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development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Background_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_social_choice_and_public_choice_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_social_choice_and_public_choice_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>History of social choice and public choice theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_social_choice_and_public_choice_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_public_choice_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_public_choice_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Modern public choice theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_public_choice_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Constitutional economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decision-making_processes_and_the_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision-making_processes_and_the_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Decision-making processes and the state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision-making_processes_and_the_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureaucracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaucracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bureaucracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaucracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Expressive_interests"_and_democratic_irrationality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Expressive_interests"_and_democratic_irrationality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>"Expressive interests" and democratic irrationality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Expressive_interests"_and_democratic_irrationality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_interests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_interests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Special interests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_interests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rent-seeking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rent-seeking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Rent-seeking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rent-seeking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_stance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_stance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Political stance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_stance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Recognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations_and_critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations_and_critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Limitations and critiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations_and_critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نظرية الخيار العام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرية الخيار العام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctimai_se%C3%A7im" title="İctimai seçim – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İctimai seçim" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83" title="Тэорыя грамадскага выбару – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэорыя грамадскага выбару" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Теория на обществения избор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Теория на обществения избор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_l%27elecci%C3%B3_p%C3%BAblica" title="Teoria de l'elecció pública – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria de l'elecció pública" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_ve%C5%99ejn%C3%A9_volby" title="Teorie veřejné volby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teorie veřejné volby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Public choice" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neue_Politische_%C3%96konomie" title="Neue Politische Ökonomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neue Politische Ökonomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_de_la_elecci%C3%B3n_p%C3%BAblica" title="Teoría de la elección pública – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría de la elección pública" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B6%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="قضیه انتخاب عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قضیه انتخاب عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_des_choix_publics" title="Théorie des choix publics – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie des choix publics" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EA%B3%B5%EC%84%A0%ED%83%9D%EB%A1%A0" title="공공선택론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공공선택론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilihan_publik" title="Pilihan publik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pilihan publik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almannavalsfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Almannavalsfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Almannavalsfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_della_scelta_pubblica" title="Teoria della scelta pubblica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teoria della scelta pubblica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תאוריית הבחירה הציבורית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאוריית הבחירה הציבורית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabiedrisk%C4%81s_izv%C4%93les_teorija" title="Sabiedriskās izvēles teorija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sabiedriskās izvēles teorija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publiekekeuzetheorie" title="Publiekekeuzetheorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Publiekekeuzetheorie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E9%81%B8%E6%8A%9E%E8%AB%96" title="公共選択論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公共選択論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Public choice" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_wyboru_publicznego" title="Teoria wyboru publicznego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teoria wyboru publicznego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escolha_p%C3%BAblica" title="Escolha pública – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Escolha pública" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Теория общественного выбора – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теория общественного выбора" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Public choice" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B3ria_verejnej_vo%C4%BEby" title="Teória verejnej voľby – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Teória verejnej voľby" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julkisen_valinnan_teoria" title="Julkisen valinnan teoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julkisen valinnan teoria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Public choice" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83" title="Теорія суспільного вибору – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Теорія суспільного вибору" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%B1a_ch%E1%BB%8Dn_c%C3%B4ng_c%E1%BB%99ng" title="Lựa chọn công cộng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lựa chọn công cộng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E9%81%B8%E6%93%87%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="公共選擇理論 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="公共選擇理論" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E9%81%B8%E6%93%87%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="公共選擇理論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="公共選擇理論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q674530#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Economic theory applied to political science</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Public_Choice_(journal)" title="Public Choice (journal)"><i>Public Choice</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subseries</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Public choice</b>, or <b>public choice theory</b>, is "the use of economic tools to deal with traditional problems of <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes the study of <a href="/wiki/Political_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Political behavior">political behavior</a>. In political science, it is the subset of <a href="/wiki/Positive_political_theory" title="Positive political theory">positive political theory</a> that studies self-interested <a href="/wiki/Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">agents</a> (voters, politicians, bureaucrats) and their interactions, which can be represented in a number of ways—using (for example) standard constrained <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> maximization, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the origin and intellectual foundation of contemporary work in political economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In popular use, "public choice" is often used as a shorthand for components of modern public choice theory that focus on how elected officials, bureaucrats, and other government agents' perceived self-interest can influence their decisions. Economist <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> received the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a> "for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public choice analysis has roots in <a href="/wiki/Positive_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive economics">positive analysis</a> ("what is") but is sometimes used for <a href="/wiki/Normative_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative economics">normative</a> purposes ("what ought to be") to identify a problem or suggest improvements to constitutional rules (as in <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">constitutional economics</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the <a href="/wiki/Normative_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative economics">normative economics</a> of social decision-making is typically placed under the closely related field of <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">social choice theory</a>, which takes a mathematical approach to the aggregation of individual interests, welfare, or votes.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much early work had aspects of both, and both fields use the tools of economics and <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>. Since voter behavior influences public officials' behavior, public-choice theory often uses results from social-choice theory. General treatments of public choice may also be classified under <a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">public economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Building upon economic theory, public choice has a few core tenets. One is that no decision is made by an aggregate whole. Rather, decisions are made by combined individual choices. A second is the use of markets in the political system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third is the self-interested nature of everyone in a political system. But as Buchanan and Tullock argue, "the ultimate defense of the economic-individualist behavioral assumption must be empirical [...] The only final test of a model lies in its ability to assist in understanding real phenomena."