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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodization_as_a_field_of_Political_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Periodization as a field of Political Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodization_as_a_field_of_Political_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_patterns,_2000–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_patterns,_2000–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Contemporary patterns, 2000–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_patterns,_2000–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substantive_areas_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substantive_areas_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Substantive areas of research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substantive_areas_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Super_Regions,_Regions_of_the_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Super_Regions,_Regions_of_the_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Super Regions, Regions of the World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Super_Regions,_Regions_of_the_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-(Mill's)_comparative_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#(Mill's)_comparative_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>(Mill's) comparative method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-(Mill's)_comparative_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subnational_comparative_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subnational_comparative_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Subnational comparative analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subnational_comparative_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-More_Methodologies_and_Approaches_[30]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#More_Methodologies_and_Approaches_[30]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>More Methodologies and Approaches <sup><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-More_Methodologies_and_Approaches_[30]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Contemporary Trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_Trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary Trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1._Globalization_and_Its_Political_Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1._Globalization_and_Its_Political_Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>1. Globalization and Its Political Impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1._Globalization_and_Its_Political_Impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2._Digital_Technology_and_Political_Change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2._Digital_Technology_and_Political_Change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>2. Digital Technology and Political Change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2._Digital_Technology_and_Political_Change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-3._The_Rise_of_Authoritarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#3._The_Rise_of_Authoritarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>3. The Rise of Authoritarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-3._The_Rise_of_Authoritarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-4._Environmental_Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#4._Environmental_Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>4. Environmental Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-4._Environmental_Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-5._Identity_Politics_and_Social_Movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#5._Identity_Politics_and_Social_Movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>5. Identity Politics and Social Movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-5._Identity_Politics_and_Social_Movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-6._The_Role_of_International_Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#6._The_Role_of_International_Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>6. The Role of International Organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-6._The_Role_of_International_Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Comparative politics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A9" title="سياسة مقارنة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سياسة مقارنة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCqayis%C9%99li_siyas%C9%99t" title="Müqayisəli siyasət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müqayisəli siyasət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Параўнальная паліталогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Параўнальная паліталогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_comparada" title="Política comparada – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Política comparada" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komparativ_politik" title="Komparativ politik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Komparativ politik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergleichende_Politikwissenschaft" title="Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_comparada" title="Política comparada – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Política comparada" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompara_politiko" title="Kompara politiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kompara politiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C" title="سیاست تطبیقی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاست تطبیقی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politique_compar%C3%A9e" title="Politique comparée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Politique comparée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EA%B5%90%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%ED%95%99" title="비교정치학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비교정치학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Համեմատական քաղաքագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համեմատական քաղաքագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="तुलनात्मक राजनीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तुलनात्मक राजनीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_komparatif" title="Politik komparatif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Politik komparatif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politica_comparata" title="Politica comparata – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Politica comparata" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פוליטיקה השוואתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוליטיקה השוואתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5" title="Партиялық жүйе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Партиялық жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_konpare" title="Politik konpare – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Politik konpare" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal%C4%ABdzino%C5%A1%C4%81_politolo%C4%A3ija" title="Salīdzinošā politoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Salīdzinošā politoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="तौलनिक राजकारण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तौलनिक राजकारण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E8%BC%83%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="比較政治学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="比較政治学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammenlignende_politikk" title="Sammenlignende politikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sammenlignende politikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanliknande_politikk" title="Samanliknande politikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samanliknande politikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyosiy_siyosat" title="Qiyosiy siyosat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qiyosiy