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and palatalization)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_shift_(stem-final_iotation_and_palatalization)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History,_exceptions_and_umlaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History,_exceptions_and_umlaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>History, exceptions and umlaut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History,_exceptions_and_umlaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dorsal_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dorsal_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Dorsal consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dorsal_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indeclinable_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Indefinite declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indefinite_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definite_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definite_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Definite declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definite_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Declensions in the Latvian language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numerals</a> are <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a> in six <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensions</a>. There are seven <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> (nominatīvs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> (ģenitīvs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> (datīvs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> (akuzatīvs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> (instrumentālis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a> (lokatīvs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a> (vokatīvs)</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Latvian has two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a>, masculine and feminine. </p><p>Latvian nouns can be classified as either declinable or <a href="/wiki/Uninflected_word" title="Uninflected word">indeclinable</a>. Most Latvian nouns are declinable, and regular nouns belong to one of six declension classes (three for masculine nouns, and three for feminine nouns). </p><p>Latvian nouns have seven <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical cases">grammatical cases</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>. The instrumental case is always identical to the accusative in the singular, and to the dative in the plural. It is used as a free-standing case (i.e., in the absence of a <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a>) only in highly restricted contexts in modern Latvian. (See below for a true prepositional case, the <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masculine_declensions">Masculine declensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Masculine declensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three masculine declensions have the following identifying characteristics: </p> <ul><li>1st declension: nom. sing. in <i>-s</i> or <i>-š</i>, thematic vowel <i>-a-</i> (e.g. <i>vīrs</i> < *<i>wī́ˀras</i>, "man, husband")</li> <li>2nd declension: nom. sing. in <i>-is</i> (or <i>-ns/-ss</i>, see below), thematic vowel <i>-i-</i> (e.g. <i>skapis</i> "wardrobe")</li> <li>3rd declension: nom. sing. in <i>-us</i>, thematic vowel <i>-u-</i> (e.g. <i>tirgus</i> "market, bazaar")</li></ul> <p>The full paradigms of endings for the three declensions is given in the following table: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">1st decl. </th> <th colspan="2">2nd decl. </th> <th colspan="2">3rd decl. </th></tr> <tr> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur.</th> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur.</th> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur. </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>s</b></td> <td>vīr<b>i</b></td> <td>skap<b>is</b></td> <td>skap<b>ji</b></td> <td>tirg<b>us</b></td> <td>tirg<b>i</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>a</b></td> <td>vīr<b>u</b></td> <td>skap<b>ja</b></td> <td>skap<b>ju</b></td> <td>tirg<b>us</b></td> <td>tirg<b>u</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>am</b></td> <td>vīr<b>iem</b></td> <td>skap<b>im</b></td> <td>skap<b>jiem</b></td> <td>tirg<b>um</b></td> <td>tirg<b>iem</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>u</b></td> <td>vīr<b>us</b></td> <td>skap<b>i</b></td> <td>skap<b>jus</b></td> <td>tirg<b>u</b></td> <td>tirg<b>us</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Ins.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>u</b></td> <td>vīr<b>iem</b></td> <td>skap<b>i</b></td> <td>skap<b>jiem</b></td> <td>tirg<b>u</b></td> <td>tirg<b>iem</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b> </td> <td>vīr<b>ā</b></td> <td>vīr<b>os</b></td> <td>skap<b>ī</b></td> <td>skap<b>jos</b></td> <td>tirg<b>ū</b></td> <td>tirg<b>os</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.</b> </td> <td>vīr</td> <td>vīr<b>i</b></td> <td>skap<b>i</b></td> <td>skap<b>ji</b></td> <td>tirg<b>u</b></td> <td>tirg<b>i</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The 2nd declension exhibits <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a> of the final stem consonant in the genitive singular and throughout the plural (<i>p</i> → <i>pj</i> in the example above, but see below for full details). Exceptions to this include compound nouns and proper names ending in <i>-dis</i> or <i>-tis</i> (e.g. <i>Atis</i>, gen. sing. <i>Ata</i>). </p><p>A small subclass of 2nd declension nouns have identical nominative and genitive singular (most of them ending in <i>-ens</i>). These are part of the so-called consonant stem nouns: e.g. <i>akmens</i> "stone", <i>asmens</i> "blade", <i>mēness</i> "moon", <i>rudens</i> "autumn", <i>sāls</i> "salt", <i>ūdens</i> "water", and <i>zibens</i> "lightning". The 2nd declension noun <i>suns</i> "dog" has the regular genitive singular <i>suņa</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminine_declensions">Feminine declensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Feminine declensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three feminine declensions can be characterized as follows: </p> <ul><li>4th declension: nom. sing. in <i>-a</i>, thematic vowel <i>-a-</i> (e.g. <i>sieva</i> "woman, wife")</li> <li>5th declension: nom. sing. in <i>-e</i>, thematic vowel <i>-e-</i> (e.g. <i>upe</i> "river")</li> <li>6th declension: nom. sing. in <i>-s</i>, thematic vowel <i>-i-</i> (e.g. <i>nakts</i> < <i>*náktis</i> "night")</li></ul> <p>The full paradigms of endings for the three declensions is given in the following </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">4th decl. </th> <th colspan="2">5th decl. </th> <th colspan="2">6th decl. </th></tr> <tr> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur.</th> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur.</th> <th>Sing.</th> <th>Plur. </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>a</b></td> <td>siev<b>as</b></td> <td>up<b>e</b></td> <td>up<b>es</b></td> <td>nakt<b>s</b></td> <td>nakt<b>is</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>as</b></td> <td>siev<b>u</b></td> <td>up<b>es</b></td> <td>up<b>ju</b></td> <td>nakt<b>s</b></td> <td>nak<b>šu</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>ai</b></td> <td>siev<b>ām</b></td> <td>up<b>ei</b></td> <td>up<b>ēm</b></td> <td>nakt<b>ij</b></td> <td>nakt<b>īm</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>u</b></td> <td>siev<b>as</b></td> <td>up<b>i</b></td> <td>up<b>es</b></td> <td>nakt<b>i</b></td> <td>nakt<b>is</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Ins.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>u</b></td> <td>siev<b>ām</b></td> <td>up<b>i</b></td> <td>up<b>ēm</b></td> <td>nakt<b>i</b></td> <td>nakt<b>īm</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>ā</b></td> <td>siev<b>ās</b></td> <td>up<b>ē</b></td> <td>up<b>ēs</b></td> <td>nakt<b>ī</b></td> <td>nakt<b>īs</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.