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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960s_and_1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960s_and_1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>1960s and 1970s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960s_and_1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s_to_2000s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s_to_2000s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>1980s to 2000s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s_to_2000s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000s_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000s_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>2000s to present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000s_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Elements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Elements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Static_semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Static_semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Static semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Static_semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamic_semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamic_semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Dynamic semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamic_semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Type system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commonly_supported_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commonly_supported_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Commonly supported types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commonly_supported_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Static_and_dynamic_typing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Static_and_dynamic_typing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Static and dynamic typing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Static_and_dynamic_typing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concurrency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concurrency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Concurrency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concurrency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exception_handling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exception_handling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Exception handling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exception_handling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design_and_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_and_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Design and implementation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design_and_implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design and implementation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design_and_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tradeoffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tradeoffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Tradeoffs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tradeoffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Specification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proprietary_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proprietary_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Proprietary languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proprietary_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Measuring_language_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measuring_language_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Measuring language usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_language_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Dialects, flavors and implementations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Programming language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 141 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-141" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">141 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeertaal" title="Programmeertaal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Programmeertaal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmiersprache" title="Programmiersprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Programmiersprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8D%95%E1%88%AE%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%AB%E1%88%9D_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B" title="የፕሮግራም ቋንቋ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የፕሮግራም ቋንቋ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A9" title="لغة برمجة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة برمجة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengache_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Luengache de programación – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengache de programación" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="প্ৰগ্ৰামিং ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰগ্ৰামিং ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llinguaxe_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Llinguaxe de programación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llinguaxe de programación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proqramla%C5%9Fd%C4%B1rma_dili" title="Proqramlaşdırma dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proqramlaşdırma dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="یازیلیملاما دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یازیلیملاما دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="প্রোগ্রামিং ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রোগ্রামিং ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%AAng-sek_g%C3%AD-gi%C3%A2n" title="Thêng-sek gí-giân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thêng-sek gí-giân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Программалау теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Программалау теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Мова праграмавання – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мова праграмавання" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Мова праграмаваньня – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мова праграмаваньня" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Език за програмиране – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Език за програмиране" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmiasproch" title="Programmiasproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Programmiasproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Programski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavar_programmi%C3%B1" title="Lavar programmiñ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lavar programmiñ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatge_de_programaci%C3%B3" title="Llenguatge de programació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llenguatge de programació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Программăлав чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Программăлав чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programovac%C3%AD_jazyk" title="Programovací jazyk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Programovací jazyk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaith_raglennu" title="Iaith raglennu – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iaith raglennu" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringssprog" title="Programmeringssprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Programmeringssprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%DD%A3%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="لونݣاج – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لونݣاج" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmiersprache" title="Programmiersprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Programmiersprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeerimiskeel" title="Programmeerimiskeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Programmeerimiskeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Γλώσσα προγραμματισμού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα προγραμματισμού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Lenguaje de programación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguaje de programación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programlingvo" title="Programlingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Programlingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguagi_de_pogramaci%C3%B3n" title="Lenguagi de pogramación – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lenguagi de pogramación" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programazio-lengoaia" title="Programazio-lengoaia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Programazio-lengoaia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زبان برنامه‌نویسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان برنامه‌نویسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Programming language" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langage_de_programmation" title="Langage de programmation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langage de programmation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teanga_r%C3%ADomhchl%C3%A1r%C3%BAch%C3%A1in" title="Teanga ríomhchlárúcháin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teanga ríomhchlárúcháin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0nan_pr%C3%B2gramaidh" title="Cànan prògramaidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cànan prògramaidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaxe_de_programaci%C3%B3n" title="Linguaxe de programación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguaxe de programación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EA%B7%B8%EB%9E%98%EB%B0%8D_%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4" title="프로그래밍 언어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프로그래밍 언어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Ծրագրավորման լեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծրագրավորման լեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रोग्रामिंग भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program%C4%9Browanske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Programěrowanske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Programěrowanske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Programski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programifo-linguo" title="Programifo-linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Programifo-linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengguahe_ti_panangprograma" title="Lengguahe ti panangprograma – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Lengguahe ti panangprograma" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_pemrograman" title="Bahasa pemrograman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa pemrograman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguage_de_programmation" title="Linguage de programmation – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linguage de programmation" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_de_programmation" title="Lingue de programmation – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Lingue de programmation" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulimi_lokuhlelelisa" title="Ulimi lokuhlelelisa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ulimi lokuhlelelisa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forritunarm%C3%A1l" title="Forritunarmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Forritunarmál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaggio_di_programmazione" title="Linguaggio di programmazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linguaggio di programmazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפת תכנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפת תכנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_pamrograman" title="Basa pamrograman – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa pamrograman" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="პროგრამირების ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პროგრამირების ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Бағдарламалау тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бағдарламалау тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_ya_programu" title="Lugha ya programu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha ya programu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_bernamesaziy%C3%AA" title="Zimanê bernamesaziyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê bernamesaziyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Программалоо тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Программалоо тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_programmandi" title="Lingua programmandi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua programmandi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programm%C4%93%C5%A1anas_valoda" title="Programmēšanas valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Programmēšanas valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programm%C3%A9iersprooch" title="Programméiersprooch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Programméiersprooch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programavimo_kalba" title="Programavimo kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Programavimo kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/samplabau" title="samplabau – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="samplabau" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguagg_de_programmazion" title="Lenguagg de programmazion – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lenguagg de programmazion" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programoz%C3%A1si_nyelv" title="Programozási nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Programozási nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Програмски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Програмски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="പ്രോഗ്രാമിംഗ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രോഗ്രാമിംഗ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोग्रॅमिंग भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रोग्रॅमिंग भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="პროგრამირაფაშ ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პროგრამირაფაშ ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%87" title="لغة برمجه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغة برمجه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_pengaturcaraan" title="Bahasa pengaturcaraan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa pengaturcaraan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C4%95ng-ti%C3%A0ng_ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-ngi%C3%B2ng" title="Piĕng-tiàng ngṳ̄-ngiòng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Piĕng-tiàng ngṳ̄-ngiòng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaige_de_porgrama%C3%A7on" title="Lenguaige de porgramaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Lenguaige de porgramaçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%87%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Програмчлалын хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Програмчлалын хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%82%E1%80%9B%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ပရိုဂရမ်မင်းဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပရိုဂရမ်မင်းဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosa_parokaramu" title="Vosa parokaramu – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vosa