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown2007p9-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown2007p9_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown2007p9_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Brown, <i>The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–1918)</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748624813" title="Special:BookSources/0748624813">0748624813</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cumming2004pp200&223-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cumming2004pp200&223_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Cumming, <i>The Carlyle Encyclopedia</i> (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2004), pp. 200ff and 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. W. Stocking, <i>Romantic Motives: Essays on Anthropological Sensibility</i> (University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0299123642" title="Special:BookSources/0299123642">0299123642</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aneskoetal2006pp7-9_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Anesko, A. Ladd, J. R. Phillips, <i>Romanticism and Transcendentalism</i> (Infobase Publishing, 2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1438118562" title="Special:BookSources/1438118562">1438118562</a>, pp. 7–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Elsaesser, <i>Weimar Cinema and After: Germany's Historical Imaginary</i> (London: Routledge, 2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/041501235X" title="Special:BookSources/041501235X">041501235X</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. A. Westover, <i>Traveling to Meet the Dead 1750—1860: A Study of Literary Tourism and Necromanticism</i> (ProQuest, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0549497250" title="Special:BookSources/0549497250">0549497250</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Vanden Bossche, ed., <i>Writings of Thomas Carlyle, Historical Essays</i> (University of California Press, 2002), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520220617" title="Special:BookSources/0520220617">0520220617</a>, pp. xxii–xxiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Evdokimova, <i>Pushkin's Historical Imagination</i> (Yale University Press, 1999), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300070233" title="Special:BookSources/0300070233">0300070233</a>, pp. 33–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Harvie, <i>Scotland, a Short History</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192100548" title="Special:BookSources/0192100548">0192100548</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. T. Bannet and S. Manning, <i>Transatlantic Literary Studies, 1660–1830</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107001579" title="Special:BookSources/1107001579">1107001579</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. 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Kuehn, <i>Scottish Common Sense in Germany, 1768–1800: A Contribution to the History of Critical Philosophy</i> (McGill-Queens, 1987), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0773510095" title="Special:BookSources/0773510095">0773510095</a>, pp. 144 and 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Poplawski, <i>English Literature in Context</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521839920" title="Special:BookSources/0521839920">0521839920</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. P. Klancher, <i>A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age</i> (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631233555" title="Special:BookSources/0631233555">0631233555</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Hinson, <i>Anthology of Romantic Piano Music</i> (Alfred Music Publishing, 2002), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0739024094" title="Special:BookSources/0739024094">0739024094</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. E. Paul Gillespie, <i>Romantic Drama</i> (John Benjamins, 1994), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1556196008" title="Special:BookSources/1556196008">1556196008</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Duncan, "Walter Scott" in D. S. Kastan, <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, Volume 1</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195169212" title="Special:BookSources/0195169212">0195169212</a>, p. 462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Duncan, <i>Scott's Shadow: The Novel in Romantic Edinburgh</i> (Princeton University Press, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691043833" title="Special:BookSources/0691043833">0691043833</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Blaikie, <i>The Scots Imagination and Modern Memory</i> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0748617868" title="Special:BookSources/0748617868">0748617868</a>, pp. 111–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. Fowle, "Patterns of taste: Scottish collectors and the making of cultural identity in the late nineteenth century", in F. Cullen, J. Morrison, eds, <i>A Shared Legacy: Essays On Irish And Scottish Art And Visual Culture British Art and Visual Culture Since 1750, New Readings</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0754606449" title="Special:BookSources/0754606449">0754606449</a>, pp. 181–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Gifford, <i>Perth and Kinross</i> (Yale University Press, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300109229" title="Special:BookSources/0300109229">0300109229</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. S. Martin, <i>Green History: The Future of the Past</i> (University Press of America, 2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761816100" title="Special:BookSources/0761816100">0761816100</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Walton Litz, <i>Modernism and the New Criticism</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521300126" title="Special:BookSources/0521300126">0521300126</a>, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter A. Elwell, ed., <i><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Dictionary_of_Theology" title="Evangelical Dictionary of Theology">Evangelical Dictionary of Theology</a></i> (Baker Academic, 2nd edn., 2001), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801020751" title="Special:BookSources/0801020751">0801020751</a>, p. 1079.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Carruthers and A. Rawesin "Introduction: romancing the Celt", in G. Carruthers and A. Rawes, eds, <i>English Romanticism and the Celtic World</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052181085X" title="Special:BookSources/052181085X">052181085X</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Melville Logan, O. George, S. Hegeman and E. Kristal, <i>The Encyclopedia of the Novel, Volume 1</i> (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1405161841" title="Special:BookSources/1405161841">1405161841</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szasz200p136-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Szasz200p136_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. M. Szasz, <i>Scots in the North American West, 1790–1917</i> (University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0806132531" title="Special:BookSources/0806132531">0806132531</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Marshall and C. Johnston, <i>France and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, Volume 2</i> (ABC-CLIO, 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851094113" title="Special:BookSources/1851094113">1851094113</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. D. Prentis, <i>The Scots in Australia</i> (UNSW Press, 2008), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1921410213" title="Special:BookSources/1921410213">1921410213</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LanEncyNZ-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LanEncyNZ_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/L/LarnachsCastle/LarnachsCastle/en">"Larnach's Castle"</a>, <i>An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand</i>, retrieved 9 January 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Apel, <i>Harvard Dictionary of Music</i> (Harvard University Press, 2nd edn., 1969), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674375017" title="Special:BookSources/0674375017">0674375017</a>, p. 760.