siyosat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сравнительная политология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сравнительная политология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primerjalne_politike" title="Primerjalne politike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Primerjalne politike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komparativ_politik" title="Komparativ politik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Komparativ politik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komparatibong_politika" title="Komparatibong politika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Komparatibong politika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1la%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rmal%C4%B1_siyaset" title="Karşılaştırmalı siyaset – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karşılaştırmalı siyaset" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/National_Assembly_Building%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg/270px-National_Assembly_Building%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/National_Assembly_Building%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg/360px-National_Assembly_Building%2C_Abuja%2C_Nigeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliament_in_company_gardens_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Parliament of South Africa, South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Parliament_in_company_gardens_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Parliament_in_company_gardens_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="108" class="mw-file-element" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ottawa_-_ON_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude_%28Centre_Block%29.jpg/270px-Ottawa_-_ON_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude_%28Centre_Block%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ottawa_-_ON_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude_%28Centre_Block%29.jpg/360px-Ottawa_-_ON_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude_%28Centre_Block%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3404" data-file-height="2180" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bundestag, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg/180px-Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg/270px-Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg/360px-Berlin_Reichstag_BW_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3687" data-file-height="2436" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:119px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_(2014).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="National Congress of Argentina, Argentina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG/179px-Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="179" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG/269px-Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG/358px-Palacio_del_Congreso_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n_Argentina_%282014%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:119px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="National Congress of Brazil, Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg/180px-Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg/270px-Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg/360px-Pal%C3%A1cio_Nereu_Ramos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4904" data-file-height="3248" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><b>Select parliaments of the world</b>, from top left to right: <b>1.</b> <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>; <b>2.</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>; <b>3.</b> <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliament of Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>; <b>4.</b> <a href="/wiki/Jatiya_Sangsad" title="Jatiya Sangsad">Jatiya Sangsad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>; <b>5.</b> <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>; <b>6.</b> <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament of Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>; <b>7.</b> <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Nigeria)" title="National Assembly (Nigeria)">National Assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>; <b>8.</b> <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_South_Africa" title="Parliament of South Africa">Parliament of South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>; <b>9.</b> <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament of Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>; <b>10.</b> <a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>; <b>11.</b> <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Argentina" title="National Congress of Argentina">National Congress of Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>; <b>12.</b> <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Brazil" title="National Congress of Brazil">National Congress of Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political 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href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Comparative Politics</b> is a field in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political Science</a> characterized either by the use of the <i><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">comparative method</a></i> or other empirical methods to explore politics both within and between countries. Substantively, this can include questions relating to <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">political institutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Political behavior">political behavior</a>, conflict, and the causes and consequences of <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>. When applied to specific fields of study, Comparative Politics may be referred to by other names, such as <b>comparative government</b> (the comparative study of forms of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Comparative Politics is the systematic study and comparison of the diverse Political Systems in the world. Comparative Politics analyzes differences in political regimes, governance structures, electoral systems, policy outcomes, and public administration across countries, regions, or time periods. It is comparative in searching to explain why different Political Systems have similarities or differences and how developmental changes came to be between them. It is systematic in that it looks for trends, patterns, and regularities among these Political Systems. The research field takes into account Political Systems throughout the globe, focusing on themes such as <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, and integration. New theories and approaches have been used in Political Science in the last 40 years thanks to Comparative Politics. Some of these focus on <a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">political culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependency theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmentalism" title="Developmentalism">developmentalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">corporatism</a>, indigenous theories of change, comparative political economy, state-society relations, and new institutionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of Comparative Politics are studying the differences between presidential and <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracies">democracies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorships</a>, parliamentary systems in different countries, multi-party systems such as <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and two-party systems such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Comparative Politics must be conducted at a specific point in time, usually the present. A researcher cannot compare systems from different periods of time; it must be static.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While historically the discipline explored broad questions in political science through between-country comparisons, contemporary comparative political science primarily uses subnational comparisons.