</b> </td> <td>siev<b>a</b></td> <td>siev<b>as</b></td> <td>up<b>e</b></td> <td>up<b>es</b></td> <td>nakt<b>s</b></td> <td>nakt<b>is</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The final stem consonant is palatalized in the genitive plural of 5th and 6th declension nouns (in the examples above, <i>p</i> → <i>pj</i> and <i>t</i> → <i>š</i>, but see the next section for full details). Exceptions to this include loanwords such as <i>epizode</i> (gen. pl. <i>epizodu</i>) in the 5th declension and a handful of words in the 6th declension: <i>acs</i> "eye", <i>auss</i> "ear", <i>balss</i> "voice", <i>zoss</i> "goose". </p><p>The 4th and 5th declensions include a number of masculine nouns (e.g. <i>puika</i> "boy", or proper names such as <i>Dilba</i>, <i>Zvaigzne</i>), or common gender nouns that are either masculine or feminine depending on their use in context (e.g. <i>paziņa</i> "acquaintance", <i>bende</i> "executioner"). Some surnames (e.g. <i>Klints</i>) belong to the 6th declension for both masculine and feminine.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these cases, the masculine nouns take the same endings as given in the table above, except in the dative singular: </p> <ul><li>4th decl.: <i>-am</i> (e.g. dat. sing. <i>puikam</i> "boy")</li> <li>5th decl.: <i>-em</i> (e.g. dat. sing. <i>bendem</i> "male executioner", cf. <i>bendei</i> "female executioner")</li> <li>6th decl.: <i>-im</i> (e.g. dat. sing. <i>Klintim</i> for male surname, cf. <i>Klintij</i> for female surname)</li></ul> <p>The 6th declension noun <i>ļaudis</i> "people" is masculine. It has no singular forms, only regular plural forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonant_shift_(stem-final_iotation_and_palatalization)"><span id="Consonant_shift_.28stem-final_iotation_and_palatalization.29"></span>Consonant shift (stem-final iotation and palatalization)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Consonant shift (stem-final iotation and palatalization)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the case endings given in the declension tables above begin with an underlying <a href="/wiki/Palatal_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal approximant">palatal approximant</a> - <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. This is true of the 2nd declension genitive singular (ending <i>-ja</i>), all forms of the 2nd declension plural, and the genitive plural of the 5th and 6th declensions (ending <i>-ju</i>). </p><p>In Latvian literature this process is collectively referred to as <i>līdzskaņu mija</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Romane_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romane-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e., <b>consonant shift</b>. <i>Jotēšana</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> <i>Jotisierung</i>), i.e., <b><a href="/wiki/Iotation" title="Iotation">iotation</a></b> can be further distinguished as a subcategory.<sup id="cite_ref-Rasma_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rasma-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In English Academia the term "iotation" is often used to refer to properties of <a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">Eastern Slavic</a> vowels wherein they acquire an underlying <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> which palatalizes the preceding consonants regardless of their position within a word which is similar to the phenomenon of assimilative palatalization of consonants in <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>. Latvian however does not have assimilative palatalization of consonants<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term "iotation" is used strictly in the sense of stem-final <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial consonants</a> being "affixed with an <a href="/wiki/Iota" title="Iota">iota</a>" (i.e., the letter ⟨J⟩) in 2nd, 5th and 6th declension nouns. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>change</th> <th>nom. sing. (not iotated)</th> <th>gen. plur. (iotated)</th> <th>translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>p → pj</td> <td><i>upe</i></td> <td><i>upju</i></td> <td>"river" </td></tr> <tr> <td>b → bj</td> <td><i>gulbis</i></td> <td><i>gulbju</i></td> <td>"swan" </td></tr> <tr> <td>m → mj</td> <td><i>zeme</i></td> <td><i>zemju</i></td> <td>"land" </td></tr> <tr> <td>v → vj</td> <td><i>dzērve</i></td> <td><i>dzērvju</i></td> <td>"crane" </td></tr> <tr> <td>f → fj</td> <td><i>žirafe</i></td> <td><i>žirafju</i></td> <td>"giraffe" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Besides labial consonants (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>b,<span class="wrap"> </span>m,<span class="wrap"> </span>v,<span class="wrap"> </span>f/</span>) that are iotated, <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronal consonants">coronal consonants</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>s,<span class="wrap"> </span>z,<span class="wrap"> </span>l/</span>, see below on <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Affricates" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricates">affricates</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts,<span class="wrap"> </span>dz/</span>) and their clusters can be said to undergo <b><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a></b>. Thus, for example, plain Latvian ⟨L⟩ (similar to the standard value of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> or if not proceeded by a front vowel - <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Brazilian Portuguese</a>, sometimes distinguished as "<a href="/wiki/Dark_L" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark L">dark L</a>" - <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɫ/</span>) is palatalized to ⟨Ļ⟩, a <a href="/wiki/Palatal_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal lateral approximant">palatal lateral approximant</a> - <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʎ/</span>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>change</th> <th>nom. sing. (unpalatalized)</th> <th>gen. plur. (palatalized)</th> <th>translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>c → č</td> <td><i>lācis</i></td> <td><i>lāču</i></td> <td>"bear" </td></tr> <tr> <td>d → ž</td> <td><i>briedis</i></td> <td><i>briežu</i></td> <td>"deer" </td></tr> <tr> <td>l → ļ</td> <td><i>brālis</i></td> <td><i>brāļu</i></td> <td>"brother" </td></tr> <tr> <td>n → ņ</td> <td><i>dvīnis</i></td> <td><i>dvīņu</i></td> <td>"twin" </td></tr> <tr> <td>s → š</td> <td><i>lasis</i></td> <td><i>lašu</i></td> <td>"salmon" </td></tr> <tr> <td>t → š</td> <td><i>nakts</i></td> <td><i>nakšu</i></td> <td>"night" </td></tr> <tr> <td>z → ž</td> <td><i>vāze</i></td> <td><i>vāžu</i></td> <td>"vase" </td></tr> <tr> <td>sn → šņ</td> <td><i>krāsns</i></td> <td><i>krāšņu</i></td> <td>"stove" </td></tr> <tr> <td>zn → žņ</td> <td><i>zvaigzne</i></td> <td><i>zvaigžņu</i></td> <td>"star" </td></tr> <tr> <td>sl → šļ</td> <td><i>kāpslis</i></td> <td><i>kāpšļu</i></td> <td>"stirrup" </td></tr> <tr> <td>zl → žļ</td> <td><i>zizlis</i></td> <td><i>zižļu</i></td> <td>"baton" </td></tr> <tr> <td>ln → ļņ</td> <td><i>vilnis</i></td> <td><i>viļņu</i></td> <td>"wave" </td></tr> <tr> <td>ll → ļļ</td> <td><i>lelle</i></td> <td><i>leļļu</i></td> <td>"doll" </td></tr> <tr> <td>nn → ņņ</td> <td><i>pinne</i></td> <td><i>piņņu</i></td> <td>"acne" </td></tr> <tr> <td>st → š</td> <td><i>rīkste</i></td> <td><i>rīkšu</i></td> <td>"rod" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History,_exceptions_and_umlaut"><span id="History.2C_exceptions_and_umlaut"></span>History, exceptions and umlaut</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History, exceptions and umlaut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">Soviet occupation of Latvia</a> minor reforms were made to Latvian orthography, namely the use of long ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C5%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="Ō">ō</a>⟩, the <a href="/wiki/Ch_(digraph)" title="Ch (digraph)">⟨ch⟩ digraph</a> and the use of "softened" ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C5%96" class="mw-redirect" title="Ŗ">ŗ</a>⟩ were abolished. The use of ⟨ō⟩, ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ŗ⟩ is often collectively referred to as “<a href="/wiki/J%C4%81nis_Endzel%C4%ABns" title="Jānis Endzelīns">Endzelīns’</a> orthography.” The abolition of <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacriticized</a> ⟨ŗ⟩ effectively makes the <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trill</a> sound (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>) the only coronal consonant that does not undergo stem-final consonant shift. </p><p>For example, the gen.pl. of <i>cepure</i> "hat" is <i>cepuru</i> (but may be pronounced <i>cepuŗu</i>). It is, however, still used among people of Latvian origin and books outside of Latvia. </p><p>Proponents of ⟨ŗ⟩ point out that it aids in distinguishing a number of <a href="/wiki/Heterography_and_homography" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterography and homography">homographic heterophones</a> and helps distinguishing the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">open ⟨e⟩</a>" (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span>) and "<a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">close ‹e›</a>" (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span>) and prevents the appearance of their alternations in nominal paradigm (referred to as <a href="/wiki/Umlaut_(linguistics)" title="Umlaut (linguistics)">umlaut</a> (<i>pārskaņa</i>), <a href="/wiki/Metaphony" title="Metaphony">metaphony</a> (<i>metafonija</i>) and other names such as <i>regresīvā vokāļu harmonizācija</i>, etc.) </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Nominative</th> <th>Old orthography</th> <th>New orthography</th> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> or <a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span></a> (IPA)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Latvian_phonology#Pitch_accent" title="Latvian phonology">Tone</a> (Latvian notation: /~/ - level, /^/ - broken)</th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>mēris</i> </td> <td><i>mēŗa</i> </td> <td rowspan="4"><i>mēra</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/meːra/</span> </td> <td rowspan="4">mẽra </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Gen.Sing.</span> plague </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mērs</i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><i>mēra</i> </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Gen.Sing.</span> mayor </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mērs</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mæːra/</span> </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Gen.Sing.</span> measure </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mērīt</i> </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">3rd Pers.Ind.</span> - he measures </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bērt</i> </td> <td><i>bēru</i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><i>bēru</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/beːru/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2">bêru </td> <td>I poured (sand, grain, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bēres</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><i>bēŗu</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bæːru/</span> </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Gen.Pl.</span> funeral </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bēris</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/beːru/</span> </td> <td>bẽru </td> <td><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Gen.Pl.</span> <a href="/wiki/Bay_(horse)" title="Bay (horse)">a bay horse</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The use of ⟨ŗ⟩ has it that gen.sing. "plague" <i>mēŗa</i> would be distinguishable from gen.sing. "measure" <i>mēra</i> and <i>bēŗu</i> would not show umlaut being pronounced with a close <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> like the rest of its paradigm. Further, besides the 5th declension <a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">plurale tantum</a> noun <i>bēres</i> ("funeral") another word that would have stem final consonant shift can be introduced - 2nd declension <i>bēris</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Bay_(horse)" title="Bay (horse)">a bay horse</a>") both their gen.pl. will be bēŗu if ⟨ŗ⟩ is used. One could argue that the appearance of umlaut in gen.pl. "funeral" now allows to distinguish it from gen.pl. "bay horse" (assuming the latter is not subjected to umlaut), however, the more common occurrence of the words "I poured (a granular substance)" and "of funeral" becoming perfect homophones is likely to be seen as a net-loss by proponents of ‹ŗ›. </p><p>In Latvian literature it is usually assumed that open <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> is the underlying value of <i>e</i> which became the more close <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> when followed by a palatal element - either a front vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i,<span class="wrap"> </span>e,<span class="wrap"> </span>iɛ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ei/</span> (cf. German <i>Gast : Gäste</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/gast<span class="wrap"> </span>:<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡɛstə/</span>) or the <a href="/wiki/Palatal_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal approximant">palatal approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (the "shifted" values can always be analyzed as sums of some consonant and <i>*j</i> in historical terms: <i>š</i> < <i>*tj</i>, <i>ž</i> < <i>*dj</i>, etc.) </p><p>In fact, consonant shift can be viewed as a means of blocking umlaut alternations in nominal paradigm, e.g., the 5th declension in <i>-e</i> has front vocalic endings (<i>-e</i>, <i>-es</i>, <i>-ei</i>, <i>-ēm</i>, etc.) in all cases except pl.gen. which has the back vowel <i>-u</i> and pl.gen. happens to be the only case where consonant shift takes place for this declension (the 2nd declension in <i>-is</i> is not as immediately obvious because the modern pl.nom. ending <i>-i</i> is a front vowel which should not require consonant shift to block possible umlaut, however, it likely originates from an earlier back vocalic ending <i>*-ai</i> explaining the consonant shift.) </p><p>Some suggest<sup id="cite_ref-Rasma_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rasma-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the abolition of Endzelīns' orthography in 1946 and 1957 was motivated by the fact that after the occupation Soviet authorities were promoting Russian-born Latvians for positions in the new administration, who, in turn, were not familiar with the developments that had taken place during the decades of independence. </p><p>During the Soviet rule one could observe what might seem motivation to simplify consonant shift further. Thus, for example, in a 1971 book by Aldonis Vēriņš <i>Puķkopība</i> ("Horticulture") the pl. gen. of <i>narcise</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Daffodil" class="mw-redirect" title="Daffodil">daffodil</a>") is consistently spelled <i>narcisu</i> instead of <i>narcišu</i>. </p><p>A 2000 handbook on Latvian orthography lists the following words as exceptions to consonant shift due to reasons of <a href="/wiki/Euphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphony">euphony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Romane_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romane-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>nom.sing./nom.pl.</th> <th>gen.sing./gen.pl.