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert D. Purrington, <i>Physics in the Nineteenth Century</i> (Rutgers University Press, 1997), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813524423" title="Special:BookSources/0813524423">0813524423</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Davidson, <i>The Origins of Scottish Nationhood</i> (Pluto Press, 2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0745316085" title="Special:BookSources/0745316085">0745316085</a>, pp. 162–3 and 200-1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Jack and A. M. Phipps, <i>Tourism And Intercultural Exchange: Why Tourism Matters</i> (Channel View Publications, 2005), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1845410173" title="Special:BookSources/1845410173">1845410173</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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title="Geology of Scotland">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Scotland" title="List of islands of Scotland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lochs_of_Scotland" title="List of lochs of Scotland">Lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountains_and_hills_of_Scotland" title="Mountains and hills of Scotland">Mountains and hills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_in_Scotland" title="List of highest mountains in Scotland">Highest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Scotland" title="Protected areas of Scotland">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Scotland" title="List of waterfalls in Scotland">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Scotland" title="List of valleys of Scotland">Glens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Scotland" title="List of ecoregions in Scotland">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biosphere_reserves_in_Scotland" title="List of biosphere reserves in Scotland">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Scotland" title="Environment of Scotland">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Scotland" title="Municipalities of Scotland">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Munro_mountains" title="List of Munro mountains">Munro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Scotland">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_governments" title="List of Scottish governments">List of governments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_Scotland" title="International relations of Scotland">International relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Scotland" title="Elections in Scotland">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_Scotland" title="Electoral system of Scotland">Electoral system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeper_of_the_Great_Seal_of_Scotland" title="Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland">Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="Deputy First Minister of Scotland">Deputy First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland" title="Great Seal of Scotland">Great Seal of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Scotland">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Scotland" title="LGBT rights in Scotland">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Scotland" title="Local government in Scotland">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Scotland" title="History of local government in Scotland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_of_Scotland" title="Cities of Scotland">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Scotland" title="Armed forces in Scotland">Armed forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Scotland" title="Military history of Scotland">Military history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_MPs_for_constituencies_in_Scotland" title="Lists of MPs for constituencies in Scotland">Members of Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Scottish_Parliament" title="Member of the Scottish Parliament">Member of the Scottish Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Scotland" title="List of political parties in Scotland">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Office" title="Scotland Office">Scotland Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland" title="Secretary of State for Scotland">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Scotland" title="Unionism in Scotland">Unionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocate_General_for_Scotland" title="Advocate General for Scotland">Advocate General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Scotland" title="Courts of Scotland">Courts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_in_Scotland" title="List of courts in Scotland">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Courts_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Courts of Scotland">Supreme Courts of Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Court_of_Session" title="Court of Session">Court of Session</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary" title="High Court of Justiciary">High Court of Justiciary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Accountant_of_Court" title="Office of the Accountant of Court">Office of the Accountant of Court</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Office_and_Procurator_Fiscal_Service" title="Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service">Crown Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Advocate" title="Lord Advocate">Lord Advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Court_of_Session" title="Lord President of the Court of Session">Lord President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procurator_fiscal" title="Procurator fiscal">Procurator fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland" title="Solicitor General for Scotland">Solicitor General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriff_principal" title="Sheriff principal">Sheriff principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Justice" title="College of Justice">College of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_property_law" title="Scots property law">Scots property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udal_law" title="Udal law">Udal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_population_of_Scotland" title="Prison population of Scotland">Prison population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Scotland" title="Police Scotland">Police Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Scotland" title="Agriculture in Scotland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Scotland" title="Bank of Scotland">Bank of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charities_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Charities in Scotland">Charities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Scotland" title="List of companies of Scotland">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Scotland" title="Forestry in Scotland">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_Tweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Harris Tweed">Harris Tweed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Scotland" title="Housing in Scotland">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Scotland" title="Media of Scotland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_industry_in_Scotland" title="Oil