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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Literary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Historical sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Place names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubious_and_fraudulent_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubious_and_fraudulent_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Dubious and fraudulent sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dubious_and_fraudulent_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdoms_and_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdoms_and_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Kingdoms and regions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Kingdoms_and_regions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Kingdoms and regions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Kingdoms_and_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Major kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_kingdoms_and_other_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_kingdoms_and_other_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Minor kingdoms and other regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_kingdoms_and_other_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Possible kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hen Ogledd</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="الشمال القديم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الشمال القديم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanternoz_Kozh" title="Hanternoz Kozh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hanternoz Kozh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%97%A8_%EC%98%A4%EA%B8%80%EB%A0%88%EB%93%9C" title="헨 오글레드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="헨 오글레드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D" title="הצפון הקדום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הצפון הקדום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Древний Север – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний Север" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Ogledd" title="Yr Hen Ogledd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Yr Hen Ogledd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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href="/wiki/File:Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg/220px-Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg/330px-Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg/440px-Yr.Hen.Ogledd.550.650.Koch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Yr Hen Ogledd</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Welsh pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="cy-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Welsh" title="Help:IPA/Welsh">[ər<span class="wrap"> </span>ˌheːn<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɔɡlɛð]</a></span>), meaning <b>the Old North</b>, is the <a href="/wiki/Historical_region" title="Historical region">historical region</a> that was inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Brittonic people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">sub-Roman Britain</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">Northern England</a> and the southern <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Scottish Lowlands</a>, alongside the fellow Brittonic Celtic <a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Kingdom of Elmet</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>. Its population spoke a variety of the <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic language</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a> which is closely related to, if not a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">people of Wales</a> and the Hen Ogledd considered themselves to be one people, and both were referred to as <a href="/wiki/Cymry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cymry">Cymry</a> ('fellow-countrymen') from the Brittonic word <i>combrogi</i>. The Hen Ogledd was distinct from the parts of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a>. </p><p>The major kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd were <a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gododdin" title="Gododdin">Gododdin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rheged" title="Rheged">Rheged</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Kingdom of Strathclyde</a> (Welsh: <i>Ystrad Clud</i>). Smaller kingdoms included <a href="/wiki/Aeron_(kingdom)" title="Aeron (kingdom)">Aeron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calchfynydd" title="Calchfynydd">Calchfynydd</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eidyn" title="Eidyn">Eidyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lothian" title="Lothian">Lleuddiniawn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manaw_Gododdin" title="Manaw Gododdin">Manaw Gododdin</a> were evidently parts of Gododdin. The later <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Anglian</a> kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> both had Brittonic-derived names, suggesting they may have been Brittonic kingdoms originally. All the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd except Strathclyde were gradually either integrated or subsumed by the emerging Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Gaelic Scots and fellow Brittonic Picts by about 800; Strathclyde was eventually incorporated into the rising <a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> in the 11th century. </p><p>The memory of the Hen Ogledd remained strong in Wales after its fall, and indeed the term came into being in Wales after the destruction of the Brittonic kingdoms of the north. Welsh tradition included genealogies of the <i>Gwŷr y Gogledd</i>, or Men of the North, and several important Welsh dynasties traced their lineage to them. A number of important early Welsh texts were attributed to the Men of the North, such as <a href="/wiki/Taliesin" title="Taliesin">Taliesin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aneirin" title="Aneirin">Aneirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myrddin_Wyllt" title="Myrddin Wyllt">Myrddin Wyllt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cynfeirdd" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynfeirdd">Cynfeirdd</a> poets. Heroes of the north such as <a href="/wiki/Urien" title="Urien">Urien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owain_mab_Urien" title="Owain mab Urien">Owain mab Urien</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coel_Hen" title="Coel Hen">Coel Hen</a> and his descendants feature in Welsh poetry and the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Triads" title="Welsh Triads">Welsh Triads</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost nothing is reliably known of Central Britain before <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>. There had never been a period of long-term, effective <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> control north of the <a href="/wiki/River_Tyne" title="River Tyne">Tyne</a>–<a href="/wiki/Solway_Firth" title="Solway Firth">Solway</a> line, and south of that line effective Roman control began to erode before the traditionally given date of departure of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">Roman military</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> in 407. It was noted in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> and others that there was ever-decreasing Roman control from about 100 onward, and in the years after 360 there was widespread disorder and the large-scale permanent abandonment of territory by the Romans. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By 550, the region was controlled by native <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a>-speaking peoples except for the eastern coastal areas, which were controlled by the Anglian peoples of <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a>. To the north were the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> (now also accepted as Brittonic speakers prior to Gaelicisation) with the <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaelic</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a> to the northwest. All of these peoples would play a role in the history of the Old North.