</th> <th>translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>Guntis</td> <td>Gunta</td> <td>Guntis (name) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atis</td> <td>Ata</td> <td>Atis (name) </td></tr> <tr> <td>viesis</td> <td>viesu</td> <td>guest </td></tr> <tr> <td>gaišmatis</td> <td>gaišmatu</td> <td>a light-haired person </td></tr> <tr> <td>tālskatis</td> <td>tālskatu</td> <td>telescope </td></tr> <tr> <td>pase</td> <td>pasu</td> <td>passport </td></tr> <tr> <td>gāze</td> <td>gāzu</td> <td>gas </td></tr> <tr> <td>mute</td> <td>mutu</td> <td>mouth </td></tr> <tr> <td>kaste</td> <td>kastu</td> <td>box, carton </td></tr> <tr> <td>torte</td> <td>tortu</td> <td>cake </td></tr> <tr> <td>azote</td> <td>azotu</td> <td>bosom </td></tr> <tr> <td>acs</td> <td>acu</td> <td>eye </td></tr> <tr> <td>auss</td> <td>ausu</td> <td>ear </td></tr> <tr> <td>balss</td> <td>balsu</td> <td>voice </td></tr> <tr> <td>dzelzs</td> <td>dzelzu</td> <td>iron </td></tr> <tr> <td>valsts</td> <td>valstu</td> <td>country, state </td></tr> <tr> <td>zoss</td> <td>zosu</td> <td>goose </td></tr> <tr> <td>debesis</td> <td>debesu</td> <td>sky </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This list is far from exhaustive. 2nd declension two-syllable male names with stems ending in ‹d,t› never undergo consonant shift (Uldis, Artis, Gatis, and so forth.) Besides body parts (<i>acs</i>, <i>auss</i>) there is a number of other words that historically do not undergo consonant shift, e.g., the name of the town of <a href="/wiki/C%C4%93sis" title="Cēsis">Cēsis</a>. Words with stem-final <i>-st</i> are not subject to consonant shift this includes all feminine forms of <i>-ist</i> nouns (e.g., <i>feministe</i> and so forth.) Further in a number of words consonant shift has been dropped to avoid <a href="/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">homophony</a>, thus gen.pl. of "passport" <i>pase</i> would be homophonous with "of (our-, your-, their-) selves" <i>pašu</i>, the same goes for <i>gāze</i> "gas" which would be homophonous with 1st pers. indicative of the verb <i>gāzt</i> "to topple." Perhaps only a small number could be genuinely attributed to <a href="/wiki/Euphony" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphony">euphony</a>, e.g., <i>gaišmaša</i> due to two concomitant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palato-alveolar_sibilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant">ʃ</a>/</span> sounds occurring within a three-syllable word which some might find "unpleasantly sounding." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dorsal_consonants">Dorsal consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dorsal consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As has been noted stem-final labial consonants undergo iotation, whereas stem-final unpalatalized coronal consonants and affricates undergo case-specific palatalization and unlike Lithuanian, Latvian does not exhibit assimilative palatalization. However, the last large group of consonants, the <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">dorsal consonants</a> are an exception to both of these rules. Latvian has 3 unpalatalized dorsal consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, the voiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span>, the latter occurring only in loanwords, represented respectively by the letters ⟨K⟩, ⟨G⟩ and ⟨H⟩, as well as palatalized versions of the natively occurring ones <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">/c/</a></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">/ɟ/</a></span> represented by the letters ⟨Ķ⟩ and ⟨Ģ⟩ respectively. </p><p>Similar to the "<a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C" title="Hard and soft C">hard and soft C</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G" title="Hard and soft G">hard and soft G</a>" distinction in many (mostly Western) European languages Latvian seeks to palatalize <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/g/</span> when they are proceeded by front vowels (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>) to either: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dz/</span> (for native words) or</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɟ/</span> (historically, for assimilating foreign words.)</li></ul> <p>Unlike most Western European languages where the reader is expected to predict the "softness" or "hardness" of the ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ based on whether they are proceeded by a front vowel and the orthography doesn't change (e.g., <i>cocoa</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkəʊ.kəʊ/</span> and <i>Cecilia</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/seˈsilja/</span> both being written with ⟨c⟩), the highly phonetic orthography of Latvian requires any such changes to be shown in writing. </p><p>As with assimilative palatalization <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> before a <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front vowel</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>) take on their palatalized values regardless of their position in a word, furthermore, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span> has been used historically to assimilate pre-front vowel <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/x/</span></a> (found in Russian) and <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ç/</span></a> (found in German.) For example: </p> <ul><li><i>Ķīna</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈciːna/</span> from German - <i>China</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈçiːnaː/</span></li> <li><i>(ne)ķītrs</i> "(in)decent" from Russian - <i>хитр</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xitr/</span> "sly, clever."<sup id="cite_ref-etim_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etim-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>When <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/g/</span> is followed by a foreign front vowel sound not present in Latvian vowel inventory and when it's changed to a front vowel the palatalization will occur as well. This is the case with German ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9C" title="Ü">ü</a>⟩ (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʏ/</span>), for example: </p> <ul><li><i>ķēķis</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈceːcis/</span> from Low German - <i>Kȫke</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkøːke/</span> "kitchen";<sup id="cite_ref-etim_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etim-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>ķirbis</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈcirbis/</span> from German - <i>Kürbis</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkʏʁbɪs/</span> "pumpkin"<sup id="cite_ref-etim_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etim-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Consequently as in the case of <i>ķēķis</i>, for example, no <i>stem-final</i> consonant shift can take place, cf. <i>mil<b>z</b>is - mil<b>ž</b>a</i> but <i>ķēķis - ķēķa</i>, since the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> is already palatalized. </p><p>As is evident with the loan <i>ģimene</i> "family," from the Lithuanian language,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɟ/</span> are over-represented in borrowed lexical items. By comparing Lithuanian <i>gimti</i> (source of Lithuanian <i>giminė</i> and eventually Latvian <i>ģimene</i>) and Latvian <i>dzimt</i> ("to be born") it can be observed that replacing dorsal consonants with affricates (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dz/</span>) before a front vowel is the more "native" way reserved for pre-front vowel dorsal consonant changes in native words as can be observed in <a href="/wiki/R%C4%ABga" class="mw-redirect" title="Rīga">Rī<b>g</b>a</a> → <i>rī<b>dzi</b>nieks</i>, <i>lo<b>g</b>s</i> ("window") → <i>palo<b>dze</b></i> ("windowsill") or <i>ko<b>k</b>s</i> ("tree") → <i>ko<b>ci</b>ņš</i> ("a stick.") </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indeclinable_nouns">Indeclinable nouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indeclinable nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some nouns do not belong to any of the declension classes presented above, and show no case or number inflection. For the most part, these indeclinable nouns are unassimilated <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> or foreign names that end in a <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a>. Some examples are: <i>ateljē</i> "studio", <i>Deli</i> "Delhi". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adjectives in Latvian agree in case, number, and gender with the noun they modify. In addition, they express the category of <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</a>. Latvian has no definite and indefinite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a>, but the form of the adjective chosen can determine the correct interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>. For example, consider the following examples: </p> <dl><dd>Viņa nopirka [<b>vecu</b> māju]. "She bought [an old house]."</dd> <dd>Viņa nopirka [<b>veco</b> māju]. "She bought [the old house]."</dd></dl> <p>In both sentences, the adjective is feminine singular accusative, to agree with the noun <i>māju</i> "house". But the first sentence contains the indefinite form of the adjective, while the second one contains the definite form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indefinite_declension">Indefinite declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Indefinite declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Masculine indefinite adjectives are declined like nouns of the first declension, and feminine indefinite adjectives are declined like nouns of the fourth declension. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>-s</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-a</td> <td>-as </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>-a</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-as</td> <td>-u </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>-am</td> <td>-iem</td> <td>-ai</td> <td>-ām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>-u</td> <td>-us</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-as </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-os</td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-ās </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definite_declension">Definite declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Definite declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the history of Latvian, definite noun phrases were constructed with forms of an old pronoun <i>*jis</i>; traces of this form can still be seen in parts of the definite adjectival paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that only definite adjectives are used in the vocative case. The nominative form can always be used as a vocative. If, however, the modified noun appears as a vocative form distinct from its nominative form (this can only happen with singular nouns, as can be seen from the declension tables above), then the vocative form of the adjective can optionally be identical to its accusative form in <i>-o</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>-ais</td> <td>-ie</td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-ās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-o</td> <td>-ās</td> <td>-o </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>-ajam</td> <td>-ajiem</td> <td>-ajai</td> <td>-ajām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>-o</td> <td>-os</td> <td>-o</td> <td>-ās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>-ajā</td> <td>-ajos</td> <td>-ajā</td> <td>-ajās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.</b></td> <td>-ais / -o</td> <td>-ie</td> <td>-ā / -o</td> <td>-ās </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The declension of the adjective <i>zils/zila</i> "blue" is given below. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Indefinite </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>zils</td> <td>zili</td> <td>zila</td> <td>zilas </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>zila</td> <td>zilu</td> <td>zilas</td> <td>zilu </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>zilam</td> <td>ziliem</td> <td>zilai</td> <td>zilām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>zilu</td> <td>zilus</td> <td>zilu</td> <td>zilas </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>zilā</td> <td>zilos</td> <td>zilā</td> <td>zilās </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Definite </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>zilais</td> <td>zilie</td> <td>zilā</td> <td>zilās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>zilā</td> <td>zilo</td> <td>zilās</td> <td>zilo </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>zilajam</td> <td>zilajiem</td> <td>zilajai</td> <td>zilajām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>zilo</td> <td>zilos</td> <td>zilo</td> <td>zilās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>zilajā</td> <td>zilajos</td> <td>zilajā</td> <td>zilajās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.</b></td> <td>zilais / zilo</td> <td>zilie</td> <td>zilā / zilo</td> <td>zilās </td></tr></tbody></table>  </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Adjectives containing the suffix <i>-ēj-</i> have reduced case endings in the dative and locative. For example, <i>vidējs, -a</i> "central" (indefinite) has the following definite paradigm: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>vidējais</td> <td>vidējie</td> <td>vidējā</td> <td>vidējās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>vidējā</td> <td>vidējo</td> <td>vidējās</td> <td>vidējo </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td><b>vidējam</b></td> <td><b>vidējiem</b></td> <td><b>vidējai</b></td> <td><b>vidējām</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>vidējo</td> <td>vidējos</td> <td>vidējo</td> <td>vidējās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td><b>vidējā</b></td> <td><b>vidējos</b></td> <td><b>vidējā</b></td> <td><b>vidējās</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.</b></td> <td colspan="4" align="center">(= nominative) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The third person personal pronouns in Latvian have a regular nominal declension, and they have distinct masculine and feminine forms. The first and second person pronouns, and the reflexive pronoun, show no gender distinction, and have irregular declensions. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="4" align="center">Singular </th> <th colspan="4" align="center">Plural</th> <th rowspan="2">reflexive </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st</th> <th>2nd</th> <th>3rd masc.</th> <th>3rd fem.</th> <th>1st</th> <th>2nd</th> <th>3rd masc.</th> <th>3rd fem. </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><i>I</i></td> <td><i>you</i> (fam.)</td> <td><i>he/it</i></td> <td><i>she/it</i></td> <td><i>we</i></td> <td><i>you</i> (pol./plur.) </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><i>they</i></td> <td><i>-self/-selves</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>es</td> <td>tu</td> <td>viņš</td> <td>viņa</td> <td>mēs</td> <td>jūs</td> <td>viņi</td> <td>viņas</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>manis</td> <td>tevis</td> <td>viņa</td> <td>viņas</td> <td>mūsu</td> <td>jūsu</td> <td>viņu</td> <td>viņu</td> <td>sevis </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>man<sup>*</sup></td> <td>tev<sup>*</sup></td> <td>viņam</td> <td>viņai</td> <td>mums</td> <td>jums</td> <td>viņiem</td> <td>viņām</td> <td>sev<sup>*</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>mani</td> <td>tevi</td> <td>viņu</td> <td>viņu</td> <td>mūs</td> <td>jūs</td> <td>viņus</td> <td>viņas</td> <td>sevi </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>manī</td> <td>tevī</td> <td>viņā</td> <td>viņā</td> <td>mūsos</td> <td>jūsos</td> <td>viņos</td> <td>viņās</td> <td>sevī </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup>*</sup>After a <a href="/wiki/Latvian_prepositions" title="Latvian prepositions">preposition</a> governing the dative (e.g. <i>līdz</i> "to, until"), the dative forms <i>manim</i>, <i>tevim</i>, and <i>sevim</i> are possible. These forms may replace genitive and accusative pronouns with other prepositions, too.