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, there has been a significant increase in the interest of subnational comparisons and the benefit it has on Comparative Politics. We would know far less about major credible issues within political science if it weren't for subnational research. Subnational research contributes important methodological, theoretical, and substantive ideas to the study of politics.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important developments often obscured by a national-level focus are easier to decipher through subnational research. An example could be regions inside countries where the presence of state institutions have been reduced in effect or value.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name C<b>omparative Politics</b> refers to the discipline's historical association with the <a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">comparative method</a>, described in detail <a href="/wiki/Comparative_Politics#(Mill's)_Comparative_Method" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative Politics">below</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arend_Lijphart" title="Arend Lijphart">Arend Lijphart</a> argues that Comparative Politics does not have a <i>substantive</i> focus in itself, but rather a <i>methodological</i> one: it focuses on "the <i>how</i> but does not specify the <i>what</i> of the analysis."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mair" title="Peter Mair">Peter Mair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rose_(political_scientist)" title="Richard Rose (political scientist)">Richard Rose</a> advance a slightly different definition, arguing that Comparative Politics is defined by a combination of a <i>substantive</i> focus on the study of countries' Political Systems and a <i>method</i> of identifying and explaining similarities and differences between these countries using common concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rose_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes, especially in the United States, the term "Comparative Politics" is used to refer to "the politics of foreign countries." This usage of the term is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vanBiezen_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanBiezen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Comparative Politics is essential for understanding the nature and functions of Political Systems worldwide, political structures around the world vary significantly across countries due to historical, social, ethical, and racial differences. Even political organizations that are similar operate differently from one another. For instance, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and the United States are majority-rule nations; nonetheless, the U.S. has a liberal vote-based <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential system</a> contrasted with the parliamentary system used in India. Even the political decision measure is more diverse in the United States when found in light of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Popular_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular government">popular government</a>. The United States has a president as their leader, while India has a <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>. Relative legislative issues encourage us to comprehend these central contracts and how the two nations are altogether different regardless of being majority rule. This field of study is critical for the fields of international relations and conflict resolution. Near politics encourages international relations to clarify worldwide legislative issues and the present winning conditions worldwide. Although both are subfields of Political Science, Comparative Politics examines the causes of international strategy and the effect of worldwide approaches and frameworks on homegrown political conduct and working. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_field">History of the field</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of the field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Harry_H._Eckstein" title="Harry H. Eckstein">Harry H. Eckstein</a> traces the history of the field of Comparative Politics back to Aristotle, and sees a string of thinkers from <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Robert Michels</a>, on to <a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">James Bryce</a> – with his <i>Modern Democracies</i> (1921) – and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Joachim_Friedrich" title="Carl Joachim Friedrich">Carl Joachim Friedrich</a> – with his <i>Constitutional Government and Democracy</i> (1937) – contributing to its history.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_traditions_reaching_back_to_Aristotle_and_Plato">Two traditions reaching back to Aristotle and Plato</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Two traditions reaching back to Aristotle and Plato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Philippe_C._Schmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe C. Schmitter">Philippe C. Schmitter</a> argues that the "family tree" of Comparative Politics has two main traditions: one, invented by Aristotle, that he calls "sociological constitutionalism"; a second, that he traced back to Plato, that he calls "legal constitutionalism"".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Schmitter places various scholars under each tradition: </p> <ul><li>1. <i>Sociological constitutionalism</i>: Some classic in this tradition are: "<a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_von_Stein" title="Lorenz von Stein">Lorenz von Stein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moisey_Ostrogorsky" title="Moisey Ostrogorsky">Moisei Ostrogorski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Emile Durkheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Robert Michels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Tingsten" title="Herbert Tingsten">Herbert Tingsten</a>." Schmitter argues that, in the twentieth century, this tradition was known by the label of "historical <a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">political sociology</a>" and included scholars such as "<a href="/wiki/Stein_Rokkan" title="Stein Rokkan">Stein Rokkan</a>, <a href="/wiki/T._H._Marshall" title="T. H. Marshall">T. H. Marshall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Bendix" title="Reinhard Bendix">Reinhard Bendix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kirchheimer" title="Otto Kirchheimer">Otto Kirchheimer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Martin_Lipset" title="Seymour Martin Lipset">Seymour Martin Lipset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Linz" title="Juan José Linz">Juan Linz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Daalder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Daalder (page does not exist)">Hans Daalder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mattei_Dogan" title="Mattei Dogan">Mattei Dogan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Eisenstadt" title="Shmuel Eisenstadt">Shmuel Eisenstadt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_H._Eckstein" title="Harry H. Eckstein">Harry H. Eckstein</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dankwart_Rustow" title="Dankwart Rustow">Dankwart Rustow</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2. <i>Legal constitutionalism</i>: Some classic scholars in this tradition are: "<a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Duguit" title="Léon Duguit">Léon Duguit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Burdeau" title="Georges Burdeau">Georges Burdeau</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">James Bryce</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._Lawrence_Lowell" title="A. Lawrence Lowell">A. Lawrence Lowell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>." Schmitter argues that in the twentieth century this tradition was continued by: "<a href="/wiki/Maurice_Duverger" title="Maurice Duverger">Maurice