<sup id="cite_ref-Buchanan1962_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan1962-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_development">Background and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_social_choice_and_public_choice_theory">History of social choice and public choice theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of social choice and public choice theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></div> <p>A 19th-century precursor of modern public choice theory was the work of Swedish economist <a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Knut Wicksell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which treated government as political exchange, a <i><a href="/wiki/Quid_pro_quo" title="Quid pro quo">quid pro quo</a></i>, in formulating a <a href="/wiki/Benefit_principle" title="Benefit principle">benefit principle</a> linking taxes and expenditures.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American statesman and political theorist <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> is also seen as a precursor to modern public choice theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His writings on political economy anticipate the "public choice revolution" in modern economics and political science.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some subsequent economic analysis has been described as treating government as though it attempted "to maximize some kind sort of welfare function for society" and as distinct from characterizations of self-interested <a href="/wiki/Economic_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic agents">economic agents</a>, such as those in business.<sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a clear dichotomy, as one can be self-interested in one area but altruistic in another. By contrast, public choice theory models government as made up of officials who, besides pursuing the public interest, may act to benefit themselves, for example in the <a href="/wiki/Budget-maximizing_model" title="Budget-maximizing model">budget-maximizing model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, possibly at the cost of <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">efficiency.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Niskanen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niskanen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_public_choice_theory">Modern public choice theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern public choice theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern public choice theory uses the basic assumptions, principles, and methods of microeconomics as analytical tools to study and portray the behavior of subjects in political markets and the operation of political markets. Public choice refers to the process of what public goods are provided, how they are provided and distributed, and the corresponding matching rules that are established. Public choice theory expects to study and influence people's public choice processes to maximize their social utility. </p><p>Modern public-choice theory, and especially election theory, has been dated to the work of <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Black" title="Duncan Black">Duncan Black</a>, sometimes called "the founding father of public choice".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a series of papers from 1948, which culminated in <i>The Theory of Committees and Elections</i> (1958),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black outlined a program of unification toward a more general "Theory of Economic and Political Choices" based on common formal methods,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed underlying concepts of what became <a href="/wiki/Median_voter_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Median voter theory">median voter theory</a>, and rediscovered earlier work on voting theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work also included the possibility of entirely random outcomes in a voting structure, where the only determinant of an outcome is where a particular motion falls in a given sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_J._Arrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth J. Arrow">Kenneth J. Arrow</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Choice_and_Individual_Values" title="Social Choice and Individual Values">Social Choice and Individual Values</a></i> (1951) influenced the theory of public choice and election theory. Building on Black's theory, Arrow concluded that in a non-dictatorial setting, no predictable outcome or preference order can be discerned for a set of possible distributions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other important works are <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Downs" title="Anthony Downs">Anthony Downs</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/An_Economic_Theory_of_Democracy" title="An Economic Theory of Democracy">An Economic Theory of Democracy</a></i> (1957) and <a href="/wiki/Mancur_Olson" title="Mancur Olson">Mancur Olson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Collective_Action" title="The Logic of Collective Action">The Logic of Collective Action</a></i> (1965),<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was fundamental in beginning the study of special interests. In it, Olson raises questions about the nature of groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concentrated groups' (such as farmers') incentive to act in their own interest paired with a lack of organization of large groups (such as the public as a whole) often results in legislation that benefits a small group rather than the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a> coauthored <i><a href="/wiki/The_Calculus_of_Consent:_Logical_Foundations_of_Constitutional_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy">The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy</a></i> (1962), considered one of the landmarks in public choice and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">constitutional economics</a>. The book's preface says it is "about the <i>political organization"</i> of a free society. But its methodology, conceptual apparatus, and analytics "are derived, essentially, from the discipline that has as its subject the <i>economic</i> organization of such a society". Buchanan and Tullock formulate a framework of constitutional decision-making and structures that divides decisions into two categories: constitutional decisions and political decisions. Constitutional decisions establish long-standing rules that rarely change and govern the political structure itself. Political decisions take place within and are governed by the structure.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book also focuses on <a href="/wiki/Positive_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive economics">positive-economic</a> analysis of the development of constitutional democracy in an ethical context of consent. The consent takes the form of a <a href="/wiki/Compensation_principle" title="Compensation principle">compensation principle</a> like <a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a> for making a policy change and unanimity or at least no opposition as a point of departure for social choice. </p><p>Somewhat later, <a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_voting_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Probabilistic voting theory">probabilistic voting theory</a> began to displace median voter theory in showing how to find <a href="/wiki/Nash_equilibria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nash equilibria">Nash equilibria</a> in multidimensional space. Peter Coughlin later formalized the theory further.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_economics">Constitutional economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Constitutional economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constitutional economics is a research program in economics and constitutionalism that has been described as extending beyond the definition of "the economic analysis of constitutional law" to explain the choice "of alternative sets of legal-institutional-constitutional rules that constrain the choices and activities of economic and political agents." This is distinct from explaining the choices of economic and political agents within those rules, a subject of "orthodox" economics.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constitutional economics studies the "compatibility of effective economic decisions with the existing constitutional framework and the limitations or the favorable conditions created by that framework".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been characterized as a practical approach to applying the tools of economics to constitutional matters.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a major concern of every nation is the proper allocation of available economic and financial resources. The legal solution to this problem falls within the scope of constitutional economics. </p><p>Constitutional economics takes into account the significant effects of political economic decisions as opposed to limiting analysis to economic relationships as functions of the dynamics of distribution of "marketable" goods and services. "The political economist who seeks to offer normative advice, must, of necessity, concentrate on the process or structure within which political decisions are observed to be made. Existing constitutions, or structures or rules, are the subject of critical scrutiny."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decision-making_processes_and_the_state">Decision-making processes and the state</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decision-making processes and the state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way to organize what public choice theorists study is to begin with the state's foundations. According to this procedure, the most fundamental subject is the origin of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>. Although some work has been done on <a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">anarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, most study in this area is concerned with the fundamental problem of collectively choosing <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutional rules</a>. Much of this is based on work by <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a>. It assumes a group of people who aim to form a government, then focuses on the problem of hiring the agents required to carry out government functions the members agree on.