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From a historical perspective, wars were frequently internecine, and Britons were aggressors as well as defenders, as was also true of the Angles, Picts, and <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, those Welsh stories of the Hen Ogledd that tell of Britons fighting Anglians have a counterpart, told from the opposite side. The story of the demise of the kingdoms of the Old North is the story of the rise of the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> from two coastal kingdoms to become the premier power in Britain north of the <a href="/wiki/Humber" title="Humber">Humber</a> and south of the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Clyde" title="Firth of Clyde">Firth of Clyde</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Central.Britain.c550.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Central.Britain.c550.jpg/220px-Central.Britain.c550.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Central.Britain.c550.jpg/330px-Central.Britain.c550.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Central.Britain.c550.jpg/440px-Central.Britain.c550.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg/220px-Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg/330px-Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg/440px-Northumbria.rise.600.700.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The interests of kingdoms of this era were not restricted to their immediate vicinity. Alliances were not made only within the same ethnic groups, nor were enmities restricted to nearby different ethnic groups. An alliance of Britons fought against another alliance of Britons at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arfderydd" title="Battle of Arfderydd">Battle of Arfderydd</a>. <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ed%C3%A1n_mac_Gabr%C3%A1in" title="Áedán mac Gabráin">Áedán mac Gabráin</a> of <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a> appears in the <i><a href="/wiki/Bonedd_Gw%C5%B7r_y_Gogledd" title="Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd">Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd</a></i>, a genealogy among the pedigrees of the Men of the North.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a></i> states that <a href="/wiki/Oswiu" title="Oswiu">Oswiu</a>, king of Northumbria, married a Briton who may have had some Pictish ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A marriage between the Northumbrian and Pictish royal families would produce the Pictish king <a href="/wiki/Talorgan_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Talorgan I">Talorgan I</a>. Áedán mac Gabráin fought as an ally of the Britons against the Northumbrians. <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a> allied with <a href="/wiki/Penda_of_Mercia" title="Penda of Mercia">Penda of Mercia</a> to defeat <a href="/wiki/Edwin_of_Northumbria" title="Edwin of Northumbria">Edwin of Northumbria</a>. </p><p>Conquest and defeat did not necessarily mean the extirpation of one culture and its replacement by another. The Brittonic region of northwestern England was absorbed by Anglian Northumbria in the 7th century, yet it would reemerge 300 years later as South Cumbria, joined with North Cumbria (Strathclyde) into a single state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societal_context">Societal context</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Societal context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The organisation of the Men of the North was <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> groups of extended families, owing allegiance to a dominant "royal" family, sometimes indirectly through client relationships, and receiving protection in return. For <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> peoples, this organisation was still in effect hundreds of years later, as shown in the Irish <a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Brehon law</a>, the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Laws of Hywel Dda</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <a href="/wiki/Leges_inter_Brettos_et_Scottos" title="Leges inter Brettos et Scottos">Laws of the Brets and Scots</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a> had culturally different origins, but with many similarities to <a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Celtic law</a>. Like Celtic law, it was based on cultural tradition, without any perceivable debt to the Roman occupation of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A primary <i><a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">royal court</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">llys</i>) would be maintained as a "capital", but it was not the bureaucratic administrative centre of modern society, nor the settlement or <i><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitas</a></i> of Roman rule. As the ruler and protector of his kingdom, the king would maintain multiple courts throughout his territory, travelling among them to exercise his authority and to address the needs of his people, such as in the dispensing of justice. This ancient method of dispensing justice survived as a part of royal procedure until the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> (reigned 1154–1189) modernised the administration of law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></div> <p>Modern scholarship uses the term "Cumbric" for the Brittonic language spoken in the Hen Ogledd. It appears to have been very closely related to <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a>, with some local variances, and more distantly related to <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> and the pre-Gaelic form of <a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a>. There are no surviving texts written in the dialect; evidence for it comes from placenames, proper names in a few early <a href="/wiki/Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscription">inscriptions</a> and later non-Cumbric sources, two terms in the <i><a href="/wiki/Leges_inter_Brettos_et_Scottos" title="Leges inter Brettos et Scottos">Leges inter Brettos et Scottos</a></i>, and the corpus of poetry by the <i><a href="/wiki/Cynfeirdd" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynfeirdd">cynfeirdd</a></i>, the "early poets", nearly all of which deals with the north.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch516_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch516-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>cynfeirdd</i> poetry is the largest source of information, and it is generally accepted that some part of the corpus was first composed in the Hen Ogledd.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch516_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch516-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it survives entirely in later manuscripts created in Wales where the oral tradition continued on, and it is unknown how faithful they are to the originals. Still, the texts do contain discernible variances that distinguish the speech from the Welsh dialects. In particular, these texts contain a number of <a href="/wiki/Archaism" title="Archaism">archaisms</a> – features that appear to have once been common in all Brittonic varieties, but which later vanished from Welsh and the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Brittonic_languages" title="Southwestern Brittonic languages">Southwestern Brittonic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch516_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch516-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, however, the differences appear to be slight, and the distinction between Cumbric and Old Welsh is largely geographical rather than linguistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch517_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch517-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cumbric gradually disappeared as the area was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, and later the Scots and <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a>, though it survived in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Kingdom of Strathclyde</a>, centred at Alt Clut in what is now <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton" title="Dumbarton">Dumbarton</a> in Scotland. <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Kenneth H. Jackson</a> suggested that it re-emerged in <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a> in the 10th century, as Strathclyde established hegemony over that area. It is unknown when Cumbric finally became extinct, but the series of <a href="/wiki/Yan_tan_tethera" title="Yan tan tethera">counting systems of Brittonic origin</a> recorded in Northern England since the 18th century have been proposed as evidence of a survival of elements of Cumbric;<sup id="cite_ref-Koch517_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch517-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the view has been largely rejected on linguistic grounds, with evidence pointing to the fact that it was imported to England after the <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Welsh_tradition">Welsh tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Welsh tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the traditional stories relating to the genealogies of Welsh dynasties derived from <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a> and his sons as "Men of the North". Cunedda himself is held to be the progenitor of the royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Gwynedd, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval Welsh kingdoms, and an ongoing connection to the Hen Ogledd. Cunedda's genealogy shows him as a descendant of one of <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>' generals, Paternus, who Maximus appointed as commander at Alt Clut. The Welsh and the Men of the North may have seen themselves as one people. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> name for themselves, <i>Cymry</i>, derives from this ancient relationship, although this is debatable, as while Gwynedd seemed to have good relationships with them, and with Ceredigion, it is unknown how the other Welsh Kingdoms saw them, since they were not unified themselves, especially the southern Kingdoms like <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ystrad_Tywi" title="Ystrad Tywi">Ystrad Tywi</a>, which had heavy Irish presence at the time. 'Cymry' was a term that referred to both the Welsh and the Men of the North but was sometimes applied to others such as the Picts and the Irish as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is derived from the Brittonic word c<i>ombrogoi</i>, which meant "fellow-countrymen", and it is worth noting in passing that its <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> counterpart <i>kenvroiz</i> still has this original meaning of "compatriots". The word began to be used as an endonym by the Men of the North during the early 7th century (and possibly earlier),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was used throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> to describe the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Kingdom of Strathclyde</a>. Before this, and for some centuries after, the traditional as well as the more literary term was <i>Brythoniaid</i>, recalling the still older time when all on the island remained a unity. <i>Cymry</i> survives today in the native name for Wales (<i>Cymru</i>, land of the <i>Cymry</i>), and in the English county name <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a>, both meaning "homeland", "mother country". </p><p>Many of the traditional sources of information about the Hen Ogledd survive in Welsh tradition, and bards such as <a href="/wiki/Aneirin" title="Aneirin">Aneirin</a> (the reputed author of <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Gododdin" title="Y Gododdin">Y Gododdin</a></i>) are thought to have been court poets in the Hen Ogledd. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nature_of_the_sources">Nature of the sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nature of the sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A listing of passages from the literary and historical sources, particularly relevant to the Hen Ogledd, can be found in Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Anwyl" title="Edward Anwyl">Edward Anwyl</a>'s article <i>Wales and the Britons of the North</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A somewhat dated introduction to the study of old Welsh poetry can be found in his 1904 article <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Old Welsh Poetry</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_sources">Literary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Literary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">bardic</a> poetry attributed to <a href="/wiki/Taliesin" title="Taliesin">Taliesin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aneirin" title="Aneirin">Aneirin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Llywarch_Hen" title="Llywarch Hen">Llywarch Hen</a>.</li> <li>The genealogical tracts of the <a href="/wiki/Harleian_genealogies" title="Harleian genealogies">Harleian genealogies</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Bonedd_Gw%C5%B7r_y_Gogledd" title="Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd">Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Genealogies_from_Jesus_College_MS_20" title="Genealogies from Jesus College MS 20">genealogies of Jesus College MS 20</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Triads" title="Welsh Triads">Triads of the Island of Britain</a></i> (note that most of the triads published in the notorious third volume of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myvyrian_Archaiology_of_Wales" title="The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales">The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales</a></i> are known to be the forgeries of <a href="/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg" title="Iolo Morganwg">Iolo Morganwg</a>, and are not considered valid sources of historical information).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standard scholarly edition is <i>Trioedd Ynys Prydein</i> by <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Bromwich" title="Rachel Bromwich">Rachel Bromwich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The other <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">marwnadau</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Paean" title="Paean">songs of praise</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">canu mawl</i>), as well as certain <a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">mythological</a> stories, that have been preserved.</li></ul> <p>Stories praising a patron and the construction of flattering genealogies are neither unbiased nor reliable sources of historically accurate information. However, while they may exaggerate and make apocryphal assertions, they do not falsify or change the historical facts that were known to the bards' listeners, as that would bring ridicule and disrepute to both the bards and their patrons. In addition, the existence of stories of defeat and <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>, as well as stories of victory, lends additional credibility to their value as sources of history. Within that context, the stories contain useful information, much of it incidental, about an era of British history where very little is reliably known. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_sources">Historical sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Historical sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a></i> attributed to <a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Annales_Cambriae" title="Annales Cambriae">Annales Cambriae</a></i></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People" title="Ecclesiastical History of the English People">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Tigernach" title="Annals of Tigernach">Annals of Tigernach</a></i></li></ul> <p>These sources are not without deficiencies. Both the authors and their later transcribers sometimes displayed a partisanship that promoted their own interests, portraying their own agendas in a positive light, always on the side of justice and moral rectitude. Facts in opposition to those agendas are sometimes omitted, and apocryphal entries are sometimes added. </p><p>While Bede was a Northumbrian partisan and spoke with prejudice against the native Britons, his <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English People</i> is highly regarded for its effort towards an accurate telling of history, and for its use of reliable sources. When passing along "traditional" information that lacks a historical foundation, Bede takes care to note it as such.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (c. 516–570) is occasionally relevant in that it mentions early people and places also mentioned in the literary and historical sources. The work was intended to preach Christianity to Gildas' contemporaries and was not meant to be a history. It is one of the few contemporary accounts of his era to have survived. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Place_names">Place names</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Place names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cumbric#Place_names" title="Cumbric">Cumbric § Place names</a></div> <p>Brittonic place names in Scotland south of the Forth and Clyde, and in Cumberland and neighbouring counties, indicate areas of Hen Ogledd inhabited by Britons in the early Middle Ages. </p><p>Isolated locations of later British presence are also indicated by place names of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> origin. In Yorkshire, the names of <a href="/wiki/Walden,_North_Yorkshire" title="Walden, North Yorkshire">Walden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walton,_Leeds" title="Walton, Leeds">Walton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walburn,_North_Yorkshire" title="Walburn, North Yorkshire">Walburn</a>, from Old English <i>walas</i> "Britons or Welshmen", indicate Britons encountered by the Anglo-Saxons, and the name of <a href="/wiki/Birkby,_North_Yorkshire" title="Birkby, North Yorkshire">Birkby</a>, from Old Norse <i>Breta</i> "Britons", indicates a place where the Vikings met Britons.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dubious_and_fraudulent_sources">Dubious and fraudulent sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dubious and fraudulent sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae" title="Historia Regum Britanniae">Historia Regum Britanniae</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> is disparaged as <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistory</a>, though it looms large as a source for the largely fictional <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">chivalric romance</a> stories known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a>. The lack of historical value attributed to the <i>Historia</i> lies only partly in the fact that it contains so many fictions and falsifications of history;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the fact that historical accuracy clearly was not a consideration in its creation makes any references to actual people and places no more than a literary convenience. </p><p>The <i>Iolo Manuscripts</i> are a collection of manuscripts presented in the early 19th century by Edward Williams, who is better known as <a href="/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg" title="Iolo Morganwg">Iolo Morganwg</a>. Containing various tales, anecdotal material and elaborate genealogies that connect virtually everyone of note with everyone else of note (and with many connections to <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">Arthur</a> and Iolo's native region of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a>), they were at first accepted as genuine, but have since been shown to be an assortment of forged or doctored manuscripts, transcriptions, and fantasies, mainly invented by Iolo himself. A list of works tainted by their reliance on the material presented by Iolo (sometimes without attribution) would be quite long. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kingdoms_and_regions">Kingdoms and regions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kingdoms and regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_kingdoms">Major kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Major kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Places in the Old North that are mentioned as kingdoms in the literary and historical sources include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Alt Clut</a> or Ystrad Clud – a kingdom centred at what is now <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton" title="Dumbarton">Dumbarton</a> in Scotland. Later known as Strathclyde, and possibly even later as Cumbria, it was one of the best attested of the northern British kingdoms. It was also the last surviving, as it operated as an independent realm into the 11th century before it was finally absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a> – centred in western <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> in northern England. It was located south of the other northern British kingdoms, and well east of present-day Wales, but managed to survive into the early 7th century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gododdin" title="Gododdin">Gododdin</a> – a kingdom in what is now southeastern Scotland and northeastern England, the area previously noted as the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Votadini" title="Votadini">Votadini</a>. They are the subjects of the poem <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Gododdin" title="Y Gododdin">Y Gododdin</a></i>, which memorialises a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Catraeth" title="Battle of Catraeth">disastrous raid</a> by an army raised by the Gododdin on the Angles of <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochgododdin_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochgododdin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheged" title="Rheged">Rheged</a> – a major kingdom that evidently included parts of present-day <a href="/wiki/Cumbria" title="Cumbria">Cumbria</a>, though its full extent is unknown. It may have covered a vast area at one point, as it is very closely associated with its king <a href="/wiki/Urien" title="Urien">Urien</a>, whose name is tied to places all over northwestern Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_kingdoms_and_other_regions">Minor kingdoms and other regions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Minor kingdoms and other regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several regions are mentioned in the sources, assumed to be notable regions within one of the kingdoms if not separate kingdoms themselves: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeron_(kingdom)" title="Aeron (kingdom)">Aeron</a> – a minor kingdom mentioned in sources such as <i>Y Gododdin</i>, its location is uncertain, but several scholars have suggested that it was in the <a href="/wiki/Ayrshire" title="Ayrshire">Ayrshire</a> region of southwest Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is frequently associated with <a href="/wiki/Urien_Rheged" class="mw-redirect" title="Urien Rheged">Urien Rheged</a>, and may have been part of his realm.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calchfynydd" title="Calchfynydd">Calchfynydd</a> ("Chalkmountain") – almost nothing is known about this area, though it was likely somewhere in the Hen Ogledd, as an evident ruler, <a href="/wiki/Cadrawd_Calchfynydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadrawd Calchfynydd">Cadrawd Calchfynydd</a>, is listed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Bonedd_Gw%C5%B7r_y_Gogledd" title="Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd">Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/William_Forbes_Skene" title="William Forbes Skene">William Forbes Skene</a> suggested an identification with <a href="/wiki/Kelso,_Scottish_Borders" title="Kelso, Scottish Borders">Kelso</a> (formerly Calchow) in the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Borders" title="Scottish Borders">Scottish Borders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidyn" title="Eidyn">Eidyn</a> – this was the area around the modern city of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, then known as <a href="/wiki/Din_Eidyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Din Eidyn">Din Eidyn</a> (Fort of Eidyn). It was closely associated with the Gododdin kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Kenneth H. Jackson</a> argued strongly that <i>Eidyn</i> referred exclusively to Edinburgh,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but other scholars have taken it as a designation for the wider area.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1972_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1972-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name may survive today in toponyms such as <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> (Dunedin in Gaelic, Din Eidyn in <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carriden" class="mw-redirect" title="Carriden">Carriden</a> (from <i>Caer Eidyn</i>)), located fifteen miles to the west.<sup id="cite_ref-Dumville_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dumville-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Din Eidyn was besieged by the Angles in 638 and was under their control for most of the next three centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manaw_Gododdin" title="Manaw Gododdin">Manaw Gododdin</a> – the coastal area south of the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>, and part of the territory of the Gododdin.