Duverger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Finer" title="Herman Finer">Herman Finer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Finer" title="Samuel Finer">Samuel Finer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Sartori" title="Giovanni Sartori">Giovanni Sartori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Joachim_Friedrich" title="Carl Joachim Friedrich">Carl Joachim Friedrich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beer" title="Samuel Beer">Samuel Beer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Blondel" title="Jean Blondel">Jean Blondel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_A._Hermens" title="Ferdinand A. Hermens">Ferdinand A. Hermens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Beyme" title="Klaus von Beyme">Klaus von Beyme</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodization_as_a_field_of_Political_Science">Periodization as a field of Political Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Periodization as a field of Political Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gerardo_L._Munck" title="Gerardo L. Munck">Gerardo L. Munck</a> offers the following periodization for the evolution of modern Comparative Politics, as a field of <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political Science</a> - understood as an <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a> - in the United States:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>1. The Constitution of Political Science as a Discipline, 1880–1920</li> <li>2. The <a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioral Revolution</a>, 1921–1966</li> <li>3. The Post-Behavioral Period, 1967–1988</li> <li>4. The Second Scientific Revolution 1989–2005</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_patterns,_2000–present"><span id="Contemporary_patterns.2C_2000.E2.80.93present"></span>Contemporary patterns, 2000–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contemporary patterns, 2000–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the turn of the century, several trends in the field can be detected.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>End of the pretense of rational choice theory to hegemonize the field</li> <li>Lack of a unifying <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">metatheory</a></li> <li>Greater attention to <a href="/wiki/Causal_inference" title="Causal inference">causal inference</a>, and increased use of <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental methods</a>.</li> <li>Continued use of observation methods, including qualitative methods.</li> <li>New concern with a "hegemony of methods" as theorizing is not given as much attention.</li> <li>Decline of Rational Choice Theory's Dominance <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Absence of a Unifying Metatheory</li> <li>Increased Focus on Causal Inference and Experimental Methods</li> <li>Continued Use of Observational and Qualitative Methods</li> <li>Concerns About Methodological Dominance</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substantive_areas_of_research">Substantive areas of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Substantive areas of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By some definitions, Comparative Politics can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">The Politics</a></i>. </p><p>As a modern sub-discipline, Comparative Politics is constituted by research across a range of substantive areas, including the study </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif/299px-United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif" decoding="async" width="299" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif/449px-United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif/598px-United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_wealth_compared_to_the_rest_of_the_world.gif" title="File:United States wealth compared to the rest of the world.gif">United States Wealth Compared to other regions of the world.</a> </figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Politics of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> states</li> <li>Politics of <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> states</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a> provision and distributive politics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Political identity</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic</a> and religious politics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">regime change</a></li> <li>Elections and <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">electoral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">party systems</a></li> <li>Political economy of <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">development</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">Collective action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_behavior" title="Voting behavior">Voting behavior</a></li> <li>Origins of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a></li> <li>Comparative political <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_methodology" title="Political methodology">Methodologies</a> for comparative political research</li> <li>Quantitative politics with <a href="/wiki/Democracy_indices" title="Democracy indices">democracy indices</a></li></ul> <p>While many researchers, research regimes, and research institutions are identified according to the above categories or foci, it is not uncommon to claim geographic or country specialization as the differentiating category. </p><p>The division between Comparative Politics and international relations is artificial, as processes within nations shape international processes, and international processes shape processes within states.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars have called for an integration of the fields.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparative Politics does not have similar "isms" as international relations scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Super_Regions,_Regions_of_the_World"><span id="Super_Regions.2C_Regions_of_the_World"></span>Super Regions, Regions of the World</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Super Regions, Regions of the World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Comparative Politics examines various parts of the world. Political scientists reference super regions and the key countries within them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding which region is being referenced and what key nations the scientists are conducting research on is an essential part of comparative politics. however discussing comparative politics is a difficult topic. The American education system has failed to educate its students on geography in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In political studies, identifying continents is crucial, as they encompass super regions within them, vast territories that share many similarities. For example, Latin America shares a common culture and language. Within super regions are smaller regions consisting of groups of individual countries that exhibit more closely related similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the name of the subfield suggests one <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> approach (<i><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">the comparative method</a></i>), political scientists in Comparative Politics use the same diversity of social scientific methods as scientists elsewhere in the field, including experiments,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comparative historical analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> case studies,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">survey methodology</a>, and ethnography.