parokaramu" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeertaal" title="Programmeertaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Programmeertaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="कम्प्युटर भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्प्युटर भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="プログラミング言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プログラミング言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A2%DF%8D%DF%A5%DF%9F%DF%8A%DF%A6%DF%8A%DF%9F%DF%8C%DF%AB_%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2" title="ߢߍߥߟߊߦߊߟߌ߫ ߞߊ߲ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߢߍߥߟߊߦߊߟߌ߫ ߞߊ߲" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programiarspriak" title="Programiarspriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Programiarspriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringsspr%C3%A5k" title="Programmeringsspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Programmeringsspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeringsspr%C3%A5k" title="Programmeringsspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Programmeringsspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengatge_de_programacion" title="Lengatge de programacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengatge de programacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Программлымаш йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Программлымаш йылме" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasturlash_tili" title="Dasturlash tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dasturlash tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪ੍ਰੋਗਰਾਮਿੰਗ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰੋਗਰਾਮਿੰਗ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="کمپیوٹر بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کمپیوٹر بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%82%E1%80%9B%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AB" title="ပရိုဂရမ်မိဉ်းဘာႏသာႏငေါဝ်းငွါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ပရိုဂရမ်မိဉ်းဘာႏသာႏငေါဝ်းငွါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="برېښليک ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېښليک ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B8" title="ភាសាកម្មវិធី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាកម្មវិធី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengage_%C3%ABd_programassion" title="Lengage ëd programassion – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lengage ëd programassion" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmeerspraak" title="Programmeerspraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Programmeerspraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_programowania" title="Język programowania – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język programowania" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem_de_programa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Linguagem de programação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguagem de programação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmalast%C4%B1r%C4%B1w_tili" title="Programmalastırıw tili – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Programmalastırıw tili" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbaj_de_programare" title="Limbaj de programare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbaj de programare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakichiy_simi" title="Wakichiy simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wakichiy simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Язык проґрамованя – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Язык проґрамованя" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Язык программирования – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Язык программирования" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0h%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Программалааhын тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Программалааhын тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C3%A0giu_de_programmatzione" title="Limbàgiu de programmatzione – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limbàgiu de programmatzione" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmin_leid" title="Programmin leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Programmin leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuh%C3%AB_programimi" title="Gjuhë programimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuhë programimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%9B%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F" title="ක්‍රමලේඛන භාෂා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍රමලේඛන භාෂා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Programming language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programovac%C3%AD_jazyk" title="Programovací jazyk – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Programovací jazyk" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Programski jezik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%8Fdka_programowani%C5%8F" title="Gŏdka programowaniŏ – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Gŏdka programowaniŏ" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="زمانی بەرنامەسازی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی بەرنامەسازی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Програмски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Програмски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programski_jezik" title="Programski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Programski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_program" title="Basa program – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa program" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohjelmointikieli" title="Ohjelmointikieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ohjelmointikieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programspr%C3%A5k" title="Programspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Programspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_pamprograma" title="Wikang pamprograma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang pamprograma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="நிரல் மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிரல் மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_n_usihel" title="Tutlayt n usihel – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayt n usihel" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Программалау теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Программалау теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="Programming language" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="ప్రోగ్రామింగు భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రోగ్రామింగు భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programing" title="Programing – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Programing" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษาโปรแกรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาโปรแกรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Забони барноманависӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони барноманависӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programlama_dili" title="Programlama dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Programlama dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%85%E1%A8%94_%E1%A8%80%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%87%E1%A8%98%E1%A8%88%E1%A8%9B%E1%A8%91%E1%A8%9B" title="ᨅᨔ ᨀᨚᨇᨘᨈᨛᨑᨛ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨅᨔ ᨀᨚᨇᨘᨈᨛᨑᨛ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Мова програмування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мова програмування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پروگرامنگ زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پروگرامنگ زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="پروگرامما تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پروگرامما تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguajo_de_programasion" title="Lenguajo de programasion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Lenguajo de programasion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_l%E1%BA%ADp_tr%C3%ACnh" title="Ngôn ngữ lập trình – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngôn ngữ lập trình" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B7%A8%E7%A8%8B%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="編程語言 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="編程語言" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulongan_hin_programa" title="Pinulongan hin programa – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pinulongan hin programa" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BC%96%E7%A8%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="编程语言 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="编程语言" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%9F_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9A" title="פראגראמירן שפראך – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פראגראמירן שפראך" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3%C3%A8l%C3%A0n%C3%A0_K%E1%BB%8D%CC%80mp%C3%BAt%C3%A0" title="Èdè Ìṣèlànà Kọ̀mpútà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Ìṣèlànà Kọ̀mpútà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A8%8B%E5%BC%8F%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="程式語言 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="程式語言" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_programnay%C4%B1%C5%9Fi" title="Zıwanê programnayışi – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanê programnayışi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruogramav%C4%97ma_kalba" title="Pruogramavėma kalba – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Pruogramavėma kalba" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BC%96%E7%A8%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="编程语言 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="编程语言" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9143#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li 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The gray lines are <a href="/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer programming)">comments</a> that explain the program to humans. When <a href="/wiki/Compiled" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiled">compiled</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">run</a>, it will give the output "<a href="/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program" title=""Hello, World!" program">Hello, world!</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>programming language</b> is a system of notation for writing <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Programming languages are described in terms of their <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> (form) and <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">semantics</a> (meaning), usually defined by a <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a>. Languages usually provide features such as a <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Variable_(computer_science)" title="Variable (computer science)">variables</a>, and mechanisms for <a href="/wiki/Exception_handling_(programming)" title="Exception handling (programming)">error handling</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementation</a> of a programming language is required in order to <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">execute</a> programs, namely an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>. An interpreter directly executes the source code, while a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> produces an <a href="/wiki/Executable" title="Executable">executable</a> program. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a> has strongly influenced the design of programming languages, with the most common type (<a href="/wiki/Imperative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative languages">imperative languages</a>—which implement operations in a specified order) developed to perform well on the popular <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>. While early programming languages were closely tied to the <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, over time they have developed more <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a> to hide implementation details for greater simplicity. </p><p>Thousands of programming languages—often classified as imperative, <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a>—have been developed for a wide variety of uses. Many aspects of programming language design involve tradeoffs—for example, <a href="/wiki/Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">exception handling</a> simplifies error handling, but at a performance cost. <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a> is the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> that studies the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Programming languages differ from <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a> in that natural languages are used for interaction between people, while programming languages are designed to allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_language" title="Computer language">computer language</a></i> is sometimes used interchangeably with "programming language".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, usage of these terms varies among authors. </p><p>In one usage, programming languages are described as a subset of computer languages.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the term "computer language" may be used in contrast to the term "programming language" to describe languages used in computing but not considered programming languages<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> – for example, <a href="/wiki/Markup_language" title="Markup language">markup languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing complete</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most practical programming languages are Turing complete,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as such are equivalent in what programs they can compute. </p><p>Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming <a href="/wiki/Abstract_machine" title="Abstract machine">abstract machines</a> and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_C._Reynolds" title="John C. Reynolds">John C. Reynolds</a> emphasizes that <a href="/wiki/Formal_specification" title="Formal specification">formal specification</a> languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_developments">Early developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first programmable computers were invented at the end of the 1940s, and with them, the first programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest computers were programmed in <a href="/wiki/First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">first-generation programming languages</a> (1GLs), <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> (simple instructions that could be directly executed by the processor). This code was very difficult to debug and was not <a href="/wiki/Portability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portability (computing)">portable</a> between different computer systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to improve the ease of programming, <a href="/wiki/Assembly_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly languages">assembly languages</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">second-generation programming languages</a>—2GLs) were invented, diverging from the machine language to make programs easier to understand for humans, although they did not increase portability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, hardware resources were scarce and expensive, while <a href="/wiki/Human_resources" title="Human resources">human resources</a> were cheaper. Therefore, cumbersome languages that were time-consuming to use, but were closer to the hardware for higher efficiency were favored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">third-generation programming languages</a>—3GLs)—revolutionized programming. These languages <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstraction (computing)">abstracted</a> away the details of the hardware, instead being designed to express algorithms that could be understood more easily by humans. For example, arithmetic expressions could now be written in symbolic notation and later translated into machine code that the hardware could execute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1957, <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> (FORmula TRANslation) was invented. Often considered the first <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a> high-level programming language,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201242_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201242-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fortran has remained in use into the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960s_and_1970s">1960s and 1970s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1960s and 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg/220px-IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg/330px-IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg/440px-IBM_Electronic_Data_Processing_Machine_-_GPN-2000-001881.