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochgododdin_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochgododdin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name survives in Slamannan Moor and the village of <a href="/wiki/Slamannan" title="Slamannan">Slamannan</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Stirlingshire" title="Stirlingshire">Stirlingshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is derived from <i>Sliabh Manann</i>, the 'Moor of Manann'.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhys-Folklore-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also appears in the name of <a href="/wiki/Dalmeny" title="Dalmeny">Dalmeny</a>, some 5 miles northwest of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, and formerly known as Dumanyn, assumed to be derived from <i>Dun Manann</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhys-Folklore-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name also survives north of the Forth in Pictish Manaw as the name of the <a href="/wiki/Burgh" title="Burgh">burgh</a> of <a href="/wiki/Clackmannan" title="Clackmannan">Clackmannan</a> and the eponymous county of <a href="/wiki/Clackmannanshire" title="Clackmannanshire">Clackmannanshire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Rhys-Britain_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhys-Britain-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> derived from <i>Clach Manann</i>, the 'stone of Manann',<sup id="cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhys-Folklore-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to a monument stone located there.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novant" class="mw-redirect" title="Novant">Novant</a> – a kingdom mentioned in <i>Y Gododdin</i>, presumably related to the Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Novantae" title="Novantae">Novantae</a> tribe of southwestern Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Regio Dunutinga</i> – a minor kingdom or region in <a href="/wiki/North_Yorkshire" title="North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a> mentioned in the <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Wilfrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Wilfrid">Life of Wilfrid</a></i>. It was evidently named for a ruler named Dunaut, perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Dunaut_ap_Pabo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunaut ap Pabo">Dunaut ap Pabo</a> known from the genealogies.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its name may survive in the modern town of <a href="/wiki/Dent,_South_Lakeland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dent, South Lakeland">Dent</a>, Cumbria.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Kingdoms that were not part of the Old North but are part of its history include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a> – Though this was a <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaelic</a> kingdom, the family of <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ed%C3%A1n_mac_Gabr%C3%A1in" title="Áedán mac Gabráin">Áedán mac Gabráin</a> of Dál Riata appears in the <i><a href="/wiki/Bonedd_Gw%C5%B7r_y_Gogledd" title="Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd">Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> and its predecessor states, <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Pictish kingdom</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_kingdoms">Possible kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Possible kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following names appear in historical and literary sources, but it is unknown whether or not they refer to British kingdoms and regions of the <i>Hen Ogledd</i>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bryneich#British_Bryneich" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryneich">Bryneich</a> – this is the British name for the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a>. There was probably a British kingdom in this area before the Anglian kingdom, it this is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deifr" class="mw-redirect" title="Deifr">Deifr</a> or Dewr – this was the British name for Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a>, a region between the <a href="/wiki/River_Tees" title="River Tees">River Tees</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Humber" title="Humber">Humber</a>. The name is of British origin, as with Bryneich, it is unknown if it represented an earlier British kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Wales in the Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Scotland in the Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_basis_for_King_Arthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical basis for King Arthur">Historical basis for King Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumbric language">Cumbric language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coel_Hen" title="Coel Hen">King Cole</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The tribal domains were called kingdoms and were led by a king, but were not organised nation-states in the modern (or ancient Roman) sense of the word. The kingdoms might grow and shrink based on the transitory fortunes of the leading tribe and royal family, with regional alliances and enmities playing a part in the resulting organisation. This organisation was applicable to southern Wales of the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">post-Roman</a> era, where the royal inter-relationships of the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Glywysing" title="Glywysing">Glywysing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ergyng" title="Ergyng">Ergyng</a> are so completely inter-twined that it is not possible to construct an independent history for any of them. When contention (i.e., war) occurred, it was between high-ranking individuals and their respective clients, in the manner of the contending <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> in the 15th century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Anglo-Saxon law" is a modern <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> for the Saxon Law of Wessex, the Anglian Law of Mercia, and the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a>, all of which were sufficiently similar to merit inclusion within this umbrella term. The laws of Anglian <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> were supplanted by the Danelaw, but were certainly similar to these. The origins of <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> have been much studied. For example, the 12th century <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_of_Glanvill" class="mw-redirect" title="Tractatus of Glanvill">Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae</a></i> (<i>Treatise on the laws and customs of the Kingdom of England</i>) is the <a href="/wiki/Books_of_authority" title="Books of authority">book of authority</a> on English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, and scholars have held that it owes a debt to <a href="/wiki/Norman_law" title="Norman law">Norman law</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Germanic law</a>, and not to <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholarly works by reputable authors, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd</a>'s 1911 <i>A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i>, contain numerous citations of Geoffrey's fabrications of history, never citing him as a source of legitimate historical information.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent works of history tend to spend less energy on Geoffrey's <i>Historia</i>, merely ignoring him in passing. In <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">Davies</a>'s 1990 <i>A History of Wales</i>, the first paragraph of page 1 discusses Geoffrey's prominence, after which he is occasionally mentioned as the source of historical inaccuracies and not as a source of legitimate historical information.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier works might devote a few paragraphs detailing the proof that Geoffrey was the inventor of fictitious information, such as in James Parker's <i>The Early History of Oxford</i>, where persons such as Eldad, Eldod, Abbot Ambrius, and others are noted to be the result of Geoffrey's own imagination.