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_pronouns">Possessive pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Possessive pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Latvian_possessive_pronouns">five root possessive pronouns</a> that change endings depending on the declension. </p> <ul><li>man<b>s</b> (1st person singular) - <i>my, mine</i></li> <li>tav<b>s</b> (2nd person singular) - <i>your, yours</i></li> <li>viņēj<b>s</b> (archaic 3rd person singular) - <i>his, her, their</i></li> <li>sav<b>s</b> (reflexive possessive) - <i>(my, your, his, her, our, their) own</i></li> <li>katr<b>s</b> (reflexive possessive) - <i>every, each, any</i></li></ul> <p>The below table of endings replace the bolded characters above for the various declensions, </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>-s</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-a</td> <td>-as </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>-a</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-as</td> <td>-u </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>-am</td> <td>-iem</td> <td>-ai</td> <td>-ām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>-u</td> <td>-us</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-as </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Ins.</b></td> <td>-u</td> <td>-iem</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-ām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-os</td> <td>-ā</td> <td>-ās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voc.*</b></td> <td>-s</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-a</td> <td>-as </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>only for first person (ie. mans)</li></ul> <p>In addition to the pronouns that have different declensions, there are pronouns that stay the same in all declensions, </p> <ul><li>viņa/viņas (3rd person singular) - his/her</li> <li>mūsu (1st person plural) - our</li> <li>jūsu (2nd person plural/formal) - your</li> <li>viņu (3rd person plural) - their</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_pronouns">Other pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following tables show the declension of the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> <i>tas</i> "that" and <i>šis</i> "this". </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>tas</td> <td>tie</td> <td>tā</td> <td>tās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>tā</td> <td>to</td> <td>tās</td> <td>to </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>tam</td> <td>tiem</td> <td>tai</td> <td>tām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>to</td> <td>tos</td> <td>to</td> <td>tās </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>tajā / tai / tanī</td> <td>tais / tajos / tanīs</td> <td>tai / tajā / tanī</td> <td>tais / tajās / tanīs </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>šis</td> <td>šie</td> <td>šī</td> <td>šīs </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>šī, šā</td> <td>šo</td> <td>šīs, šās</td> <td>šo </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>šim</td> <td>šiem</td> <td>šai</td> <td>šīm </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>šo</td> <td>šos</td> <td>šo</td> <td>šīs </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>šai / šajā / šinī</td> <td>šais / šajos / šinīs</td> <td>šai / šajā / šinī</td> <td>šais / šajās / šinīs </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronoun</a> <i>kas</i> "who, what" has the same declension, but it has only singular forms (and no locative form, with the adverb <i>kur</i> "where" used instead). The same applies to forms derived from <i>kas</i>: <i>nekas</i> "nothing", <i>kaut kas</i> "something", etc. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">intensive pronoun</a> <i>pats/pati</i> (cf. "I myself", "they themselves") is irregular: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.</b></td> <td>pats</td> <td>paši</td> <td>pati</td> <td>pašas </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.</b></td> <td>paša</td> <td>pašu</td> <td>pašas</td> <td>pašu </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dat.</b></td> <td>pašam</td> <td>pašiem</td> <td>pašai</td> <td>pašām </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Acc.</b></td> <td>pašu</td> <td>pašus</td> <td>pašu</td> <td>pašas </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Loc.</b></td> <td>pašā</td> <td>pašos</td> <td>pašā</td> <td>pašās </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other pronouns and <a href="/wiki/Determiner_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Determiner (linguistics)">determiners</a> exhibit regular (indefinite) adjectival declension: </p> <ul><li>the demonstrative forms <i>tāds/tāda</i> "such (as that)" and <i>šāds/šāda</i> "such (as this)"</li> <li>the 1st and 2nd person singular <a href="/wiki/Possessive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronoun">possessive</a> forms <i>mans/mana</i> "my", <i>tavs/tava</i> "your (fam.)" (and the reflexive <i>savs/sava</i>)</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogatives</a> <i>kurš/kura</i> "which", <i>kāds/kāda</i> "what (kind)", and <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a> derived from them, e.g. <i>nekāds</i> "no", <i>kaut kāds</i>, <i>nezin kāds</i> "some kind of"</li> <li>other indefinite pronouns such as <i>dažs/daža</i> "some, certain", <i>cits/cita</i> "other", <i>viss/visa</i> "all", <i>(ik)katrs/(ik)katra</i> "every", <i>ikviens/ikviena</i> "each"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Latvian there are two types of numerals: <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">cardinals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinal number (linguistics)">ordinals</a>. </p><p>The numbers from 1 to 9 are declinable. The number 1 (<i>viens/viena</i>) combines with a singular noun, 2 (<i>divi/divas</i>) through 9 (<i>deviņi/deviņas</i>) with plural nouns. With the exception of <i>trīs</i> "3", these numbers take the same endings as indefinite adjectives. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Masculine </th> <th>Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <td>nominative </td> <td colspan="2" align="center">trīs </td></tr> <tr> <td>genitive </td> <td colspan="2" align="center">triju </td></tr> <tr> <td>dative</td> <td>trim, trijiem</td> <td>trim, trijām </td></tr> <tr> <td>accusative </td> <td colspan="2" align="center">trīs </td></tr> <tr> <td>locative</td> <td>trijos, trīs</td> <td>trijās, trīs </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following cardinal numbers are indeclinable: </p> <ul><li>the numerals 11–19: <i>vienpadsmit, divpadsmit, trīspadsmit, četrpadsmit, piecpadsmit, sešpadsmit, septiņpadsmit, astoņpadsmit, deviņpadsmit</i></li> <li><i>desmit</i> (10) and its compounds: <i>divdesmit, trīsdesmit, četrdesmit, piecdesmit, sešdesmit, septiņdesmit, astoņdesmit, deviņdesmit</i></li> <li><i>simt</i> (100) and its compounds: <i>simt, divsimt, trīssimt, četrsimt, piecsimt, sešsimt, septiņsimt, astoņsimt, deviņsimt</i></li> <li><i>tūkstoš</i> (1000) and its compounds: <i>tūkstoš, divtūkstoš, trīstūkstoš, četrtūkstoš, piectūkstoš, seštūkstoš, septiņtūkstoš, astoņtūkstoš, deviņtūkstoš</i>, etc.</li></ul> <p>Ordinal numbers ("first", "second", etc.) are declined like definite adjectives. In compound numbers, only the final element is ordinal, e.g. <i>trīsdesmit otrajā minūtē</i> "in the 32nd minute". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaic_forms">Archaic forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Archaic forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instrumental_case">Instrumental case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Instrumental case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table illustrates case <a href="/wiki/Syncretism_(linguistics)" title="Syncretism (linguistics)">syncretism</a> in the Latvian instrumental form. In the singular, the instrumental is identical to the accusative. In the plural, the instrumental is identical to the dative. </p><p>Some linguists also distinguish an ablative case that is identical to the genitive in the singular and the dative in the plural. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">1st decl. </th> <th colspan="2">2nd decl. </th> <th colspan="2">3rd decl. </th></tr> <tr> <th>sing.</th> <th>plur.</th> <th>sing.</th> <th>plur.</th> <th>sing.</th> <th>plur. </th></tr> <tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">genitive</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">vīr<b>a</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">vīr<b>u</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">skap<b>ja</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">skap<b>ju</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">tirg<b>us</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">tirg<b>u</b></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color: silver;"> <td><b>ablative</b> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">vīr<b>a</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">vīr<b>iem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">skap<b>ja</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">skap<b>jiem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:green">tirg<b>us</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">tirg<b>iem</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">dative</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">vīr<b>am</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">vīr<b>iem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">skap<b>im</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">skap<b>jiem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">tirg<b>um</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">tirg<b>iem</b></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color: silver;"> <td><b>instrumental</b> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">vīr<b>u</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">vīr<b>iem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">skap<b>i</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">skap<b>jiem</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">tirg<b>u</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">tirg<b>iem</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">accusative</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">vīr<b>u</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">vīr<b>us</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">skap<b>i</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">skap<b>jus</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">tirg<b>u</b></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:blue">tirg<b>us</b></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The ablative is generally not presented as a separate grammatical case in traditional Latvian grammars, because it appears exclusively with prepositions. One can say instead that prepositions requiring the genitive in the singular require the dative in the plural. Also it is important to note that the Latvian ablative case is not an archaism but rather an innovation. </p><p>The ablative case emerged in Latvian under the circumstances of shifting the government of almost all prepositions in the plural to the dative form. This shift was caused by the loss of the old accusative form in the singular, which became identical to the instrumental form: A.-I. vīru, kāju, māsu. In the plural, most feminine nouns had identical forms for the dative and the instrumental case. The masculine form ending in "-īs" was dropped and the dative ending was introduced there by analogy: I. vīrīs >> vīriem (<< D. vīriem). Therefore, the instrumental case merged with the dative in the plural and the accusative in the singular. Feminine nouns had in the meantime levelled their G.Sg.~N.Pl.~Acc.Pl. endings: GSg,NPl,AccPl kājas; AccSg,ISg,GPl kāju. Therefore, prepositional constructions became ambiguous: uz pļavas - "on the meadow" or "to the meadows"; uz pļavu - "on the meadows" or "to the meadow". To at least partly reduce this, the dative case was introduced after most prepositions in the plural: uz pļavas (on the meadow), uz pļavu (to the meadow), uz pļavām (on/to the meadows). Therefore, almost all the prepositions that governed the genitive started taking the dative-instrumental case in the plural, giving a new birth to the ablative case. </p><p>The instrumental case, on the other hand, cannot be eliminated so easily, because it can be used in some contexts without any preposition:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>vīrs sarkanu bārdu</i> "a man with a red beard" (singular: instrumental = accusative)</li> <li><i>meitene zilām acīm</i> "a girl with blue eyes" (plural: instrumental = dative)</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dual_number">Dual number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dual number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Latvian had also a <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual number</a>. Nowadays perhaps in some dialects the dual might be used only in some words representing body parts,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> e.g. <i>divi roki, kāji, auši, akši, nāši</i> 'two hands, legs, ears, eyes, nostrils', in such phrases like: <i>skatīties ar abāmu akšāmu</i> 'to look with both eyes', <i>klausīties ar abāmu aušāmu</i> 'to listen with both ears', <i>ņemt ar abāmu rokāmu</i> 'to take with both hands', <i>lekt ar abāmu kājāmu</i> 'to jump with both legs'.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The old dual endings of all cases: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">Masculine </th> <th colspan="4">Feminine </th></tr> <tr> <th>1.decl. </th> <th>2.decl. </th> <th>3.decl. </th> <th>4.decl. </th> <th>5.decl. </th> <th>6.decl. </th> <th>7.decl. </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Nom.Acc.Voc.</b></td> <td>-u</td> <td>-ju</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-ji</td> <td>-ji</td> <td>-u </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Abl.Dat.Ins.</b></td> <td>-amu</td> <td>-jamu</td> <td>-umu</td> <td>-āmu</td> <td>-ēmu</td> <td>-īmu</td> <td>-ūmu </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Gen.Loc.</b></td> <td>-i</td> <td>-ji</td> <td>-u</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-ji</td> <td>-ji</td> <td>-u </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locative_case_forms">Locative case forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Locative case forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The locative case once had three forms:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Inessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Inessive">inessive</a> (the regular and most common form), <a href="/wiki/Illative" class="mw-redirect" title="Illative">illative</a> (for example in old Latvian texts: <i>iekš(k)an tan pirman vietan</i>, in modern Latvian it has been replaced by the inessive, but vestiges of what once was an illative final <i>-an</i> changed to an <i>-ā</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> remain in some adverbs, e.g. <i>āran</i> > <i>ārā</i> 'outdoors, outside', <i>priekšan</i> > <i>priekš</i> 'for'), <a href="/wiki/Allative" class="mw-redirect" title="Allative">allative</a> (only used in a few <a href="/wiki/Idiomatic_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic expression">idiomatic expressions</a> like: <i>augšup</i>, <i>lejup</i>, <i>mājup</i>, <i>kalnup</i>, <i>šurp</i>, <i>turp</i>). The later two are adverb-forming cases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_conjugation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Latvian conjugation (page does not exist)">Latvian conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_prepositions" title="Latvian prepositions">Latvian prepositions</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://valoda.ailab.lv/latval/vidusskolai/pask/p3.htm">Согласование слов в роде, числе и падеже</a> (in Russian).