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bureaucracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another major sub-field is the study of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>. The usual model depicts top bureaucrats as chosen by the chief executive and legislature, depending on whether the democratic system is <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a>. The typical image of a bureau chief is someone on a fixed salary concerned with pleasing whoever appointed them. But most <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureaucrats">bureaucrats</a> are civil servants whose jobs and pay are protected by a civil service system against major changes by their bureau chiefs. This image is often compared with that of a business owner whose profit varies with the success of production and sales, who aims to maximize profit, and who can in an ideal system <a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">hire and fire employees at will</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Niskanen_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niskanen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Niskanen" class="mw-redirect" title="William Niskanen">William Niskanen</a> is generally considered the founder of public choice literature on <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Niskanen_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niskanen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anthropological study of bureaucracy has mostly contributed to our understanding of how various institutions of governance operate, why they achieve the outcomes they do, and what their work cultures are. In this sense, the state and its various branches, including village councils and courts of law, have gotten special consideration. A focus has also been placed on non-state welfare and humanitarian organisations, ranging in size from tiny NGOs to significant supranational institutions like the United Nations.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Expressive_interests"_and_democratic_irrationality"><span id=".22Expressive_interests.22_and_democratic_irrationality"></span>"Expressive interests" and democratic irrationality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: "Expressive interests" and democratic irrationality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Brennan" title="Geoffrey Brennan">Geoffrey Brennan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loren_Lomasky" title="Loren Lomasky">Loren Lomasky</a>, democratic policy is biased to favor "expressive interests" and neglect practical and <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> considerations. Brennan and Lomasky distinguish between instrumental interests (any kind of practical benefit, monetary or non-monetary) and expressive interests (forms of expression like applause). According to them, the <a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_voting" title="Paradox of voting">paradox of voting</a> can be resolved by distinguishing between expressive and instrumental interests. </p><p>This argument has led some public choice scholars to claim that politics is plagued by irrationality. In articles in <i><a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a></i>, economist <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Caplan" title="Bryan Caplan">Bryan Caplan</a> contended that voter choices and government economic decisions are inherently irrational.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caplan's ideas are more fully developed in his 2007 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Rational_Voter" title="The Myth of the Rational Voter">The Myth of the Rational Voter</a></i>. Countering <a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Wittman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Wittman (page does not exist)">Donald Wittman</a>'s arguments in <i>The Myth of Democratic Failure</i>, Caplan claims that politics is biased in favor of irrational beliefs. </p><p> According to Caplan, democracy effectively subsidizes irrational beliefs. Anyone who derives utility from potentially irrational policies like <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> can receive private benefits while imposing the costs of such beliefs on the general public. If people bore the full costs of their "irrational beliefs" they would lobby for them optimally, taking into account both their instrumental consequences and their expressive appeal. Instead, democracy oversupplies policies based on irrational beliefs. Caplan defines rationality mainly in terms of mainstream price theory, arguing that mainstream economists oppose protectionism and government regulation more than the general population, and that more educated people are closer to economists on this score, even after controlling for confounding factors such as income, wealth or political affiliation. One criticism is that many economists do not share Caplan's views on the nature of public choice. But Caplan has data to support his position. Economists have in fact often been frustrated by public opposition to economic reasoning. As <a href="/wiki/Sam_Peltzman" title="Sam Peltzman">Sam Peltzman</a> puts it: </p><blockquote><p>Economists know what steps would improve the efficiency of HSE [health, safety, and environmental] regulation, and they have not been bashful advocates of them. These steps include substituting markets in property rights, such as emission rights, for command and control ... The real problem lies deeper than any lack of reform proposals or failure to press them. It is our inability to understand their lack of political appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Public choice's application to government regulation was developed by <a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a> (1971) and Sam Peltzman (1976). </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_interests"><span class="anchor" id="interests"></span>Special interests</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Special interests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public choice theory is often used to explain how political decision-making results in outcomes that conflict with the general public's preferences. For example, many <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">advocacy group</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pork_barrel" title="Pork barrel">pork barrel</a> projects are opposed by a majority of the populace, but it makes sense for politicians to support these projects. It may make them feel powerful and important, and can also benefit them financially by opening the door to future wealth as <a href="/wiki/Lobbyists" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobbyists">lobbyists</a>. The project may be of interest to the politician's local <a href="/wiki/Constituency" class="mw-redirect" title="Constituency">constituency</a>, increasing district votes or <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance" title="Campaign finance">campaign contributions</a>. The politician pays little or no cost for these benefits, as they are spending public money. Special-interest lobbyists are also behaving rationally. They can gain government favors worth millions or billions for relatively small investments. They risk losing to their competitors if they don't seek these favors. The taxpayer is also behaving rationally. The cost of defeating any one government giveaway is very high, while the benefits to the taxpayer are very small. Each citizen pays only a few pennies or a few dollars for any given government favor, while the costs of ending that favor would be many times higher. </p><p>Everyone involved has rational incentives to do exactly what they are doing, even though the general public desires the opposite outcome. Costs are diffused while benefits are concentrated. The voices of vocal minorities with much to gain are heard over those of indifferent majorities with little to individually lose.<sup id="cite_ref-Specialinterests_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Specialinterests-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rentseeking_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rentseeking-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the notion that groups with concentrated interests dominate politics is incomplete because it is only one half of political equilibrium. Something must incite those preyed upon to resist even the best-organized concentrated interests. In his article on interest groups, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a> identifies this countervailing force as the deadweight loss from predation. His views cap what has come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_political_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago school of political economy">Chicago school of political economy</a>, which has come into conflict with the so-called <a href="/wiki/Virginia_school_of_political_economy" title="Virginia school of political economy">Virginia faction of public choice</a> due to the former's assertion that politics will tend toward efficiency due to nonlinear deadweight losses and its claim that political efficiency renders policy advice irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While good government tends to be a pure <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public good</a> for the mass of voters, there may be many <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Advocacy groups">advocacy groups</a> with strong incentives to <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobby</a> the government to implement specific policies that would benefit them, potentially at the general public's expense. For example, lobbying by the sugar manufacturers might result in an inefficient <a href="/wiki/Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidy</a> for sugar production, either directly or by <a href="/wiki/Protectionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectionist">protectionist</a> measures. The costs of such inefficient policies are dispersed over all citizens and thus unnoticeable to each. Meanwhile, the benefits go to a small special-interest group with a strong incentive to perpetuate the policy by further lobbying. Due to <a href="/wiki/Rational_ignorance" title="Rational ignorance">rational ignorance</a>, the vast majority of voters are unaware of the effort; in fact, although voters may be aware of special-interest lobbying efforts, this may merely select for policies even harder for the general public to evaluate rather than improving their overall efficiency. Even if the public could evaluate policy proposals effectively, it would find it infeasible to engage in <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> in order to defend its diffuse interest. Therefore, theorists expect that numerous special interests will successfully lobby for various inefficient policies. In public choice theory, such inefficient government policies are called <i><a href="/wiki/Government_failure" title="Government