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bromwich 2006, pp. 256–257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNennius800" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a> (800), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kq8KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50">"Genealogies of the Saxon kings of Northumbria"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stevenson" title="Joseph Stevenson">Stevenson, Joseph</a> (ed.), <i>Nennii Historia Britonum</i>, London: English Historical Society (published 1838), p. 50</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genealogies+of+the+Saxon+kings+of+Northumbria&rft.btitle=Nennii+Historia+Britonum&rft.place=London&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=English+Historical+Society&rft.date=800&rft.au=Nennius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKq8KAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson1912" class="citation cs2">Nicholson, E. W. B. (1912), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=80CwEwwb6d0C&pg=PA145">"The 'Annales Cambriae' and their so-called 'Exordium'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>, in Meyer, Kuno (ed.), <i>Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie</i>, vol. VIII, Halle: Max Niemeyer, p. 145</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%27Annales+Cambriae%27+and+their+so-called+%27Exordium%27&rft.btitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Celtische+Philologie&rft.place=Halle&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=E.+W.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D80CwEwwb6d0C%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch516-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch516_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch516_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch516_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 516.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch517-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch517_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch517_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 517.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Dictionary of English Folklore</i>, Jacqueline Simpson, Stephen Roud, Oxford University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-210019-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-210019-X">0-19-210019-X</a>, 9780192100191, <i>Shepeherd's score</i>, pp. 271</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret L. Faull, Local Historian 15:1 (1982), 21–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911">Lloyd 1911</a>, pp. 191–192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NYwNAAAAIAAJ"><i>A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i></a>. Longmans, Green. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NYwNAAAAIAAJ/page/n213">191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_NYwNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1888" class="citation cs2">Phillimore, Egerton (1888), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA368">"Review of "A History of Ancient Tenures of Land in the Marches of North Wales"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>, vol. IX, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 368–371</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Review+of+%22A+History+of+Ancient+Tenures+of+Land+in+the+Marches+of+North+Wales%22&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.place=London&rft.pages=368-371&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Egerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaFMrAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1891" class="citation cs2">Phillimore, Egerton (1891), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M35QO0vor-EC&pg=PA97">"Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany"</a>, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>, vol. XI, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (published 1892), pp. 97–101</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Note+%28a%29+to+The+Settlement+of+Brittany&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.place=London&rft.pages=97-101&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Egerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM35QO0vor-EC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwyl1907–1908" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Anwyl" title="Edward Anwyl">Anwyl, Edward</a> (July 1907 – April 1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticreview04edinuoft/page/124">"Wales and the Britons of the North"</a>, <i>The Celtic Review</i>, vol. IV, Edinburgh: Norman Macleod (published 1908), pp. 125–152, 249–273</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wales+and+the+Britons+of+the+North&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Review&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=125-152%2C+249-273&rft.pub=Norman+Macleod&rft.date=1907-07%2F1908-04&rft.aulast=Anwyl&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcelticreview04edinuoft%2Fpage%2F124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwyl1904" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Anwyl" title="Edward Anwyl">Anwyl, Edward</a> (1904), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1VoJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA64">"Prolegomena to the Study of Old Welsh Poetry"</a>, <i>Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (Session 1903–1904)</i>, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (published 1905), pp. 59–83</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prolegomena+to+the+Study+of+Old+Welsh+Poetry&rft.btitle=Transactions+of+the+Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion+%28Session+1903%E2%80%931904%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=59-83&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Anwyl&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1VoJAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911">Lloyd 1911</a>:122–123, Notes on the Historical Triads, in <i>The History of Wales</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rachel Bromwich (ed.), <i>Trioedd Ynys Prydein</i> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>, revised edition 1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-0690-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-0690-X">0-7083-0690-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a recent view of Bede's treatment of Britons in his work, see W. Trent Foley and N.J. Higham, "Bede on the Britons." <i>Early Medieval Europe</i> 17.2 (2009): pp. 154–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen1978" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Gillian Fellows (1978). "Place-Names and Settlement in the North Riding of Yorkshire". <i><a href="/wiki/Northern_History" title="Northern History">Northern History</a></i>. <b>14</b> (1): 22–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fnhi.1978.14.1.19">10.1179/nhi.1978.14.1.19</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northern+History&rft.atitle=Place-Names+and+Settlement+in+the+North+Riding+of+Yorkshire&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-23&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Fnhi.1978.14.1.19&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Gillian+Fellows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911">Lloyd 1911</a>, <i>A History of Wales</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1990">Davies 1990</a>:1, <i>A History of Wales</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1885" class="citation cs2">Parker, James (1885), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OwYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA291">"Description of Oxford in Domesday Survey"</a>, <i>The Early History of Oxford 727–1100</i>, Oxford: Oxford Historical Society, p. 291</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Description+of+Oxford+in+Domesday+Survey&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Oxford+727%E2%80%931100&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Oxford+Historical+Society&rft.date=1885&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOwYtAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 1819.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 670–671.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochgododdin-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochgododdin_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochgododdin_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 823–826.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 1498–1499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 354–355; 904.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bromwich 1978, pp. 12–13; 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris-Jones, pp. 75–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams 1968, p. xlvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 1499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bromwich 2006, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_2006,_pp._623–625_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 623–625.