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers choose a methodological approach in Comparative Politics driven by two concerns: ontological orientation<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the type of question or phenomenon of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="(Mill's)_comparative_method"><span id=".28Mill.27s.29_comparative_method"></span>(Mill's) comparative method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: (Mill's) comparative method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Most_Similar_Systems_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Most Similar Systems Design">Most Similar Systems Design</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Method_of_Difference" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Method of Difference">Mill's Method of Difference</a>: This method consists in comparing very similar cases which only differ in the <i>dependent variable</i>, on the assumption that this would make it easier to find those <i>independent variables</i> which explain the presence/absence of the dependent variable.<sup id="cite_ref-Anckar,_Carsten_2008_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anckar,_Carsten_2008-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most_Different_Systems_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Most Different Systems Design">Most Different Systems Design</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Method_of_Similarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Method of Similarity">Mill's Method of Similarity</a>: This method consists in comparing very different cases, all of which however have in common the same <i>dependent variable</i>, so that any other circumstance which is present in all the cases can be regarded as the <i>independent variable</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anckar,_Carsten_2008_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anckar,_Carsten_2008-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subnational_comparative_analysis">Subnational comparative analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Subnational comparative analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the turn of the century, many students of comparative politics have compared units within a country. Relatedly, there has been a growing discussion of what Richard O. Snyder calls the "subnational comparative method."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="More_Methodologies_and_Approaches_[30]"><span id="More_Methodologies_and_Approaches_.5B30.5D"></span>More Methodologies and Approaches <sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: More Methodologies and Approaches [30]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Qualitative methods:</b> Case studies, interviews, ethnography.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Quantitative methods:</b> Statistical analysis, large-N comparisons.</li> <li><b>Mixed methods:</b> Combining both for more holistic insights.</li> <li><b>New methodologies:</b> Computational methods (e.g., big data analytics, network analysis).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_Trends">Contemporary Trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Contemporary Trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, the field of Comparative Politics has evolved to address new challenges and developments in global and domestic political landscapes. Scholars have increasingly focused on the following trends: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1._Globalization_and_Its_Political_Impacts">1. Globalization and Its Political Impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1. Globalization and Its Political Impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The interconnectedness of nations has transformed Political Systems and governance structures. Globalization has led to the diffusion of democratic norms, the rise of international organizations, and the increasing influence of transnational actors. At the same time, it has sparked debates over sovereignty and the backlash against global integration, exemplified by the rise of nationalist movements and populist leaders in various countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2._Digital_Technology_and_Political_Change">2. Digital Technology and Political Change</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 2. Digital Technology and Political Change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rapid proliferation of digital technology has revolutionized political communication, campaigning, and governance. Social media platforms have become crucial tools for political mobilization and grassroots activism. However, they have also been exploited for disinformation campaigns and cyber interference in elections, raising concerns about the impact of technology on democratic processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="3._The_Rise_of_Authoritarianism">3. The Rise of Authoritarianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 3. The Rise of Authoritarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While democracy has spread in many regions, there has been a concurrent resurgence of authoritarianism in others. Authoritarian regimes have employed sophisticated techniques, such as surveillance technology and media manipulation, to consolidate power. Comparative Politics now examines how such regimes adapt to global pressures while maintaining domestic control. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="4._Environmental_Politics">4. Environmental Politics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 4. Environmental Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Climate change and environmental crises have become central concerns in Comparative Politics. Governments worldwide are addressing these issues through diverse policy approaches, ranging from international agreements like the Paris Accord to localized initiatives. Comparative studies analyze how Political Systems and cultures influence the effectiveness of environmental policies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="5._Identity_Politics_and_Social_Movements">5. Identity Politics and Social Movements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 5. Identity Politics and Social Movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Issues of identity, including race, gender, and ethnicity, have gained prominence in political discourse and policy debates. Comparative Politics explores how social movements advocating for equality and justice shape political outcomes, as well as how governments respond to these movements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="6._The_Role_of_International_Organizations">6. The Role of International Organizations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 6. The Role of International Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Institutions like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and regional bodies such as the European Union have gained importance in shaping domestic policies. Comparative Politics studies how states interact with these organizations and the implications for national sovereignty and governance.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg/200px-Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg/301px-Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg/400px-Introduction_to_Comparative_Politics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comparative_Political_Studies" title="Comparative Political Studies">Comparative Political Studies</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_juncture_theory" title="Critical juncture theory">Critical juncture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_institutionalism" title="Historical institutionalism">Historical institutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_electoral_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of electoral systems">Comparison of electoral systems</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWiarda2019" class="citation book cs1">Wiarda, Howard (June 17, 2019). Wiarda, Howard J (ed.). <i>New Directions in Comparative Politics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429494932">10.4324/9780429494932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49493-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49493-2"><bdi>978-0-429-49493-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199146538">199146538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Directions+in+Comparative+Politics&rft.date=2019-06-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199146538%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429494932&rft.isbn=978-0-429-49493-2&rft.aulast=Wiarda&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkGolderGolder2019" class="citation