failure">government failure</a></i> – a term akin to <i><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a></i> from earlier theoretical <a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">welfare economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Specialinterests_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Specialinterests-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rent-seeking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A field closely related to public choice is the study of <a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a>. This combines the study of a market economy with that of government and so could be seen as a <a href="/wiki/New_political_economy" title="New political economy">new political economy</a>. Its basic thesis is that when both a market economy and government are present, government agents may rent or sell their influence (i.e., vote) to those who wish to influence lawmaking. The government agent stands to benefit from support from the party seeking influence, while that party seeks to benefit by implementing public policy that benefits them. This essentially results in the capture and reallocation of benefits, wasting the benefit and any resources used from being put to productive use in society. This is because the party attempting to acquire the benefit will spend up to or more than the benefit accrued, resulting in a zero-sum or a negative sum gain. The real gain is the gain over the competition. This political action will then be used to keep competition out of the market due to lack of real or political capital. </p><p>Rent-seeking is broader than public choice in that it applies to autocracies as well as democracies and therefore is not directly concerned with collective decision-making. But public choice theory must account for the obvious pressure rent-seeking exerts on legislators, executives, bureaucrats, and even judges when analyzing collective decision-making rules and institutions. Moreover, the members of a collective planning a government would be wise to take prospective rent-seeking into account.<sup id="cite_ref-Rentseeking_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rentseeking-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another major claim is that much political activity is a form of rent-seeking that wastes resources. <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Osborn_Krueger" title="Anne Osborn Krueger">Anne Osborn Krueger</a> have argued that rent-seeking has caused considerable waste.<sup id="cite_ref-Rentseeking_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rentseeking-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_stance">Political stance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political stance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From such results it is sometimes asserted that public choice theory has an anti-state tilt. But public choice theorists are ideologically diverse. <a href="/wiki/Mancur_Olson" title="Mancur Olson">Mancur Olson</a>, for example, advocated a strong state and opposed political <a href="/wiki/Interest_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Interest group">interest group</a> lobbying.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More generally, James Buchanan has suggested that public choice theory be interpreted as "politics without romance", a critical approach to a pervasive earlier notion of idealized politics set against market failure.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British journalist <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Cooke" title="Alistair Cooke">Alistair Cooke</a>, commenting on the Nobel Memorial Prize awarded to <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> in 1986, reportedly summarized the public choice view of politicians by saying, "Public choice embodies the homely but important truth that politicians are, after all, no less selfish than the rest of us."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recognition">Recognition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Recognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several notable public choice scholars have been awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Nobel Prize in Economics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a> (1972), <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> (1986), <a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a> (1982), <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a> (1992), <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> (1998), <a href="/wiki/Vernon_L._Smith" title="Vernon L. Smith">Vernon Smith</a> (2002), and <a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a> (2009). Buchanan, Smith, and Ostrom were former presidents of the Public Choice Society.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations_and_critiques">Limitations and critiques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Limitations and critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Buchanan and Tullock outline methodological qualifications of the approach developed in their work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Calculus_of_Consent" title="The Calculus of Consent">The Calculus of Consent</a></i>: </p> <dl><dd>[E]ven if the model [with its rational self-interest assumptions] proves to be useful in explaining an important element of politics, it does not imply that all individuals act in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_assumption" title="Behavioral assumption">behavioral assumption</a> made or that any one individual acts in this way at all times ... the theory of collective choice can explain only some undetermined fraction of collective action. However, so long as some part of all individual behavior ... is, in fact, motivated by utility maximization, and so long as the identification of the individual with the group does not extend to the point of making all individual utility functions identical, an economic-individualist model of political activity should be of some positive worth.</dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pressman_(economist)" title="Steven Pressman (economist)">Steven Pressman</a> offers a critique of the public choice approach, arguing that public choice fails to explain political behavior in a number of central areas, including politicians’ behavior and <a href="/wiki/Voting_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting behaviour">voting behavior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of politicians' behavior, the public choice assumption that a politician's utility function is driven by greater political and economic power cannot account for various political phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_pp._11_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_pp._11-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include why politicians vote against their constituents' interests, why they advocate for higher taxation, fewer benefits, and smaller government, and why wealthy people seek office.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_pp._11_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_pp._11-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for critiques concerning voter behavior, it is argued that public choice cannot explain why people vote due to limitations in <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, from the viewpoint of <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, the expected gains of voting depend on (1) the benefit to the voter if their candidate wins and (2) the probability that one's vote will determine the election's outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in a tight election the probability that one's vote decides the outcome is estimated at effectively zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldrich,_J._1993_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldrich,_J._1993-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that even if a voter expects gains from their candidate's success, the expected gains from voting are still near zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldrich,_J._1993_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldrich,_J._1993-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When this is considered in combination with the multiple recognized costs of voting, such as the <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity cost</a> of foregone wages and transportation costs, a self-interested person is theoretically unlikely to vote at all.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pressman is not alone in his critique; other prominent public choice economists, including <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Downs" title="Anthony Downs">Anthony Downs</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/An_Economic_Theory_of_Democracy" title="An Economic Theory of Democracy">An Economic Theory of Democracy</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Morris_P._Fiorina" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris P. Fiorina">Morris P. Fiorina</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> recognize that theorizing voting behavior is a major hurdle for the public choice approach.<sup id="cite_ref-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STEVEN_PRESSMAN_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a> – False consensus due to communication failure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_modelling" title="Choice modelling">Choice modelling</a> – Method for analyzing revealed preferences</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics empiricism">Economics empiricism</a> – Social science<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_illusion" title="Fiscal illusion">Fiscal illusion</a> – Failure to accurately perceive the amount of government expenditure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flipism" title="Flipism">Flipism</a> – Practice or personal philosophy in which all decisions are made by flipping a coin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flypaper_effect" title="Flypaper effect">Flypaper effect</a> – Grant municipality increase level of public spending more than income of equivalent size</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a> – Market failure benefitting non-paying users</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a> – Study of the development of social production</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional economics</a> – Economic perspective</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a> – Standard example in game theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a> – Sociological theory<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a> – Politics based on practical considerations, rather than ideals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a> – Form of political corruption</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sortition" title="Sortition">Sortition</a> – Selection of decision-makers by random sample</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_calculation_debate" title="Socialist calculation debate">Socialist calculation debate</a> – Discourse on the applicability of central planning without capital markets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a> – Principle of social organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_choice" title="Tax choice">Tax choice</a> – Concept that taxpayers should be able to choose what their taxes are used for</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Tullock2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tullock2008_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">[1987]</a> 2008, "public choice," <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a></i>. .