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson 1969, pp. 77–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams1972-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams1972_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams 1972, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chadwick, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dumville-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dumville_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dumville, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys1904" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Rhys" class="mw-redirect" title="John Rhys">Rhys, John</a> (1904), "The Picts and Scots", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DGsNAAAAIAAJ"><i>Celtic Britain</i></a> (3rd ed.), London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, p. 155</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Picts+and+Scots&rft.btitle=Celtic+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pages=155&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Rhys&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDGsNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhys-Folklore-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhys-Folklore_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys1901" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Rhys" class="mw-redirect" title="John Rhys">Rhys, John</a> (1901), "Place-Name Stories", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2mNWyM2m-zMC"><i>Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx</i></a>, vol. II, Oxford: Oxford University, p. 550</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Place-Name+Stories&rft.btitle=Celtic+Folklore%3A+Welsh+and+Manx&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Rhys&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2mNWyM2m-zMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhys-Britain-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rhys-Britain_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhys1904">Rhys 1904</a>:155, <i>Celtic Britain</i>, The Picts and the Scots.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 824–825.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 1997, pp. lxxxii–lxxxiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, p. 904.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 302–304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch 2006, pp. 584–585.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBromwichFosterJones1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Bromwich" title="Rachel Bromwich">Bromwich, Rachel</a>; Foster, Idris Llewelyn; Jones, R. Brinley (1978), <i>Astudiaethau ar yr Hengerdd: Studies in Old Welsh Poetry</i>, University of Wales Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-0696-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-0696-9"><bdi>0-7083-0696-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astudiaethau+ar+yr+Hengerdd%3A+Studies+in+Old+Welsh+Poetry&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-7083-0696-9&rft.aulast=Bromwich&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.au=Foster%2C+Idris+Llewelyn&rft.au=Jones%2C+R.+Brinley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBromwich2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Bromwich" title="Rachel Bromwich">Bromwich, Rachel</a> (2006), <i>Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain</i>, University of Wales Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-1386-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-1386-8"><bdi>0-7083-1386-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trioedd+Ynys+Prydein%3A+The+Triads+of+the+Island+of+Britain&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7083-1386-8&rft.aulast=Bromwich&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nora_Kershaw_Chadwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Nora Kershaw Chadwick">Chadwick, Nora K.</a> (1968), <i>The British Heroic Age: the Welsh and the Men of the North</i>, University of Wales Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-0465-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-0465-6"><bdi>0-7083-0465-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Heroic+Age%3A+the+Welsh+and+the+Men+of+the+North&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-7083-0465-6&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Nora+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">Davies, John</a> (1990), <i>A History of Wales</i> (First ed.), London: Penguin Group (published 1993), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7139-9098-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7139-9098-8"><bdi>0-7139-9098-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales&rft.place=London&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7139-9098-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumville1995" class="citation cs2">Dumville, David (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120515205211/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_124/124_293_298.pdf">"The eastern terminus of the Antonine wall: 12th- or 13th-century evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland">Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</a></i>, <b>124</b>: 293–298, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9750%2FPSAS.124.293.298">10.9750/PSAS.124.293.298</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159974303">159974303</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_124/124_293_298.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Society+of+Antiquaries+of+Scotland&rft.atitle=The+eastern+terminus+of+the+Antonine+wall%3A+12th-+or+13th-century+evidence&rft.volume=124&rft.pages=293-298&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9750%2FPSAS.124.293.298&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159974303%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dumville&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fads.ahds.ac.uk%2Fcatalogue%2Fadsdata%2Farch-352-1%2Fdissemination%2Fpdf%2Fvol_124%2F124_293_298.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1953" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone</a> (1953), <i>Language and History in Early Britain: A chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, first to twelfth century A.D.</i>, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+History+in+Early+Britain%3A+A+chronological+survey+of+the+Brittonic+languages%2C+first+to+twelfth+century+A.D.&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Hurlstone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1969" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Jackson, Kenneth H.</a> (1969), <i>The Gododdin: The Oldest Scottish Poem</i>, Edinburgh University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gododdin%3A+The+Oldest+Scottish+Poem&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch1997" class="citation cs2">Koch, John T. (1997), <i>The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-Age North Britain</i>, University of Wales Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-1374-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-1374-4"><bdi>0-7083-1374-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gododdin+of+Aneirin%3A+Text+and+Context+from+Dark-Age+North+Britain&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7083-1374-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation cs2">Koch, John T. (2006), <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>, ABC-CLIO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1911" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1911), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ"><i>A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i></a>, vol. I (Second ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co. (published 1912)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYwNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris-Jones1918" class="citation cs2">Morris-Jones, John (1918), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ycymmrodor28cymmuoft">"Taliesin"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Cymmrodor" title="Y Cymmrodor">Y Cymmrodor</a></i>, <b>28</b>, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.atitle=Taliesin&rft.volume=28&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Morris-Jones&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fycymmrodor28cymmuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ifor_Williams" title="Ifor Williams">Williams, Ifor</a> (1968), <i>The Poems of Taliesin: Volume 3 of Mediaeval and Modern Welsh Series</i>, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poems+of+Taliesin%3A+Volume+3+of+Mediaeval+and+Modern+Welsh+Series&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Ifor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ifor_Williams" title="Ifor Williams">Williams, Ifor</a> (1972), <i>The Beginnings of Welsh Poetry: Studies</i>, University of Wales Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7083-0035-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7083-0035-9"><bdi>0-7083-0035-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Welsh+Poetry%3A+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-7083-0035-9&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Ifor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHen+Ogledd" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Alcock, Leslie. <i>Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain, AD 550–850</i>. Edinburgh, 2003.