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2377" /></a><figcaption>Two people using an <a href="/wiki/IBM_704" title="IBM 704">IBM 704</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframe">mainframe</a>—the first hardware to support <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point arithmetic</a>—in 1957. <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> was designed for this machine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201242–44_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201242–44-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1960, the first <a href="/wiki/Mainframes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframes">mainframes</a>—general purpose computers—were developed, although they could only be operated by professionals and the cost was extreme. The data and instructions were input by <a href="/wiki/Punch_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch cards">punch cards</a>, meaning that no input could be added while the program was running. The languages developed at this time therefore are designed for minimal interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023523–524_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023523–524-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, computers in the 1970s became dramatically cheaper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023527_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023527-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New computers also allowed more user interaction, which was supported by newer programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, implemented in 1958, was the first <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> language.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Fortran, it supported <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conditional_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional expression">conditional expressions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201247–48_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201247–48-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it also introduced <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_memory_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic memory management">dynamic memory management</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Heap_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heap (computer science)">heap</a> and automatic <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the next decades, Lisp dominated <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> applications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201250_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201250-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, another functional language, <a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a>, introduced <a href="/wiki/Type_inference" title="Type inference">inferred types</a> and polymorphic <a href="/wiki/Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer programming)">parameters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012701–703_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012701–703-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> (ALGOrithmic Language) was released in 1958 and 1960,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524–525_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524–525-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it became the standard in computing literature for describing <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>. Although its commercial success was limited, most popular imperative languages—including <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>—are directly or indirectly descended from ALGOL 60.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201256–57_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201256–57-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among its innovations adopted by later programming languages included greater portability and the first use of <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free</a>, <a href="/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">BNF</a> grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023525_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023525-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a>, the first language to support <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Subtypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtypes">subtypes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance (computer science)">inheritance</a>), also descends from ALGOL and achieved commercial success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526–527_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526–527-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C, another ALGOL descendant, has sustained popularity into the twenty-first century. C allows access to lower-level machine operations more than other contemporary languages. Its power and efficiency, generated in part with flexible <a href="/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">pointer</a> operations, comes at the cost of making it more difficult to write correct code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a>, designed in 1972, was the first <a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic programming</a> language, communicating with a computer using formal logic notation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023531_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023531-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201279_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201279-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With logic programming, the programmer specifies a desired result and allows the <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreter (computer science)">interpreter</a> to decide how to achieve it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023530_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023530-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201279_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201279-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s_to_2000s">1980s to 2000s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1980s to 2000s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg/220px-Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg/330px-Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg/440px-Bangalore_India_Tech_books_for_sale_IMG_5261.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A small selection of programming language textbooks</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1980s, the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> transformed the roles for which programming languages were used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023532–533_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023532–533-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New languages introduced in the 1980s included C++, a <a href="/wiki/Superset" class="mw-redirect" title="Superset">superset</a> of C that can compile C programs but also supports <a href="/wiki/Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> and other new languages introduced support for <a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534–535_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534–535-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese government invested heavily into the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">fifth-generation languages</a> that added support for concurrency to logic programming constructs, but these languages were outperformed by other concurrency-supporting languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023535_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023535-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012736_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012736-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the rapid growth of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> in the 1990s, new programming languages were introduced to support <a href="/wiki/Web_pages" class="mw-redirect" title="Web pages">Web pages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, based on C++ and designed for increased portability across systems and security, enjoyed large-scale success because these features are essential for many Internet applications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536–537_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536–537-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201291–92_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201291–92-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another development was that of <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">dynamically typed</a> <a href="/wiki/Scripting_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripting languages">scripting languages</a>—<a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>—designed to quickly produce small programs that coordinate existing <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a>. Due to their integration with <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>, they have also been used for building web pages hosted on <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023538–539_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023538–539-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201297–99_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201297–99-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2000s_to_present">2000s to present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 2000s to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 2000s, there was a slowdown in the development of new programming languages that achieved widespread popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One innovation was <a href="/wiki/Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">service-oriented programming</a>, designed to exploit <a href="/wiki/Distributed_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed systems">distributed systems</a> whose components are connected by a network. Services are similar to objects in object-oriented programming, but run on a separate process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023474–475,_477,_542_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023474–475,_477,_542-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and <a href="/wiki/F_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="F Sharp (programming language)">F#</a> cross-pollinated ideas between imperative and functional programming.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542–543_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542–543-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 2010, several new languages—<a href="/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zig_(programming_language)" title="Zig (programming language)">Zig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_(programming_language)" title="Carbon (programming language)">Carbon</a> —competed for the performance-critical software for which C had historically been used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023544_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023544-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the new programming languages uses <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">static typing</a> while a few numbers of new languages use <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">dynamic typing</a> like <a href="/wiki/Ring_(programming_language)" title="Ring (programming language)">Ring</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the new programming languages are classified as <a href="/wiki/Visual_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual programming languages">visual programming languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a>, <a href="/wiki/LabVIEW" title="LabVIEW">LabVIEW</a> and <a href="/wiki/PWCT" title="PWCT">PWCT</a>. Also, some of these languages mix between textual and visual programming usage like <a href="/wiki/Ballerina_(programming_language)" title="Ballerina (programming language)">Ballerina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, this trend lead to developing projects that help in developing new VPLs like <a href="/wiki/Blockly" title="Blockly">Blockly</a> by <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many game engines like <a href="/wiki/Unreal_Engine" title="Unreal Engine">Unreal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unity_(game_engine)" title="Unity (game engine)">Unity</a> added support for visual scripting too.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elements">Elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Every programming language includes fundamental elements for describing data and the operations or transformations applied to them, such as adding two numbers or selecting an item from a collection. These elements are governed by syntactic and semantic rules that define their structure and meaning, respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">Syntax (programming languages)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Python_add5_parse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Python_add5_parse.png/367px-Python_add5_parse.png" decoding="async" width="367" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Python_add5_parse.png/551px-Python_add5_parse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Python_add5_parse.png/734px-Python_add5_parse.png 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">Parse tree</a> of <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python code</a> with inset tokenization</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Python_add5_syntax.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/292px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png" decoding="async" width="292" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/438px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Python_add5_syntax.svg/584px-Python_add5_syntax.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Syntax_highlighting" title="Syntax highlighting">Syntax highlighting</a> is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A programming language's surface form is known as its <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a>. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, some programming languages are <a href="/wiki/Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">graphical</a>, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program. </p><p>The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal</a> or hard-coded in a <a href="/wiki/Reference_implementation_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference implementation (computing)">reference implementation</a>). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. </p><p>The programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of <a href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical</a> structure) and <a href="/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">Backus–Naur form</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">grammatical</a> structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>: </p> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-bnf mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span>expression <span class="o">::=</span> atom | list atom <span class="o">::=</span> number | symbol number <span class="o">::=</span> [+-]?['0'-'9']+ symbol <span class="o">::=</span> ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].* list <span class="o">::=</span> '(' expression* ')' </pre></div> <p>This grammar specifies the following: </p> <ul><li>an <i>expression</i> is either an <i>atom</i> or a <i>list</i>;</li> <li>an <i>atom</i> is either a <i>number</i> or a <i>symbol</i>;</li> <li>a <i>number</i> is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;</li> <li>a <i>symbol</i> is a letter followed by zero or more of any alphabetical characters (excluding whitespace); and</li> <li>a <i>list</i> is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more <i>expressions</i> inside it.</li></ul> <p>The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: <code>12345</code>, <code>()</code> and <code>(a b c232 (1))</code>. </p><p>Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit <a href="/wiki/Undefined_behavior" title="Undefined behavior">undefined behavior</a>. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. </p><p>Using <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: </p> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously" title="Colorless green ideas sleep furiously">Colorless green ideas sleep furiously</a>." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.</li> <li>"John is a married bachelor." is grammatically <a href="/wiki/Well-formedness" title="Well-formedness">well-formed</a> but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.</li></ul> <p>The following <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a> fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation <code>*p >> 4</code> has no meaning for a value having a complex type and <code>p->im</code> is not defined because the value of <code>p</code> is the <a href="/wiki/Null_pointer" title="Null pointer">null pointer</a>): </p> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span><span class="k">complex</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="k">complex</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">abs_p</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">>></span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">+</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">p</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">im</span><span class="p">);</span> </pre></div> <p>If the <a href="/wiki/Type_declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Type declaration">type declaration</a> on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on the undefined variable <code>p</code> during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information. </p><p>The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the <a href="/wiki/Chomsky_hierarchy" title="Chomsky hierarchy">Chomsky hierarchy</a>. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are <a href="/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an <a href="/wiki/Undecidable_problem" title="Undecidable problem">undecidable problem</a>, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Lisp_macro" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisp macro">Lisp's macro system</a> and Perl's <code>BEGIN</code> blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantics">Semantics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size: 130%; margin: 6px 0px 6px 0px; background: #ddf;"><a href="/wiki/Logical_connective" title="Logical connective">Logical connectives</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;line-height:1.3em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">NOT</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \neg A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">¬</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \neg A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/195aae731102b36b14a902a091d04ac5c6a5af49" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.293ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \neg A}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6daf6db742ace65252b589963f7e7a07603ccb56" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:3.551ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -A}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>A</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/92efef0e89bdc77f6a848764195ef5b9d9bfcc6a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.858ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {A}}}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sim A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>∼</mo> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sim A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c79bf96c247833282e773fae43602343150c1665" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.196ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sim A}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Logical_conjunction" title="Logical conjunction">AND</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\land B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>∧</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\land B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74954195333a8593163b93a9688695b8dc74da55" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\land B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\cdot B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\cdot B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a90e903f21f11a0f4ab3caca1e6943ba7a9849" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.186ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\cdot B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle AB}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle AB}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b04153f9681e5b06066357774475c04aaef3a8bd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.507ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle AB}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\&B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">&</mi> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\&B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f65ee34a8896390e0d1f193c137d9eb64815c1a2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.315ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\&B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\&\&B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">&</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">&</mi> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\&\&B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ab3517dd859d7eaa8f3f1656c8125f99ada1470" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.123ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\&\&B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sheffer_stroke" title="Sheffer stroke">NAND</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mo>∧</mo> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0167d56141342887a74d56a036e6fbbad7172b0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.172ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\uparrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\uparrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5723e9ef44d446f4410c273b056d7c7c8e6f2564" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.96ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\uparrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\mid B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\mid B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1400973074b4691cc0638a68118716a2b218fce2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.444ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\mid B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/225f35bb78e90b9126458f1bc6bf1ed3f0724bbf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.301ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Logical_disjunction" title="Logical disjunction">OR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\lor B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>∨</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\lor B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9b9c9c90857c12727201dd9e47a4e7c8658fdbc5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\lor B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A+B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A+B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4279cdbd3cb8ec4c3423065d9a7d83a82cfc89e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.348ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A+B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\mid B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\mid B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1400973074b4691cc0638a68118716a2b218fce2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.444ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\mid B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\parallel B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>∥</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\parallel B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/04bd0239f9b74f7ef1520ba4e30454b06e695289" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.96ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\parallel B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Logical_NOR" title="Logical NOR">NOR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mo>∨</mo> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/591afbca3e984765b18abb189f4bb1b88116c400" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.172ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\downarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\downarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c5e77260e67880093dafe958880ea02f5026164" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.96ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\downarrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/08840f8e2022f127fc459d801a8f8ce93f65f55a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.462ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/XNOR_gate" title="XNOR gate">XNOR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>XNOR</mtext> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54fbdc2cf9fad58dda134c0c9baa55a4712b3955" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.673ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> └ <a href="/wiki/Logical_biconditional" title="Logical biconditional">equivalent</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\equiv B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>≡</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\equiv B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b933daba3ef47ec3b4f3097ea6e741b85149707" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.606ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\equiv B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">⇔</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce08fffb4d36ba12921b8b3e06228887015b2b8e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">⇋</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8639312e9e120cd65c98fc48a6d5256d57288c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_or" title="Exclusive or">XOR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mo>∨</mo> <mo>_</mo> </munder> </mrow> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/803e1413692912954b90e99694e10c728e27a153" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.562ex; margin-bottom: -0.776ex; width:5.06ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\oplus B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⊕</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\oplus B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f0512d6bdd29ff000dea0bf68b853618dcaabc3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.348ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\oplus B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> └nonequivalent</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>≢</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0339ed15cd58f7263c5eec8e5628168aa6006200" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.607ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⇎</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47bfd97641b05a7f7fc0bcd02e83fa6532c62bb4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>↮</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/926467de6fd4709bdbc59c3168a21298cdf0d26c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Material_conditional" title="Material conditional">implies</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">⇒</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8e560143d45c97e6387c7c3aa90e9d7745002228" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\supset B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⊃</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\supset B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee952838d8b3e67045072a8f2b71e7fc0467dea6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.606ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\supset B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/23efef033def56a67de7ded823f14626de26d174" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}"></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Converse_(logic)" title="Converse (logic)">converse</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">⇐</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c8569d34530d97f701080546ca0f20c0defadf8f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\subset B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>⊂</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\subset B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/010e98bb4c817357e3ef7e8fa7fbe2385b2aec6e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.606ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\subset B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\leftarrow B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">←</mo> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\leftarrow B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/456da65c891c438fea04d7e40283b67d600fe92d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.121ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\leftarrow B}"></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #eef; text-align: center;"> Related concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.3em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">Propositional calculus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate logic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Truth_table" title="Truth table">Truth table</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Truth_function" title="Truth function">Truth function</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_function" title="Boolean function">Boolean function</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Functional_completeness" title="Functional completeness">Functional completeness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(logic)" title="Scope (logic)">Scope (logic)</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #eef; text-align: center;"> Applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Digital logic</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Programming languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background: #eef; text-align: center;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Logical_connectives" title="Category:Logical connectives">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Logical_connectives_sidebar" title="Template:Logical connectives sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Logical_connectives_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Logical connectives sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logical_connectives_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Logical connectives sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The term <a href="/wiki/Semantics#Computer_science" title="Semantics"><i>semantics</i></a> refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (<a href="#Syntax">syntax</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Static_semantics">Static semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Static semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This site says nothing about "static semantics" or any connection between semantics and "structure" or "restrictions". (January 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every <a href="/wiki/Identifier" title="Identifier">identifier</a> is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a <a href="/wiki/Case_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Case statement">case statement</a> are distinct.