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alesina2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alesina2006_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberto Alesina, Torsten Persson, Guido Tabellini, 2006. “Reply to Blankart and Koester's Political Economics versus Public Choice Two Views of Political Economy in Competition,” Kyklos, 59(2), pp. 201–208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1986/">"The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1986"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081012162515/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1986">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-10-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sveriges+Riksbank+Prize+in+Economic+Sciences+in+Memory+of+Alfred+Nobel+1986&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Feconomics%2Flaureates%2F1986%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James M. Buchanan, 1990. "The Domain of Constitutional Economics," <i>Constitutional Political Economy</i>, 1(1), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walkerd.people.cofc.edu/400/Sobel/2A-8.%20Buchanan%20-%20Constitutional%20Economics.pdf">1–18</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_C._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis C. Mueller">Dennis C. Mueller</a>, 2008. "constitutions, economic approach to," <i>The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</i>, 2nd Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_E000212&edition=current&q=Constitutional%20economics&topicid=&result_number=8">Abstract</a>: "The economic approach to constitutions applies the methodology of economics to the study of constitutions. This entry reviews the normative literature on constitutions, which assumes a two-stage collective decision process, and the positive literature that examines the decisions made by constitutional conventions and their economic consequences."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Found in the JEL classification codes at <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes#Microeconomics_JEL:_D_Subcategories" title="JEL classification codes">JEL: D71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> At <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes#Public_economics_JEL:_H_Subcategories" title="JEL classification codes">JEL: HO – General</a> of the <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">JEL classification codes</a> and as in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a></i>, v. 8, p. 864 and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/search_results?q=public+choice&field=content&edition=all&topicid=H0">Online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchanan1964" class="citation journal cs1">Buchanan, James M. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1055931">"What Should Economists Do?"</a>. <i>Southern Economic Journal</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 213–222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1055931">10.2307/1055931</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-4038">0038-4038</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1055931">1055931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=What+Should+Economists+Do%3F&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=213-222&rft.date=1964&rft.issn=0038-4038&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1055931%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1055931&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1055931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchanan1962-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buchanan1962_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James M. Buchanan and Gordon Tullock, 1962. The Calculus of Consent. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 28; cf. ibid., 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knut Wicksell (1896 [1958]). "A New Principle of Just Taxation," J.M. Buchanan, trans., in <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Musgrave" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Musgrave">Richard A. Musgrave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_T._Peacock" title="Alan T. Peacock">Alan T. Peacock</a>, ed. (1958). <i>Classics in the Theory of Public Finance</i>, Palgrave Macmillan, an essay from Wicksell (1896), <i>Finanzthcoretische Untersuchungen</i>, Jena: Gustav Fischer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">• <a href="/wiki/Dennis_C._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis C. Mueller">Dennis C. Mueller</a> (1976). "Public Choice: A Survey," <i>Journal of Economic Literature</i>, 14(2), p. 396. [pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/cjellis/441/Mueller.pdf">395–433.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019084807/http://pages.uoregon.edu/cjellis/441/Mueller.pdf">Archived</a> October 19, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><br />   • James M. Buchanan(1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1986/buchanan-lecture.html#">"The Constitution of Economic Policy,"</a> IV. Politics as Exchange & V. The Constitution of Economic Policy, Nobel Prize lecture. Republished in 1987, <i>American Economic Review</i>, 77(3), pp. 243–250 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1804093">1804093</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabarrokCowen1992" class="citation journal cs1">Tabarrok, Alexander; Cowen, Tyler (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40751557">"The Public Choice Theory of John C. Calhoun"</a>. <i>Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics</i>. <b>148</b> (4): 655–674. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0932-4569">0932-4569</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40751557">40751557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Institutional+and+Theoretical+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Public+Choice+Theory+of+John+C.+Calhoun&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=655-674&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40751557%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0932-4569&rft.aulast=Tabarrok&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Cowen%2C+Tyler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40751557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niskanen-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niskanen_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niskanen_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niskanen_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">William A. Niskanen ([1971] 1994). <i>Bureaucracy and Public Economics</i>, Elgar. Expanded ed. Description and review <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelockeinstitute.org/books/bureaucracy.html">links</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130402183714/http://www.thelockeinstitute.org/books/bureaucracy.html">Archived</a> 2013-04-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and review <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDB-QgAACAAJ">excerpts</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles K. Rowley (2008). "Duncan Black (1908–1991," ch. 4 in <i>Readings in Public Choice and Constitutional Political Economy</i>, Springer, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3X0HxOHjw8MC&pg=PA83">83.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duncan Black (1958). <i>The Theory of Committees and Elections</i>, 2nd rev. ed, 1998, Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/social+sciences/political+science/book/978-0-7923-8110-5">Description</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CRdnaPy8oB4C&pg=PA1=">preview.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duncan Black (1950). "The Unity of Political and Economic Science," <i>Economic Journal</i>, 60(239), pp. 506–514 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2226793">2226793</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Duncan Black (1948a). "On the Rationale of Group Decision-making, <i>Journal of Political Economy</i>, 56(1), pp. 23–34 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1825026">1825026</a> .<br />   • _____ (1948b). "The Decisions of a Committee Using a Special Majority," <i>Econometrica</i>,16(3), pp. 245–261 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1907278">1907278</a>.<br />   • _____ (1969). "Lewis Carroll and the Theory of Games," <i>American Economic Review</i>, 59(2), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rangevoting.org/BlackCarrollAER2.pdf">206–210.</a><br />   • _____ (1976). "Partial Justification of the Borda Count," <i>Public Choice</i>, 28(1), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01718454?LI=true#page-1">1–15</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Grofman ([1987] 2008). "Black, Duncan (1908–1991)", <i>The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</i>, 2nd Edition. Preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000145&edition=current&q=&result_number=1">link</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongleton2018" class="citation journal cs1">Congleton, Roger D. (2018-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-018-0545-1">"Intellectual foundations of public choice, the forest from the trees"</a>. <i>Public Choice</i>. <b>175</b> (3): 229–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-018-0545-1">10.1007/s11127-018-0545-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7101">1573-7101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Choice&rft.atitle=Intellectual+foundations+of+public+choice%2C+the+forest+from+the+trees&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=229-244&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11127-018-0545-1&rft.issn=1573-7101&rft.aulast=Congleton&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11127-018-0545-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olson-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olson_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olson_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olson_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mancur Olson, Jr. ([1965] 1971). <i>The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups</i>, 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674537514">Description</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?recid=24500&content=toc">Table of Contents</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0/page/5">preview</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchananTullock1960" class="citation book cs1">Buchanan, James; Tullock, Gordon (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.7687"><i>The Calculus of Consent</i></a>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.7687">10.3998/mpub.7687</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06100-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06100-6"><bdi>978-0-472-06100-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Calculus+of+Consent&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.7687&rft.isbn=978-0-472-06100-6&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Tullock%2C+Gordon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.7687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter J. 