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romane-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Romane_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romane_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRomane2000" class="citation book cs1">Romane, Anita (2000). <i>Latviešu valodas rokasgrāmata, tabulas, shēmas</i>. Zvaigzne ABC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9984-17-102-7" title="Special:BookSources/9984-17-102-7"><bdi>9984-17-102-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latvie%C5%A1u+valodas+rokasgr%C4%81mata%2C+tabulas%2C+sh%C4%93mas&rft.pub=Zvaigzne+ABC&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9984-17-102-7&rft.aulast=Romane&rft.aufirst=Anita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rasma-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rasma_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rasma_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrīsle2000" class="citation journal cs1">Grīsle, Rasma (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426232547/http://www.liis.lv/latval/Darbinieki/Jauniecit/blakne.htm">"Termins <i>blakne</i> un citi apvainotie, arī ŗ, ch"</a>. <i>Latvijas Vēstnesis</i> (22/23). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liis.lv/latval/Darbinieki/Jauniecit/blakne.htm">the original</a> on 2012-04-26. <q>(..)līdz ar citu līdzskaņu jotēšanu (bj, pj, mj, vj), kur to prasa gramatikas sistēma.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latvijas+V%C4%93stnesis&rft.atitle=Termins+blakne+un+citi+apvainotie%2C+ar%C4%AB+%C5%97%2C+ch&rft.issue=22%2F23&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Gr%C4%ABsle&rft.aufirst=Rasma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liis.lv%2Flatval%2FDarbinieki%2FJauniecit%2Fblakne.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirginija_Vasiliauskiene_and_Jonathan_Slocum" class="citation web cs1">Virginija Vasiliauskiene and Jonathan Slocum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/litol-7-X.html">"Lesson 7: Lithuanian"</a>. <q>The Latvian language does not have the assimilative palatalization of consonants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lesson+7%3A+Lithuanian&rft.au=Virginija+Vasiliauskiene+and+Jonathan+Slocum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utexas.edu%2Fcola%2Fcenters%2Flrc%2Feieol%2Flitol-7-X.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etim-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-etim_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-etim_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-etim_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarulis1992" class="citation book cs1">Karulis, Konstantīns (1992). <i>Latviešu etimoloģijas vārdnīca</i>. Rīga: Avots. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5401004117" title="Special:BookSources/5401004117"><bdi>5401004117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latvie%C5%A1u+etimolo%C4%A3ijas+v%C4%81rdn%C4%ABca&rft.place=R%C4%ABga&rft.pub=Avots&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=5401004117&rft.aulast=Karulis&rft.aufirst=Konstant%C4%ABns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVija_Ziemele" class="citation web cs1">Vija Ziemele. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:7WgHSHEnisgJ:www.jvsk.lv/data/836766672.ppt+litu%C4%81nismi+%C4%B7ekars,+%C4%B7epuroties,+%C4%B7%C4%93rpji,+%C4%B7irmis&hl=lv&gl=lv&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgDuoNAG7YkcdecDp1Jk92zd9W3XMhRLiapK_aBbIJ12vtqzWTUdvtjV_LIGTqYgxSXEHZQVAPrxPeLA1YIQL0JheoXcmq5oLnHUyiPD0hECTr-WLlu7sxNIxnENrhtfq_PwXf1&sig=AHIEtbQX0F1CYyisH0jzH3vwXZTIPqHEHg&pli=1">"Leksikas slāņi"</a>. <q>(..) vairāki desmiti (..) (lituānismu). (..) Piemēram, ģērbt, ģimene, ķekars, ķepuroties, ķērpji, ķirmis, mēģināt, paģiras, snuķis, žilbt.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leksikas+sl%C4%81%C5%86i&rft.au=Vija+Ziemele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Fviewer%3Fa%3Dv%26q%3Dcache%3A7WgHSHEnisgJ%3Awww.jvsk.lv%2Fdata%2F836766672.ppt%2Blitu%25C4%2581nismi%2B%25C4%25B7ekars%2C%2B%25C4%25B7epuroties%2C%2B%25C4%25B7%25C4%2593rpji%2C%2B%25C4%25B7irmis%26hl%3Dlv%26gl%3Dlv%26pid%3Dbl%26srcid%3DADGEESgDuoNAG7YkcdecDp1Jk92zd9W3XMhRLiapK_aBbIJ12vtqzWTUdvtjV_LIGTqYgxSXEHZQVAPrxPeLA1YIQL0JheoXcmq5oLnHUyiPD0hECTr-WLlu7sxNIxnENrhtfq_PwXf1%26sig%3DAHIEtbQX0F1CYyisH0jzH3vwXZTIPqHEHg%26pli%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. and D. Petit (2004), p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andronov (2001), p. 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andronov (2001), p. 201, 204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the discussion in Andronov (2001).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndronov2001" class="citation journal cs1">Andronov, A. V. (2001). N. Nau (ed.). "A survey of the case paradigm in Latvian". <i>Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung</i>. <b>54</b> (3): 197–208.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sprachtypologie+und+Universalienforschung&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+the+case+paradigm+in+Latvian&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=197-208&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Andronov&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span> (Focus on: Typological Approaches to Latvian)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFennel1975" class="citation journal cs1">Fennel, T. G. (1975). "Is there an Instrumental Case in Latvian?". <i>Journal of Baltic Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 41–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01629777500000441">10.1080/01629777500000441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Baltic+Studies&rft.atitle=Is+there+an+Instrumental+Case+in+Latvian%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-48&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01629777500000441&rft.aulast=Fennel&rft.aufirst=T.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLötzsch1978" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lötzsch, R. (1978). "Zur Frage des sog. Instrumentals im Lettischen". <i>Zeitschrift für Slawistik</i> (in German). <b>23</b>: 667–671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fslaw.1978.23.1.667">10.1524/slaw.1978.23.1.667</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170407140">170407140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Slawistik&rft.atitle=Zur+Frage+des+sog.+Instrumentals+im+Lettischen&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=667-671&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fslaw.1978.23.1.667&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170407140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=L%C3%B6tzsch&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathiassen1996" class="citation book cs1">Mathiassen, Terje (1996). <i>A Short Grammar of Latvian</i>. Columbus, OH: Slavica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89357-270-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89357-270-5"><bdi>0-89357-270-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+Grammar+of+Latvian&rft.place=Columbus%2C+OH&rft.pub=Slavica&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-89357-270-5&rft.aulast=Mathiassen&rft.aufirst=Terje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetit2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Petit, Justyna and Daniel (2004). <i>Parlons letton</i> (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7475-5910-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-7475-5910-6"><bdi>2-7475-5910-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parlons+letton&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=2-7475-5910-6&rft.aulast=Petit&rft.aufirst=Justyna+and+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatvian+declension" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Latvian_declension&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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