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutine</a> calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a>. Other forms of <a href="/wiki/Static_code_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Static code analysis">static analyses</a> like <a href="/wiki/Data_flow_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Data flow analysis">data flow analysis</a> may also be part of static semantics. Programming languages such as <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> have <a href="/wiki/Definite_assignment_analysis" title="Definite assignment analysis">definite assignment analysis</a>, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their respective static semantics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dynamic_semantics">Dynamic semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dynamic semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics of programming languages">Semantics of programming languages</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Programming_language" title="Special:EditPage/Programming language">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Programming+language%22">"Programming language"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Programming+language%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Programming+language%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Programming+language%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Programming+language%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Programming+language%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the <a href="/wiki/Evaluation_strategy" title="Evaluation strategy">strategy</a> by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">control structures</a> conditionally execute <a href="/wiki/Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statements</a>. The <i>dynamic semantics</i> (also known as <i>execution semantics</i>) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research goes into <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal semantics of programming languages</a>, which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_system">Type system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Type system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">Data type</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">Type system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Type_safety" title="Type safety">Type safety</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">data type</a> is a set of allowable values and operations that can be performed on these values.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each programming language's <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a> defines which data types exist, the type of an <a href="/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)" title="Expression (mathematics)">expression</a>, and how <a href="/wiki/Type_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Type equivalence">type equivalence</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Type_compatibility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Type compatibility (page does not exist)">type compatibility</a> function in the language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012245_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012245-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">type theory</a>, a language is fully typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, an untyped language, such as most <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a>, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, while few languages are fully typed, most offer a degree of typing.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because different types (such as <a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floats</a>) represent values differently, unexpected results will occur if one type is used when another is expected. <a href="/wiki/Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">Type checking</a> will flag this error, usually at <a href="/wiki/Compile_time" title="Compile time">compile time</a> (runtime type checking is more costly).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201215,_408–409_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201215,_408–409-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With <a href="/wiki/Strongly-typed_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongly-typed programming language">strong typing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Type error">type errors</a> can always be detected unless variables are explicitly <a href="/wiki/Type_casting" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Type casting">cast</a> to a different type. <a href="/wiki/Weak_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak typing">Weak typing</a> occurs when languages allow implicit casting—for example, to enable operations between variables of different types without the programmer making an explicit type conversion. The more cases in which this <a href="/wiki/Type_coercion" class="mw-redirect" title="Type coercion">type coercion</a> is allowed, the fewer type errors can be detected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012303–304_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012303–304-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commonly_supported_types">Commonly supported types</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Commonly supported types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Primitive_data_type" title="Primitive data type">Primitive data type</a></div> <p>Early programming languages often supported only built-in, numeric types such as the <a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> (signed and unsigned) and <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> (to support operations on <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a> that are not integers). Most programming languages support multiple sizes of floats (often called <a href="/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format" title="Single-precision floating-point format">float</a> and <a href="/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format" title="Double-precision floating-point format">double</a>) and integers depending on the size and precision required by the programmer. Storing an integer in a type that is too small to represent it leads to <a href="/wiki/Integer_overflow" title="Integer overflow">integer overflow</a>. The most common way of representing negative numbers with signed types is <a href="/wiki/Twos_complement" class="mw-redirect" title="Twos complement">twos complement</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Ones_complement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ones complement">ones complement</a> is also used. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012246–247_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012246–247-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other common types include <a href="/wiki/Boolean_data_type" title="Boolean data type">Boolean</a>—which is either true or false—and <a href="/wiki/Character_(computing)" title="Character (computing)">character</a>—traditionally one <a href="/wiki/Byte" title="Byte">byte</a>, sufficient to represent all <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012249_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012249-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Array_(data_type)" title="Array (data type)">Arrays</a> are a data type whose elements, in many languages, must consist of a single type of fixed length. Other languages define arrays as references to data stored elsewhere and support elements of varying types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012260_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012260-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the programming language, sequences of multiple characters, called <a href="/wiki/String_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="String (computing)">strings</a>, may be supported as arrays of characters or their own <a href="/wiki/Primitive_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive type">primitive type</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012250_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012250-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strings may be of fixed or variable length, which enables greater flexibility at the cost of increased storage space and more complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012254_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012254-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other data types that may be supported include <a href="/wiki/List_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="List (computing)">lists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012281–282_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012281–282-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Associative_arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">associative (unordered) arrays</a> accessed via keys,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012272–273_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012272–273-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Record_(computer_science)" title="Record (computer science)">records</a> in which data is mapped to names in an ordered structure,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012276–277_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012276–277-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tuple" title="Tuple">tuples</a>—similar to records but without names for data fields.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012280_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012280-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">Pointers</a> store memory addresses, typically referencing locations on the <a href="/wiki/Heap_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heap (programming)">heap</a> where other data is stored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012289–290_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012289–290-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The simplest <a href="/wiki/User-defined_type" class="mw-redirect" title="User-defined type">user-defined type</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_data_type" title="Ordinal data type">ordinal type</a> whose values can be mapped onto the set of positive integers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012255_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012255-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the mid-1980s, most programming languages also support <a href="/wiki/Abstract_data_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract data types">abstract data types</a>, in which the representation of the data and operations are <a href="/wiki/Information_hiding" title="Information hiding">hidden from the user</a>, who can only access an <a href="/wiki/Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)">interface</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244–245_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244–245-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The benefits of <a href="/wiki/Data_abstraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Data abstraction">data abstraction</a> can include increased reliability, reduced complexity, less potential for <a href="/wiki/Name_collision" title="Name collision">name collision</a>, and allowing the underlying <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structure</a> to be changed without the client needing to alter its code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012477_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012477-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Static_and_dynamic_typing">Static and dynamic typing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Static and dynamic typing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static typing</a>, all expressions have their types determined before a program executes, typically at compile-time.<sup id="cite_ref-typing_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-typing-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most widely used, statically typed programming languages require the types of variables to be specified explicitly. In some languages, types are implicit; one form of this is when the compiler can <a href="/wiki/Type_inference" title="Type inference">infer</a> types based on context. The downside of <a href="/wiki/Implicit_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit typing">implicit typing</a> is the potential for errors to go undetected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012211_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012211-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as <a href="/wiki/Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a> and <a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With dynamic typing, the type is not attached to the variable but only the value encoded in it. A single variable can be reused for a value of a different type. Although this provides more flexibility to the programmer, it is at the cost of lower reliability and less ability for the programming language to check for errors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012212–213_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012212–213-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages allow variables of a <a href="/wiki/Union_type" title="Union type">union type</a> to which any type of value can be assigned, in an exception to their usual static typing rules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012284–285_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012284–285-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concurrency">Concurrency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Concurrency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></div> <p>In computing, multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously. Many programming languages support instruction-level and subprogram-level concurrency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012576_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012576-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the twenty-first century, additional processing power on computers was increasingly coming from the use of additional processors, which requires programmers to design software that makes use of multiple processors simultaneously to achieve improved performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012579_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012579-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a> do not support the concurrent use of multiple processors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other programming languages do support managing data shared between different threads by controlling the order of execution of key instructions via the use of <a href="/wiki/Semaphore_(programming)" title="Semaphore (programming)">semaphores</a>, controlling access to shared data via <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(synchronization)" title="Monitor (synchronization)">monitor</a>, or enabling <a href="/wiki/Message_passing" title="Message passing">message passing</a> between threads.