</li> <li>Alcock, Leslie. "Gwyr y Gogledd. An archaeological appraisal." <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeologia_Cambrensis" title="Archaeologia Cambrensis">Archaeologia Cambrensis</a></i> 132 (1984 for 1983). pp. 1–18.</li> <li>Cessford, Craig. "Northern England and the Gododdin poem." <i>Northern History</i> 33 (1997). pp. 218–22.</li> <li>Clarkson, Tim. <i>The Men of the North: the Britons of Southern Scotland.</i> Edinburgh: John Donald, Birlinn Ltd, 2010.</li> <li>Clarkson, Tim. <i>Strathclyde and the Anglo-Saxons in the Viking Age.</i> Edinburgh: John Donald, Birlinn Ltd, 2014.</li> <li>Dark, Kenneth R. <i>Civitas to Kingdom. British political continuity, 300–800.</i> London: Leicester UP, 1994.</li> <li>Dumville, David N. "Early Welsh Poetry: Problems of Historicity." In <i>Early Welsh Poetry: Studies in the Book of Aneirin</i>, ed. Brynley F. Roberts. Aberystwyth, 1988. 1–16.</li> <li>Dumville, David N. "The origins of Northumbria: Some aspects of the British background." In <i>The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms</i>, ed. S. Bassett. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1989. pp. 213–22.</li> <li>Higham, N.J. "Britons in Northern England: Through a Thick Glass Darkly." <i>Northern History</i> 38 (2001). pp. 5–25.</li> <li>Macquarrie, A. "The Kings of Strathclyde, c.400–1018." In <i>Medieval Scotland: Government, Lordship and Community</i>, ed. A. Grant and K.J. Stringer. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1993. pp. 1–19.</li> <li>Miller, Molly. "Historicity and the pedigrees of north countrymen." <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Board_of_Celtic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies">Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies</a></i> 26 (1975). pp. 255–80.</li> <li>Woolf, Alex. "Cædualla Rex Brettonum and the Passing of the Old North." <i>Northern History</i> 41.1 (2004): 1–20.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hen_Ogledd&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Matthews, Keith J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heroicage.org/issues/4/Matthews.html">"What's in a name? Britons, Angles, ethnicity and material culture from the fourth to seventh centuries."</a> <i>Heroic Age</i> 4 (Winter 2001).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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colspan="2" style="background:#c1e6c1;;background:#90db90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hen_Ogledd" title="Template:Hen Ogledd"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hen_Ogledd" title="Template talk:Hen Ogledd"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hen_Ogledd" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hen Ogledd"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hen_Ogledd" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hen Ogledd</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#c1e6c1;;width:1%">Major kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Alt Clut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernicia#British_Bryneich" title="Bernicia">Bryneich</a> (possible)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deifr" class="mw-redirect" title="Deifr">Deifr</a> (possible)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_York#Post-Roman_Ebrauc" title="History of York">Ebrauc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gododdin" title="Gododdin">Gododdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheged" title="Rheged">Rheged</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#c1e6c1;;width:1%">Minor kingdoms and subregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeron_(kingdom)" title="Aeron (kingdom)">Aeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calchfynydd" title="Calchfynydd">Calchfynydd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynod_Bwr" title="Dynod Bwr">Dunutinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidyn" title="Eidyn">Eidyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manaw_Gododdin" title="Manaw Gododdin">Manaw Gododdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novant" class="mw-redirect" title="Novant">Novant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#c1e6c1;;width:1%">Other places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthuret" title="Arthuret">Arfderydd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlisle" title="Carlisle">Carlisle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catterick,_North_Yorkshire" title="Catterick, North Yorkshire">Catraeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonian_Forest" title="Caledonian Forest">Coed Celyddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Rock">Dumbarton Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Ynys Metcaud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#c1e6c1;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneirin" title="Aneirin">Aneirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clydno_Eiddin" class="mw-redirect" title="Clydno Eiddin">Clydno Eiddin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coel_Hen" title="Coel Hen">Coel Hen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Mungo" title="Saint Mungo">Saint Kentigern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elffin_ap_Gwyddno" title="Elffin ap Gwyddno">Elffin ap Gwyddno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwallog_ap_Llaennog" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwallog ap Llaennog">Gwallog ap Llaennog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwenddolau" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwenddolau">Gwenddolau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llywarch_Hen" title="Llywarch Hen">Llywarch Hen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morcant_Bulc" title="Morcant Bulc">Morcant Bulc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrddin_Wyllt" title="Myrddin Wyllt">Myrddin Wyllt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owain_mab_Urien" title="Owain mab Urien">Owain mab Urien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pabo_Post_Prydain" title="Pabo Post Prydain">Pabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhydderch_Hael" title="Rhydderch Hael">Rhydderch Hael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talhaearn_Tad_Awen" title="Talhaearn Tad Awen">Talhaearn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliesin" title="Taliesin">Taliesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urien" title="Urien">Urien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peredur" title="Peredur">Gwrgi and Peredur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Barbarian_kingdoms_established_around_the_Migration_Period" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Template:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Template talk:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Barbarian_kingdoms_established_around_the_Migration_Period" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> established around the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alamannia" title="Alamannia">Alamannian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Burgundians" title="Kingdom of the Burgundians">Burgundian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepid kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Kingdom of Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Mauro-Roman kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugiland" title="Rugiland">Rugian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Suebian 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