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New York: Harper & Row, 1957 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fiorina, M. “Information and Rationality in Election.” In J.A. Ferejohn and J.H.Kuklinski (eds.), Information and Democratic Processes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990, pp. 329–342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tullock, G. Towards a Mathematics of Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Arrow, Kenneth J. (1951, 2nd ed., 1963). <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Choice_and_Individual_Values" title="Social Choice and Individual Values">Social Choice and Individual Values</a></i></li> <li>Black, Duncan (1958). <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Theory_of_Committees_and_Elections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Theory of Committees and Elections (page does not exist)">The Theory of Committees and Elections</a></i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Buchanan, James M. (1967). <i>Public Finance in Democratic Process: Fiscal Institutions and Individual Choice</i>, UNC Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-1115.html">Description</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130606170315/http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-1115.html">Archived</a> 2013-06-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, scrollable <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TS2tK4equ0YC&pg=PA3">preview</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TS2tK4equ0YC&pg=PA312">back cover</a></li> <li>_____ (1968). <i>The Demand and Supply of Public Goods. Rand McNally.</i></li> <li>_____ (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1986/buchanan-lecture.html#">"The Constitution of Economic Policy</a>, Nobel Prize lecture. Republished in 1987, <i>American Economic Review</i>, 77(3), pp. 243–250. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1804093">1804093</a></li> <li>_____ (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070314231418/http://www.gmu.edu/centers/publicchoice/pdf%20links/Booklet.pdf">"Public Choice: The Origins and Development of a Research Program,"</a> Center for Study of Public Choice at George Mason University, Fairfax: Virginia.</li> <li>_____, and Gordon Tullock (1962). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Calculus_of_Consent" title="The Calculus of Consent">The Calculus of Consent</a></i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</li> <li>Buchanan, James M. and <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Musgrave" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Musgrave">Richard A. Musgrave</a> (1999). <i>Public Finance and Public Choice: Two Contrasting Visions of the State</i>, MIT Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/public-finance-and-public-choice">Description</a> and scrollable preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEnjN7dKrzcC&pg=PR5">links.</a></li> <li>Downs, Anthony. (1957). <i><a href="/wiki/An_Economic_Theory_of_Democracy" title="An Economic Theory of Democracy">An Economic Theory of Democracy</a></i>. Cambridge: York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Hansjürgens, Bernd – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1005033202420?LI=true#page-1">The influence of Knut Wicksell on Richard Musgrave and James Buchanan</a></li> <li>Holcombe, R. G. (1989). "The Median Voter Model in Public Choice Theory", Public Choice 61, 115–125</li> <li>McKelvey, R. D. (1976). "Intransitivities in Multi Dimensional Voting Models and some Implications for Agenda Control", Journal of Economic Theory 12(3) 472–482</li> <li>MacKenzie, D. W. (2008). <i>The Use of Knowledge about Society</i>. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization.</li> <li>_____ (2008). <i>Politics and Knowledge: Expectations formation in Democracy</i>. Working paper, Presented at the Southern Economics Association Conference in 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_C._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis C. Mueller">Mueller, Dennis C.</a> (1976). "Public Choice: A Survey," <i>Journal of Economic Literature</i>, 14(2), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019084807/http://pages.uoregon.edu/cjellis/441/Mueller.pdf">395–433.</a></li> <li>_____ (2003). <i>Public Choice III</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CdIOKZWc3oMC&pg=PA774=onepage">Description</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CdIOKZWc3oMC&pg=PR7=onepage">preview.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Niskanen" title="William A. Niskanen">Niskanen, William A.</a> (1987). "Bureaucracy." In Charles K. Rowley, ed. <i>Democracy and Public Choice</i>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mancur_Olson" title="Mancur Olson">Olson, Mancur, Jr.</a> (1965, 2nd ed., 1971). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Collective_Action" title="The Logic of Collective Action">The Logic of Collective Action</a></i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0">Description</a> and chapter-previews links, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0">ix</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0">x.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom, Elinor</a> (1990). <i>Governing the Commons The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1140521/?site_locale=en_GB">Description</a> and preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governingcommons0000ostr">links.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521405997" title="Special:BookSources/9780521405997">9780521405997</a>.</li> <li>_____ (2010). "Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems," <i>American Economic Review</i>, 100(3), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105113916/http://bnp.binghamton.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Ostrom-2010-Polycentric-Governance.pdf">641–672</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ostrom" title="Vincent Ostrom">Ostrom, Vincent</a> (1986). <i>The Theory of the Compound Republic</i>. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. Second edition.</li> <li>Palda, Filip (2016). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Better-Kind-Violence-Political-Ultimate/dp/0987788078/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1481419971&sr=8-2&keywords=filip+palda">A Better Kind of Violence: The Chicago School of Political Economy, Public Choice, and The Quest for an Ultimate Theory of Power</a></i>. Cooper-Wolfling Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Riker" title="William H. Riker">Riker, William H.</a> (1962). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Political_Coalitions" title="The Theory of Political Coalitions">The Theory of Political Coalitions</a></i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.</li> <li>Romer, T. & Rosenthal, H. (1979). "The Elusive Median Voter", Journal of Public Economics 12(2) 143–170</li> <li>Rowley, Charles K., and Friedrich Schneider, ed. (2004). <i>The Encyclopedia of Public Choice</i>, 2 v. Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/economics/book/978-0-7923-8607-0">Description</a>, v. 1, chapter abstract and preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130315225156/http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/b108558/page/1">links</a>, and review <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30026602">30026602</a></li> <li>_____ and _____, eds. (2008). <i>Readings in Public Choice and Constitutional Political Economy</i>, Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GRWxNAEACAAJ">Description</a> and chapter-preview <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509183310/http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-75870-1/page/1">links.</a></li> <li>_____ and Laura Razzolini, eds. (2001). <i>The Elgar Companion to Public Choice</i>. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605092138/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/bookentry_mainUS.lasso?id=459">Description</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Wicksell, Knut</a> ([1896] 1958). "A New Principle of Just Taxation," trans. J.M. Buchanan, in <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Musgrave" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Musgrave">Richard A. Musgrave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_T._Peacock" title="Alan T. Peacock">Alan T. Peacock</a>, ed., <i>Classics in the Theory of Public Finance</i>, Palgrave Macmillan.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_choice&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorcherdingDillonWillett1998" class="citation journal cs1">Borcherding, T. E.; Dillon, P. & Willett, T. D. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1536-7150.1998.tb03269.x">"Henry George: Precursor to public choice analysis"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Journal_of_Economics_and_Sociology" title="The American Journal of Economics and Sociology">The American Journal of Economics and Sociology</a></i>. <b>57</b> (2): 173–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1536-7150.1998.tb03269.x">10.1111/j.1536-7150.1998.tb03269.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Economics+and+Sociology&rft.atitle=Henry+George%3A+Precursor+to+public+choice+analysis&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-182&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1536-7150.1998.tb03269.x&rft.aulast=Borcherding&rft.aufirst=T.+E.&rft.au=Dillon%2C+P.&rft.au=Willett%2C+T.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1536-7150.1998.tb03269.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaferLanda2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hafer, Catherine; Landa, Dimitri (August 2007). "Public goods in Federal systems". <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_Political_Science" title="Quarterly Journal of Political Science">Quarterly Journal of Political Science</a></i>. <b>2</b> (3): 253–275. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.485.7813">10.1.1.485.7813</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1561%2F100.00006001">10.1561/100.00006001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Public+goods+in+Federal+systems&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=253-275&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.485.7813%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1561%2F100.00006001&rft.aulast=Hafer&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Landa%2C+Dimitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTullockSeldonBrady2002" class="citation book cs1">Tullock, Gordon; Seldon, Arthur; Brady, Gordon L. (2002). <i>Government failure : a primer in public choice</i>. Washington, DC: Cato Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930865-20-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-930865-20-1"><bdi>1-930865-20-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Government+failure+%3A+a+primer+in+public+choice&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Cato+Institute&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-930865-20-1&rft.aulast=Tullock&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft.au=Seldon%2C+Arthur&rft.au=Brady%2C+Gordon+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler2012" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Eamonn (2012). <i>Public choice : a primer</i>. London: Institute of Economic Affairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-255-36650-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-255-36650-2"><bdi>978-0-255-36650-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+choice+%3A+a+primer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Institute+of+Economic+Affairs&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-255-36650-2&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Eamonn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiskanen2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_A._Niskanen" title="William A. Niskanen">Niskanen, William A.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Public Choice Economics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 405–407. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n250">10.4135/9781412965811.n250</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Public+Choice+Economics&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=405-407&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n250&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Niskanen&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+choice" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chicago_school_of_economics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chicago_school_economists" title="Template:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chicago_school_economists" title="Template talk:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago_school_economists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="Edit this 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title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Schwartz" title="Anna Schwartz">Anna Schwartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Brunner_(economist)" title="Karl Brunner (economist)">Karl Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_D._Cagan" title="Phillip D. Cagan">Phillip D. Cagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_G._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry G. Johnson">Harry G. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_H._Meltzer" title="Allan H. Meltzer">Allan H. Meltzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Laidler" title="David Laidler">David Laidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Sumner" title="Scott Sumner">Scott Sumner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">New economic history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North">Douglass North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Townsend" title="Robert M. Townsend">Robert M. Townsend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">New social economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Mincer" title="Jacob Mincer">Jacob Mincer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Heckman" title="James Heckman">James Heckman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherwin_Rosen" title="Sherwin Rosen">Sherwin Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_M._Murphy" title="Kevin M. Murphy">Kevin M. Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._List" title="John A. List">John A. List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudhir_Venkatesh" title="Sudhir Venkatesh">Sudhir Venkatesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitt" title="Steven Levitt">Steven Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_G._Fryer_Jr." title="Roland G. Fryer Jr.">Roland Fryer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Public choice theory">Public choice school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Gregory_Holcombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Randall Gregory Holcombe">Randall Holcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Downs" title="Anthony Downs">Anthony Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Niskanen" title="William A. Niskanen">William A. Niskanen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Caplan" title="Bryan Caplan">Bryan Caplan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Director" title="Aaron Director">Aaron Director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Landes" title="William Landes">William Landes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Epstein" title="Richard Epstein">Richard Epstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Easterbrook" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Easterbrook">Frank H. Easterbrook</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Business and finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Markowitz" title="Harry Markowitz">Harry Markowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_Scholes" title="Myron Scholes">Myron Scholes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merton_Miller" title="Merton Miller">Merton Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Simon" title="Julian Simon">Julian Lincoln Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Fama" title="Eugene Fama">Eugene Fama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_French" title="Kenneth French">Kenneth French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campbell_Harvey" title="Campbell Harvey">Campbell Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Peter_Hansen" title="Lars Peter Hansen">Lars Peter Hansen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Schools_of_economic_thought" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Template:Schools of economic thought"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Template talk:Schools of economic thought"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Schools of economic thought"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Schools_of_economic_thought" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools of economic thought</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">Cameralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern philosophy">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_School_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham School (economics)">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_economics" title="Ricardian economics">Ricardian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_liberal_school" title="French liberal school">French liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">German historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Marxian critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />(20th and<br />21st centuries)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capability_approach" title="Capability approach">Capability approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnegie_School" title="Carnegie School">Carnegie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Monetary Theory">Modern Monetary Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freiburg_school" title="Freiburg school">Freiburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">Neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_Keynesianism#Heterodoxy_and_Keynes–Marx_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism and Keynesianism">Keynes–Marx synthesis</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Malthusianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Malthusianism">Neo-Malthusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ricardianism" title="Neo-Ricardianism">Neo-Ricardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Schumpeterian_economics" title="Neo-Schumpeterian economics">Neo-Schumpeterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">Rational expectations theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">New neoclassical synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_school" title="Regulation school">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_and_freshwater_economics" title="Saltwater and freshwater economics">Saltwater/freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm school (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralist_economics" title="Structuralist economics">Structuralist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy_movement" title="Technocracy movement">Technocracy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermoeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_school_of_political_economy" title="Virginia school of political economy">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_credit" title="Social credit">Social credit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History of economic thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_macroeconomic_thought" title="History of macroeconomic thought">History of macroeconomic thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-autistic_economics" title="Post-autistic economics">Post-autistic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Libertarianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Libertarianism" title="Template:Libertarianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Libertarianism" title="Template talk:Libertarianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Libertarianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian capitalism</a></span><br /><span style="vertical-align:1px;">(<a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_libertarianism" title="Christian libertarianism">Christian libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Conservative libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialist_libertarianism" title="Consequentialist libertarianism">Consequentialist libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_transhumanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian transhumanism">Libertarian transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Minarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-rights_libertarianism" title="Natural-rights libertarianism">Natural-rights libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-classical liberalism">Neo-classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Bleeding-heart libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertarianism" title="Propertarianism">Propertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntaryism" title="Voluntaryism">Voluntaryism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></span><br /><span style="vertical-align:1px;">(<a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">collectivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_communism" title="Anarchist communism">communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">free-market</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Agorism">agorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">individualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian communism">libertarian communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anarchism" title="Philosophical anarchism">philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho_syndicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho syndicalism">syndicalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">Guild socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian Marxism">Libertarian Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">Abstention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_consent_reform" title="Age of consent reform">Age of consent reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Antimilitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">Anti-statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_freedom" title="Artistic freedom">Artistic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-economics" title="Counter-economics">Counter-economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-anarchism">Crypto-anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_sex_work" title="Decriminalization of sex work">Decriminalization of sex work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departurism" title="Departurism">Departurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_liberalization" title="Drug liberalization">Drug liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evictionism" title="Evictionism">Evictionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriative_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriative anarchism">Expropriative anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism#Federalism_and_localism_in_anarchist_political_theory" title="Federalism">Federalism (anarchist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_(Marxism_and_anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free association (Marxism and anarchism)">Free association (Marxism and anarchism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_environmentalism" title="Free-market environmentalism">Free-market environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_migration" title="Free migration">Free migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#Libertarian" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_choice" title="Freedom of choice">Freedom of choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_conscience" title="Freedom of conscience">Freedom of conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">Freedom of contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">Homestead principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual reclamation">Individual reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism (metaphysics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights and legal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">Non-interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Right to sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_tax" title="Single tax">Single tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">Stateless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_society" title="Voluntary society">Voluntary society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Left-wing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">Cleyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_D%C3%A9jacque" title="Joseph Déjacque">Déjacque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gu%C3%A9rin" title="Daniel Guérin">Guérin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hodgskin" title="Thomas Hodgskin">Hodgskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_%C3%96calan" title="Abdullah Öcalan">Öcalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Right-wing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Block" title="Walter Block">Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Brennan" title="Jason Brennan">Brennan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_D._Friedman" title="David D. Friedman">D. Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">M. Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Friedman" title="Rose Friedman">R. Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auberon_Herbert" title="Auberon Herbert">Herbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penn_Jillette" title="Penn Jillette">Jillette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Kinsella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Korwin-Mikke" title="Janusz Korwin-Mikke">Korwin-Mikke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Wilder_Lane" title="Rose Wilder Lane">Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_de_Molinari" title="Gustave de Molinari">de Molinari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Jay_Nock" title="Albert Jay Nock">Nock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_Paterson" title="Isabel Paterson">Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Read" title="Leonard Read">Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Simon" title="Julian Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stossel" title="John Stossel">Stossel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Hess" title="Karl Hess">Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Edward_Konkin_III" title="Samuel Edward Konkin III">Konkin III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">de La Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_McElroy" title="Wendy McElroy">McElroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Szasz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Farage" title="Nigel Farage">Farage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Johnson" title="Gary Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Jorgensen" title="Jo Jorgensen">Jorgensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Korwin-Mikke" title="Janusz Korwin-Mikke">Korwin-Mikke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javier_Milei" title="Javier Milei">Milei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Sarwark" title="Nicholas Sarwark">Sarwark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_abortion" title="Libertarian perspectives on abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_affirmative_action" title="Libertarian perspectives on affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism_and_minarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism">Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_capital_punishment" title="Libertarian perspectives on capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_libertarianism" title="Criticism of libertarianism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_foreign_intervention" title="Libertarian perspectives on foreign intervention">Foreign intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_immigration" title="Libertarian perspectives on immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debates_within_libertarianism" title="Debates within libertarianism">Internal debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_LGBT_rights" title="Libertarian perspectives on LGBT rights">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_and_libertarianism" title="Objectivism and libertarianism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_political_alliances" title="Libertarian perspectives on political alliances">Political alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libertarian_political_parties" title="List of libertarian political parties">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_the_War_on_Drugs" title="Legality of the War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Shrugged" title="Atlas Shrugged">Atlas Shrugged</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1957)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Market_for_Liberty" title="The Market for Liberty">The Market for Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/For_a_New_Liberty" title="For a New Liberty">For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1973)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law,_Legislation_and_Liberty" title="Law, Legislation and Liberty">Law, Legislation and Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1973–1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1974)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Free_to_Choose" title="Free to Choose">Free to Choose</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-collectivism">Anti-collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_socialism" title="Criticism of socialism">Anti-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austro-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Libertarian_Studies" title="Center for Libertarian Studies">Center for Libertarian Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_libertarianism" title="Civil libertarianism">Civil libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_on_the_land_movement" title="Freeman on the land movement">Freeman on the land movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_libertarianism" title="Green libertarianism">Green libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Democrat" title="Libertarian Democrat">Libertarian Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_science_fiction" title="Libertarian science fiction">Libertarian science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_South_Africa" title="Libertarianism in South Africa">Libertarianism in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarianism in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarianism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Small government">Small government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_citizen_movement" title="Sovereign citizen movement">Sovereign citizen movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technolibertarianism" title="Technolibertarianism">Technolibertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/28px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/42px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/56px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="647" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Libertarianism" title="Portal:Libertarianism">Libertarianism portal</a></b></li> <li><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_libertarianism" title="Outline of libertarianism">Outline of libertarianism</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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