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585–586_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585–586-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exception_handling">Exception handling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Exception handling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">Exception handling</a></div> <p>Many programming languages include exception handlers, a section of code triggered by <a href="/wiki/Runtime_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Runtime error">runtime errors</a> that can deal with them in two main ways:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012630,_634_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012630,_634-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Termination: shutting down and handing over control to the <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>. This option is considered the simplest.</li> <li>Resumption: resuming the program near where the exception occurred. This can trigger a repeat of the exception, unless the exception handler is able to modify values to prevent the exception from reoccurring.</li></ul> <p>Some programming languages support dedicating a block of code to run regardless of whether an exception occurs before the code is reached; this is called finalization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012635_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012635-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a tradeoff between increased ability to handle exceptions and reduced performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, even though array index errors are common<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012261_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012261-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C does not check them for performance reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although programmers can write code to catch user-defined exceptions, this can clutter a program. Standard libraries in some languages, such as C, use their return values to indicate an exception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012632_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012632-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages and their compilers have the option of turning on and off error handling capability, either temporarily or permanently.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631,_635–636_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631,_635–636-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_and_implementation">Design and implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Design and implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_design_and_implementation" title="Programming language design and implementation">Programming language design and implementation</a></div> <p>One of the most important influences on programming language design has been <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a>. <a href="/wiki/Imperative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative languages">Imperative languages</a>, the most commonly used type, were designed to perform well on <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>, the most common computer architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201218_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201218-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In von Neumann architecture, the <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> stores both data and instructions, while the <a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a> that performs instructions on data is separate, and data must be piped back and forth to the CPU. The central elements in these languages are variables, <a href="/wiki/Assignment_(computer_science)" title="Assignment (computer science)">assignment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iteration" title="Iteration">iteration</a>, which is more efficient than <a href="/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">recursion</a> on these machines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201219_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201219-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The birth of programming languages in the 1950s was stimulated by the desire to make a universal programming language suitable for all machines and uses, avoiding the need to write code for different computers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201455_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201455-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1960s, the idea of a universal language was rejected due to the differing requirements of the variety of purposes for which code was written.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201460_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201460-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tradeoffs">Tradeoffs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tradeoffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Desirable qualities of programming languages include readability, writability, and reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta20128_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These features can reduce the cost of training programmers in a language, the amount of time needed to write and maintain programs in the language, the cost of compiling the code, and increase runtime performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201216–17_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201216–17-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Although early programming languages often prioritized efficiency over readability, the latter has grown in importance since the 1970s. Having multiple operations to achieve the same result can be detrimental to readability, as is <a href="/wiki/Operator_overload" class="mw-redirect" title="Operator overload">overloading operators</a>, so that the same operator can have multiple meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta20128–9_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128–9-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another feature important to readability is <a href="/wiki/Orthogonality" title="Orthogonality">orthogonality</a>, limiting the number of constructs that a programmer has to learn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta20129–10_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20129–10-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A syntax structure that is easily understood and <a href="/wiki/Reserved_word" title="Reserved word">special words</a> that are immediately obvious also supports readability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201212–13_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212–13-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Writability is the ease of use for writing code to solve the desired problem. Along with the same features essential for readability,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201213_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201213-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a>—interfaces that enable hiding details from the client—and <a href="/wiki/Expressive_power_(computer_science)" title="Expressive power (computer science)">expressivity</a>—enabling more concise programs—additionally help the programmer write code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201214–15_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201214–15-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer, but over time support for abstraction has increased, allowing programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most programming languages come with a <a href="/wiki/Standard_library" title="Standard library">standard library</a> of commonly used functions.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Reliability means that a program performs as specified in a wide range of circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201215_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201215-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">Type checking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">exception handling</a>, and restricted <a href="/wiki/Aliasing_(computing)" title="Aliasing (computing)">aliasing</a> (multiple variable names accessing the same region of memory) all can improve a program's reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta20128,_16_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128,_16-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Programming language design often involves tradeoffs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201218,_23_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201218,_23-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, features to improve reliability typically come at the cost of performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201223_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased expressivity due to a large number of operators makes writing code easier but comes at the cost of readability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201223_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="English-like_programming_languages"></span> <a href="/wiki/Natural-language_programming" title="Natural-language programming">Natural-language programming</a> has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. <a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a> took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Perlis" title="Alan Perlis">Alan Perlis</a> was similarly dismissive of the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specification">Specification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Specification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_specification" title="Programming language specification">Programming language specification</a></div> <p>The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">users</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementors</a> can use to agree upon whether a piece of <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> is a valid <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be. </p><p>A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following: </p> <ul><li>An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> (e.g., as in the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a>), or a <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal semantics</a> (e.g., as in <a href="/wiki/Standard_ML" title="Standard ML">Standard ML</a><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> specifications).</li> <li>A description of the behavior of a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">translator</a> for the language (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or formal language.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Reference_implementation" title="Reference implementation"><i>reference</i> or <i>model</i> implementation</a>, sometimes <a href="/wiki/Meta-circular_evaluator" title="Meta-circular evaluator">written in the language being specified</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> or <a href="/wiki/REXX" class="mw-redirect" title="REXX">ANSI REXX</a><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implementation">Implementation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">Programming language implementation</a></div> <p>An implementation of a programming language is the conversion of a program into <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> that can be executed by the hardware. The machine code then can be executed with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201223–24_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223–24-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common form of interpretation in <a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">production code</a> is by a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>, which translates the source code via an intermediate-level language into machine code, known as an <a href="/wiki/Executable" title="Executable">executable</a>. Once the program is compiled, it will run more quickly than with other implementation methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201225–27_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201225–27-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some compilers are able to provide further <a href="/wiki/Optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization">optimization</a> to reduce memory or computation usage when the executable runs, but increasing compilation time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201227_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201227-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another implementation method is to run the program with an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>, which translates each line of software into machine code just before it executes. Although it can make debugging easier, the downside of interpretation is that it runs 10 to 100 times slower than a compiled executable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201228_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201228-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hybrid interpretation methods provide some of the benefits of compilation and some of the benefits of interpretation via partial compilation. One form this takes is <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a>, in which the software is compiled ahead of time into an intermediate language, and then into machine code immediately before execution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201229–30_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201229–30-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proprietary_languages">Proprietary languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Proprietary languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly <a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific languages</a> or internal <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a> for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a> asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Java_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Java programming language">Java programming language</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has <a href="/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a> (CLR) as a closed environment.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include <a href="/wiki/MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a>, <a href="/wiki/VBScript" title="VBScript">VBScript</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Language" title="Wolfram Language">Wolfram Language</a>. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, <a href="/wiki/Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> was originally Ericsson's internal programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Open source programming languages are particularly helpful for <a href="/wiki/Open_science" title="Open science">open science</a> applications, enhancing the capacity for <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">replication</a> and code sharing.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual software projects commonly use five programming languages or more.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using <a href="/wiki/Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">pseudocode</a>, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language. </p><p>A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">programmer</a> uses the <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstractions</a> present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called <a href="/wiki/Language_primitive" title="Language primitive">primitives</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Programming">Programming</a></i> is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment. </p><p>Programs for a computer might be <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">executed</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch process</a> without human interaction, or a user might type <a href="/wiki/Command_(computing)" title="Command (computing)">commands</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Session_(computer_science)" title="Session (computer science)">interactive session</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a <a href="/wiki/Unix_shell" title="Unix shell">Unix shell</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interface</a>), without compiling, it is called a <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_language_usage">Measuring language usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Measuring language usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Determining which is the most widely used programming language is difficult since the definition of usage varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one has more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframes</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> in scientific and engineering applications; <a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time, and embedded applications; and <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. </p><p>Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed: </p> <ul><li>counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the number of books sold that teach or describe the language<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language –  which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.</li></ul> <p>Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages (in descending order by overall popularity): <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_.NET" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual Basic .NET">VB .NET</a>, <a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, and <a href="/wiki/MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of June 2024, the top five programming languages as measured by <a href="/wiki/TIOBE_index" title="TIOBE index">TIOBE index</a> are <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>. TIOBE provide a list of top 100 programming languages according to popularity and update this list every month.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations"><span id="Dialects.2C_flavors_and_implementations"></span>Dialects, flavors and implementations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Dialects, flavors and implementations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>dialect</b> of a programming language or a <a href="/wiki/Data_exchange_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Data exchange language">data exchange language</a> is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a>, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate, or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a <a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific language</a>, often a subset. In the <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> world, most languages that use basic <a href="/wiki/S-expression" title="S-expression">S-expression</a> syntax and Lisp-like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly as do, say, <a href="/wiki/Racket_(programming_language)" title="Racket (programming language)">Racket</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clojure" title="Clojure">Clojure</a>. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> language has <a href="/wiki/List_of_BASIC_dialects" title="List of BASIC dialects">many dialects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Categorical_list_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical list of programming languages">Categorical list of programming languages</a></div> <p>Programming languages are often placed into four main categories: <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Object_oriented" class="mw-redirect" title="Object oriented">object oriented</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Imperative languages are designed to implement an algorithm in a specified order; they include <a href="/wiki/Visual_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual programming languages">visual programming languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/.NET" title=".NET">.NET</a> for generating <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interfaces</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scripting_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripting languages">Scripting languages</a>, which are partly or fully <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreted</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a>, are sometimes considered a separate category but meet the definition of imperative languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Functional programming languages work by successively applying functions to the given parameters. Although appreciated by many researchers for their simplicity and elegance, problems with efficiency have prevented them from being widely adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201212_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Logic languages are designed so that the software, rather than the programmer, decides what order in which the instructions are executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Object-oriented programming—whose characteristic features are <a href="/wiki/Data_abstraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Data abstraction">data abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>—is supported by most popular imperative languages and some functional languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Markup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Markup languages">markup languages</a> are not programming languages, some have extensions that support limited programming. Additionally, there are special-purpose languages that are not easily compared to other programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/24px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/37px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Octicons-terminal.svg/49px-Octicons-terminal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming" title="Portal:Computer programming">Computer programming portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages_(basic_instructions)" title="Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)">Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_modeling" title="Domain-specific modeling">Domain-specific modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational programming language">Educational programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extensible_syntax_programming_languages" title="Category:Extensible syntax programming languages">Category:Extensible syntax programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_BASIC_dialects" title="List of BASIC dialects">List of BASIC dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_programming_languages" title="Lists of programming languages">Lists of programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_language_researchers" title="List of programming language researchers">List of programming language researchers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_languages_used_in_most_popular_websites" title="Programming languages used in most popular websites">Programming languages used in most popular websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)#Metaprogramming" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby (programming language) § Metaprogramming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">Pseudocode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebol#Dialects" title="Rebol">Rebol § Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_software_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of software engineering topics">List of software engineering topics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Aaby_2004-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aaby_2004_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAaby2004" class="citation book cs1">Aaby, Anthony (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121108043216/http://www.emu.edu.tr/aelci/Courses/D-318/D-318-Files/plbook/intro.htm"><i>Introduction to Programming Languages</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emu.edu.tr/aelci/Courses/D-318/D-318-Files/plbook/intro.htm">the original</a> on 8 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Programming+Languages&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Aaby&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emu.edu.tr%2Faelci%2FCourses%2FD-318%2FD-318-Files%2Fplbook%2Fintro.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf">Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150707093557/http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf">Archived</a> 7 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html">ICSOFT 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100427063709/http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html">Archived</a> 27 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 163–170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.w3.org/XML/1999/XML-in-10-points.html">XML in 10 points</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090906083110/http://www.w3.org/XML/1999/XML-in-10-points.html">Archived</a> 6 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a>, 1999, "XML is not a programming language."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2003" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Thomas (2003). <i>HTML & XHTML: the complete reference</i>. McGraw-Hill. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-222942-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-222942-4"><bdi>978-0-07-222942-4</bdi></a>. <q>HTML is not a programming language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HTML+%26+XHTML%3A+the+complete+reference&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-222942-4&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDykesTittel2005" class="citation book cs1">Dykes, Lucinda; Tittel, Ed (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt_2"><i>XML For Dummies</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Wiley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/html4fordummies00titt_2/page/20">20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7645-8845-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7645-8845-7"><bdi>978-0-7645-8845-7</bdi></a>. <q>...it's a markup language, not a programming language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=XML+For+Dummies&rft.pages=20&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7645-8845-7&rft.aulast=Dykes&rft.aufirst=Lucinda&rft.au=Tittel%2C+Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhtml4fordummies00titt_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacLennan1987" class="citation book cs1">MacLennan, Bruce J. (1987). <i>Principles of Programming Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511306-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511306-8"><bdi>978-0-19-511306-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Programming+Languages&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511306-8&rft.aulast=MacLennan&rft.aufirst=Bruce+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.odu.edu/~zeil/cs390/latest/Public/turing-complete/index.html">"Turing Completeness"</a>. <i>www.cs.odu.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220816145137/https://cs.odu.edu/~zeil/cs390/latest/Public/turing-complete/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cs.odu.edu&rft.atitle=Turing+Completeness&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.odu.edu%2F~zeil%2Fcs390%2Flatest%2FPublic%2Fturing-complete%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Narasimhan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189—247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-012108-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-012108-5">0-12-012108-5</a>, p.215: "[...] the model [...] for computer languages differs from that [...] for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names—or registers—which can assume only finitely many values—or states—and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. [author's footnote:] This may sound like a truism but its implications are far-reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John C. 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Google, Inc.">Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources#User-generated_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a user-generated source. (June 2023)">user-generated source</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/">"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org"</a>. <i>ComputerScience.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180513223729/https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ComputerScience.org&rft.atitle=Guide+to+Programming+Languages+%7C+ComputerScience.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerscience.org%2Fresources%2Fcomputer-programming-languages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html">"The basics"</a>. <i>ibm.com</i>. 10 May 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514064903/https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ibm.com&rft.atitle=The+basics&rft.date=2011-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fdeveloperworks%2Flibrary%2Fos-erlang1%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdelazizHansonGaberLee2023" class="citation journal cs1">Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. 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Australia: <a href="/wiki/Murdoch_University" title="Murdoch University">Murdoch University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/">the original</a> on 20 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2009</span>. <q>This site lists 8512 languages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HOPL%3A+an+interactive+Roster+of+Programming+Languages&rft.place=Australia&rft.pub=Murdoch+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhopl.murdoch.edu.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayerBauer2015" class="citation conference cs1">Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (2015). "An empirical analysis of the utilization of multiple programming languages in open source projects". <i>Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering</i>. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering – EASE '15. New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 4:1–4:10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2745802.2745805">10.1145/2745802.2745805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-3350-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-3350-4"><bdi>978-1-4503-3350-4</bdi></a>. <q>Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&rft.au=Abelson%2C+Sussman%2C+and+Sussman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fsicp%2Ffull-text%2Fbook%2Fbook-Z-H-10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickiMorin1999" class="citation web cs1">Vicki, Brown; Morin, Rich (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.15/15.09/ScriptingLanguages/index.html">"Scripting Languages"</a>. <i>MacTech</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171202235828/http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.15/15.09/ScriptingLanguages/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MacTech&rft.atitle=Scripting+Languages&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Vicki&rft.aufirst=Brown&rft.au=Morin%2C+Rich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mactech.com%2Farticles%2Fmactech%2FVol.15%2F15.09%2FScriptingLanguages%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorgina_Swan2009" class="citation web cs1">Georgina Swan (21 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019181128/http://www.computerworld.com.au/article/319269/cobol_turns_50/">"COBOL turns 50"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=7+Myths+of+COBOL+Debunked&rft.pub=developer.com&rft.date=2012-05-03&rft.au=Ed+Airey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.developer.com%2Flang%2Fother%2F7-myths-of-cobol-debunked.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Enticknap" class="citation web cs1">Nicholas Enticknap. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm">"SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth"</a>. <i>Computer Weekly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111026035734/http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/SSLComputer-Weekly-IT-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-IT-job.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+Weekly&rft.atitle=SSL%2FComputer+Weekly+IT+salary+survey%3A+finance+boom+drives+IT+job+growth&rft.au=Nicholas+Enticknap&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerweekly.com%2FArticles%2F2007%2F09%2F11%2F226631%2Fsslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517023127/http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html">"Counting programming languages by book sales"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Most+Popular+and+Influential+Programming+Languages+of+2018&rft.pub=stackify.com&rft.date=2017-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstackify.com%2Fpopular-programming-languages-2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/">"TIOBE Index"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TIOBE+Index&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tiobe.com%2Ftiobe-index%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201212_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Programming_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages#Further_reading" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages § Further reading</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonSussman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Abelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Abelson">Abelson, Harold</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Jay_Sussman" title="Gerald Jay Sussman">Sussman, Gerald Jay</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180309173822/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html"><i>Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</i></a> (2nd ed.). MIT Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html">the original</a> on 9 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Interpretation+of+Computer+Programs&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Abelson&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft.au=Sussman%2C+Gerald+Jay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fsicp%2Ffull-text%2Fbook%2Fbook-Z-H-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Finkel" title="Raphael Finkel">Raphael Finkel</a>: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022141742/http://www.nondot.org/sabre/Mirrored/AdvProgLangDesign/">Advanced Programming Language Design</a></i>, Addison Wesley 1995.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_P._Friedman" title="Daniel P. Friedman">Daniel P. Friedman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitchell_Wand" title="Mitchell Wand">Mitchell Wand</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_T._Haynes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christopher T. Haynes (page does not exist)">Christopher T. Haynes</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Essentials_of_Programming_Languages" title="Essentials of Programming Languages">Essentials of Programming Languages</a></i>, The MIT Press 2001.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gelernter" title="David Gelernter">David Gelernter</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suresh_Jagannathan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suresh Jagannathan (page does not exist)">Suresh Jagannathan</a>: <i>Programming Linguistics</i>, <a href="/wiki/The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a> 1990.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellis_Horowitz" title="Ellis Horowitz">Ellis Horowitz</a> (ed.): <i>Programming Languages, a Grand Tour</i> (3rd ed.), 1987.</li> <li>Ellis Horowitz: <i>Fundamentals of Programming Languages</i>, 1989.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shriram_Krishnamurthi" title="Shriram Krishnamurthi">Shriram Krishnamurthi</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Programming_Languages:_Application_and_Interpretation" title="Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation">Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/">online publication</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430210417/http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/">Archived</a> 30 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023" class="citation book cs1">Gabbrielli, Maurizio; Martini, Simone (2023). <i>Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-34144-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-34144-1"><bdi>978-3-031-34144-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+Languages%3A+Principles+and+Paradigms&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-031-34144-1&rft.aulast=Gabbrielli&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rft.au=Martini%2C+Simone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bruce_J._MacLennan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bruce J. MacLennan (page does not exist)">Bruce J. MacLennan</a>: <i>Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 1999.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mitchell" title="John C. Mitchell">John C. Mitchell</a>: <i>Concepts in Programming Languages</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> 2002.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNofrePriestleyAlberts2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24468397">"When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960"</a>. <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>55</b> (1): 40–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2014.0031">10.1353/tech.2014.0031</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-165X">0040-165X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24468397">24468397</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24988794">24988794</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=When+Technology+Became+Language%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Linguistic+Conception+of+Computer+Programming%2C+1950%E2%80%931960&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-75&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24988794&rft.issn=0040-165X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24468397%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2014.0031&rft.aulast=Nofre&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Priestley%2C+Mark&rft.au=Alberts%2C+Gerard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24468397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_C._Pierce" title="Benjamin C. Pierce">Benjamin C. Pierce</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Types_and_Programming_Languages" title="Types and Programming Languages">Types and Programming Languages</a></i>, The MIT Press 2002.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Terrence_W._Pratt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Terrence W. Pratt (page does not exist)">Terrence W. Pratt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Marvin Victor Zelkowitz">Marvin Victor Zelkowitz</a>: <i>Programming Languages: Design and Implementation</i> (4th ed.), Prentice Hall 2000.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Salus" title="Peter H. Salus">Peter H. Salus</a>. <i>Handbook of Programming Languages</i> (4 vols.). Macmillan 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Sethi" title="Ravi Sethi">Ravi Sethi</a>: <i>Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs</i>, 2nd ed., <a href="/wiki/Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a> 1996.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Scott" title="Michael L. Scott">Michael L. Scott</a>: <i>Programming Language Pragmatics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a> 2005.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebesta2012" class="citation book cs1">Sebesta, Robert W. (2012). <i>Concepts of Programming Languages</i> (10 ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-139531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-139531-2"><bdi>978-0-13-139531-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Programming+Languages&rft.edition=10&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-13-139531-2&rft.aulast=Sebesta&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Franklyn Turbak and David Gifford with Mark Sheldon: <i>Design Concepts in Programming Languages</i>, The MIT Press 2009.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Van_Roy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Van Roy (page does not exist)">Peter Van Roy</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Seif_Haridi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seif Haridi (page does not exist)">Seif Haridi</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Concepts,_Techniques,_and_Models_of_Computer_Programming" title="Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming">Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming</a></i>, The MIT Press 2004.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_A._Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="David A. Watt">David A. Watt</a>. <i>Programming Language Concepts and Paradigms</i>. Prentice Hall 1990.</li> <li>David A. Watt and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muffy_Thomas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muffy Thomas (page does not exist)">Muffy Thomas</a>. <i>Programming Language Syntax and Semantics</i>. Prentice Hall 1991.</li> <li>David A. Watt. <i>Programming Language Processors</i>. Prentice Hall 1993.</li> <li>David A. Watt. <i>Programming Language Design Concepts</i>. John Wiley & Sons 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2001" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). <i>Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition</i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-71012-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-71012-9"><bdi>0-201-71012-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Programming+Languages%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-201-71012-9&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Leslie+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProgramming+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computer_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a 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voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_computers" title="Template:Glossaries of computers">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_programming_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_programming_languages" title="Template:Types of programming languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_programming_languages" title="Template talk:Types of programming languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_programming_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of programming languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_programming_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Types of programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">Compiled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_high-level_programming_language" title="Very high-level programming language">Very high-level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_generations" title="Programming language generations">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">Fifth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Programming_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Programming_languages" title="Template:Programming languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Programming_languages" title="Template talk:Programming languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Programming_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Programming languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Programming_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_(.NET)" title="Visual Basic (.NET)">.NET</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b>Lists:</b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Programming_languages" title="Category:Programming languages">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_computer_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_language" title="Template:Computer language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_language" title="Template talk:Computer language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_computer_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Computer_language" title="Computer language">computer language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_description_language" title="Architecture description language">Architecture description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_exchange#Data_exchange_languages" title="Data exchange">Data exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">Hardware description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation language">Knowledge representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markup_language" title="Markup language">Markup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shading_language" title="Shading language">Shading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specification_language" title="Specification language">Specification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_sheet_language" title="Style sheet language">Stylesheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_computer_languages" title="Category:Lists of computer languages">Category:Lists of computer languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_programming_languages" title="Category:Lists of programming languages">Category:Lists of programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">List of programming languages by type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Programming language</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/programming_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:programming language">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Programming_languages" class="extiw" title="v:Programming languages">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" 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