industry in Scotland">Oil industry</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Scotland" title="List of power stations in Scotland">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Bank_of_Scotland" title="Royal Bank of Scotland">Royal Bank of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Scotland" title="Transport in Scotland">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Glen" title="Silicon Glen">Silicon Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_Scotland" title="Unemployment in Scotland">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_Scotland" title="International relations of Scotland">International trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Scotland" title="Category:Society of Scotland">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Scotland" title="Architecture of Scotland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art" title="Scottish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_cuisine" title="Scottish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_for_Excellence" title="Curriculum for Excellence">Curriculum for Excellence</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_schools_in_Scotland" title="Lists of schools in Scotland">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_further_education_colleges_in_Scotland" title="List of further education colleges in Scotland">Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universities_in_Scotland" title="Universities in Scotland">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Qualifications_Authority" title="Scottish Qualifications Authority">Scottish Qualifications Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_Scotland" title="Education Scotland">Education Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hogmanay" title="Hogmanay">Hogmanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Scotland" title="List of museums in Scotland">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_buildings_in_Scotland" title="List of oldest buildings in Scotland">Oldest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Scotland" title="Theatre of Scotland">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_toponymy" title="Scottish toponymy">Placenames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Scotland" title="Prostitution in Scotland">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_M%C3%B2d" title="Royal National Mòd">Royal National Mòd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Scotland" title="Sport in Scotland">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_surnames" title="Scottish surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Scotland" title="National anthem of Scotland">anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal coat of arms of Scotland">coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_flags" title="List of Scottish flags">flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Scotland" title="Flag of Scotland">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">tartan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regimental_tartan" title="Regimental tartan">regimental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicorn#Scotland" title="Unicorn">unicorn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Scotland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Scotland">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festivals_in_Scotland" title="Festivals in Scotland">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy_in_Scotland" title="Comedy in Scotland">Comedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Scotland" title="Demographics of Scotland">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Scotland" title="Languages of Scotland">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highland_English" title="Highland English">Highland English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Scots" title="List of Scots">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_actors" title="List of Scottish actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_artists" title="List of Scottish artists">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish inventions and discoveries">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_musicians" title="List of Scottish musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_scientists" title="List of Scottish scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_writers" title="List of Scottish writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Scotland" title="Baháʼí Faith in Scotland">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Scotland" title="Buddhism in Scotland">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_Scotland" title="Category:Christianity in Scotland">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_in_Scotland" title="Christmas in Scotland">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="General Assembly of the Church of Scotland">General Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_moderators_of_the_General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="List of moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland">Moderators</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Scotland" title="Catholic Church in Scotland">Roman Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_Union_of_Scotland" title="Baptist Union of Scotland">Baptist Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(since_1900)" title="Free Church of Scotland (since 1900)">Free Church of Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Scotland" title="Hinduism in Scotland">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Scotland" title="Islam in Scotland">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Scotland" title="Sikhism in Scotland">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Scotland" title="Ethnic minorities in Scotland">Ethnic minorities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Scotland" title="Outline of Scotland">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scotland" title="Category:Scotland">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scotland_in_the_eighteenth_century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="color:black;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eighteenth-century_Scotland" title="Template:Eighteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eighteenth-century_Scotland" title="Template talk:Eighteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eighteenth-century_Scotland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eighteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scotland_in_the_eighteenth_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era#Late_18th_century_and_19th_century" title="Scotland in the modern era"><span style="color:black;">Scotland in the eighteenth century</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Scotland_in_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Architecture of Scotland in the Industrial Revolution">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Scottish art in the eighteenth century">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Scotland" title="Demographic history of Scotland">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Scotland#18th_century" title="Economic history of Scotland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_education_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Scottish education in the eighteenth century">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Scotland" title="Languages of Scotland">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law" title="History of Scots law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Scottish literature in the eighteenth century">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Music of Scotland in the eighteenth century">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_religion_in_the_eighteenth_century" title="Scottish religion in the eighteenth century">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_risings" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobite risings">Jacobite risings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrow_Controversy" title="Marrow Controversy">Marrow Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malt_tax_riots" title="Malt tax riots">Malt tax riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porteous_Riots" title="Porteous Riots">Porteous Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Scottish Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_Clearances" title="Lowland Clearances">Lowland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_revival_in_Scotland" title="Evangelical revival in Scotland">Evangelical revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_the_People#Friends_of_the_People_in_Scotland" title="Society of the Friends of the People">Friends of the People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_Scotsmen" title="Society of the United Scotsmen">Society of the United Scotsmen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scotland_in_the_nineteenth_century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="color:black;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nineteenth-century_Scotland" title="Template:Nineteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nineteenth-century_Scotland" title="Template talk:Nineteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nineteenth-century_Scotland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nineteenth-century Scotland"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scotland_in_the_nineteenth_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era" title="Scotland in the modern era"><span style="color:black;">Scotland in the nineteenth century</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Scotland_in_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Architecture of Scotland in the Industrial Revolution">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Scottish art in the nineteenth century">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Scotland#Modern_era" title="Demographic history of Scotland">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_education_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Scottish education in the nineteenth century">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Scotland" title="Languages of Scotland">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law#Great_Britain" title="History of Scots law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Scottish literature in the nineteenth century">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Music of Scotland in the nineteenth century">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_religion_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Scottish religion in the nineteenth century">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_Clearances" title="Lowland Clearances">Lowland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_revival_in_Scotland" title="Evangelical revival in Scotland">Evangelical revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_War" title="Radical War">Radical War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_emancipation" title="Catholic emancipation">Catholic emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruption_of_1843" title="Disruption of 1843">Great Disruption (1843)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visit_of_George_IV_to_Scotland" title="Visit of George IV to Scotland">Visit of George IV to Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartanry" title="Tartanry">Tartanry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement#Ireland_and_Scotland" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_and_Island_Emigration_Society" title="Highland and Island Emigration Society">Highland and Island Emigration Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Land_League" title="Highland Land League">Highland Land League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kailyard_school" title="Kailyard school">Kailyard school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_School" title="Glasgow School">Glasgow School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scottish_literature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="color:black;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scottish_literature" title="Template:Scottish literature"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scottish_literature" title="Template talk:Scottish literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scottish literature"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scottish_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature"><span style="color:black;">Scottish literature</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scottish literature in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_early_modern_Scotland" title="Literature in early modern Scotland">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_18th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish literature in the 18th century">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature_in_the_19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish literature in the 19th century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_modern_Scotland" title="Literature in modern Scotland">20th century</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makar" title="Makar">Makars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Renaissance in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castalian_Band" title="Castalian Band">Castalian Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kailyard_school" title="Kailyard school">Kailyard school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Renaissance" title="Scottish Renaissance">Scottish Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_Renaissance" title="Scottish Gaelic Renaissance">Scottish Gaelic Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan_Noir" title="Tartan Noir">Tartan Noir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in Scotland">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel_in_Scotland" title="Novel in Scotland">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Scotland" title="Poetry of Scotland">Poetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots language literature">Lowland Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_writers" title="List of Scottish writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_dramatists" title="List of Scottish dramatists">Dramatists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_novelists" title="List of Scottish novelists">Novelists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_poets" title="List of Scottish poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_short_story_writers" title="List of Scottish short story writers">Short story writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_science_fiction_writers" title="List of Scottish science fiction writers">Science fiction writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Celtic literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">mythology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Scotland" title="Opera in Scotland">Opera in Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatres_in_Scotland" title="List of theatres in Scotland">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature" title="Welsh literature">Welsh literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/48px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/64px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanticism" title="Template talk:Romanticism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanticism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </p> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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