book cs1">Clark, William; Golder, Matt; Golder, Sona (2019). <i>Foundations of Comparative Politics</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5063-6073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5063-6073-7"><bdi>978-1-5063-6073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Comparative+Politics&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5063-6073-7&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Golder%2C+Matt&rft.au=Golder%2C+Sona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiraudy2019" class="citation book cs1">Giraudy, Agustina (2019). Giraudy, Agustina; Moncada, Eduardo; Snyder, Richard (eds.). <i>Subnational Research in Comparative Politics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108678384">10.1017/9781108678384</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-67838-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-67838-4"><bdi>978-1-108-67838-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242754128">242754128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subnational+Research+in+Comparative+Politics&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242754128%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108678384&rft.isbn=978-1-108-67838-4&rft.aulast=Giraudy&rft.aufirst=Agustina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLijphart1971" class="citation journal cs1">Lijphart, Arend (1971). "Comparative politics and the comparative method". <i>American Political Science Review</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 682–693. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1955513">10.2307/1955513</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1955513">1955513</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55713809">55713809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Comparative+politics+and+the+comparative+method&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=682-693&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55713809%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1955513%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1955513&rft.aulast=Lijphart&rft.aufirst=Arend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1996" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Peter (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606215002/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oso/414665/1998/00000001/00000001/art00016">"Comparative politics: An introduction to comparative.overview"</a>. In Goodin, Robert E.; Klingemann, Hans-Dieter (eds.). <i>A New Handbook of Political Science</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 309–335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-829471-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-829471-9"><bdi>0-19-829471-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oso/414665/1998/00000001/00000001/art00016">the original</a> on 2011-06-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+politics%3A+An+introduction+to+comparative.overview&rft.btitle=A+New+Handbook+of+Political+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=309-335&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-829471-9&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Foso%2F414665%2F1998%2F00000001%2F00000001%2Fart00016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rose-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rose_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoseMacKenzie1991" class="citation journal cs1">Rose, Richard; MacKenzie, W. J. M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121021212603/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119347508/abstract">"Comparing forms of comparative analysis"</a>. <i>Political Studies</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 446–462. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9248.1991.tb01622.x">10.1111/j.1467-9248.1991.tb01622.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145410195">145410195</a>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119347508/abstract">the original</a></span> on 2012-10-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Comparing+forms+of+comparative+analysis&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=446-462&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9248.1991.tb01622.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145410195%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=MacKenzie%2C+W.+J.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F119347508%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkin, J. [2002 (1995)] "Comparative Methods", in Marsh, D. and G. Stoker (ed.) <i>Theory and Methods in Political Science</i>, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 249–250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vanBiezen-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vanBiezen_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_BiezenCaramani,_Daniele2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ingrid_van_Biezen" title="Ingrid van Biezen">van Biezen, Ingrid</a>; Caramani, Daniele (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130105101016/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118602277/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0">"(Non)comparative politics in Britain"</a>. <i>Politics</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 29–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9256.2006.00248.x">10.1111/j.1467-9256.2006.00248.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145654851">145654851</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118602277/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0">the original</a> on 2013-01-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politics&rft.atitle=%28Non%29comparative+politics+in+Britain&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-37&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9256.2006.00248.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145654851%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=van+Biezen&rft.aufirst=Ingrid&rft.au=Caramani%2C+Daniele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F118602277%2Fabstract%3FCRETRY%3D1%26SRETRY%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry Eckstein, "A Perspective on Comparative Politics, Past and Present," pp. 3–32, in David Apter and Harry Eckstein (eds.), <i>Comparative Politics: A Reader</i> (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/24808_Ch_01.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippe C. Schmitter, "The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics." <i>European Political Science Review</i> 1,1 (2009): 33–61, pp. 36–38. Schmitter's depiction of the "family tree" of comparative politics can be found here: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/SPS/Profiles/Schmitter/Thefamilytreeofcomppol.pdf">https://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/SPS/Profiles/Schmitter/Thefamilytreeofcomppol.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philippe_C._Schmitter_2009_p._38_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippe C. Schmitter, "The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics." <i>European Political Science Review</i> 1,1 (2009): 33–61, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerardo L. Munck, "The Past and Present of Comparative Politics," pp. 32-59, in Munck and Richard Snyder, <i>Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics</i> (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.415.8830&rep=rep1&type=pdf">[2]</a> Munck's periodization has been validated by Matthew Charles Wilson, "Trends in Political Science Research and the Progress of Comparative Politics," <i>PS: Political Science & Politics</i> 50(4)(2017): 979-984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder "Comparative Politics at a Crossroad: Problems, Opportunities and Prospects from the North and South." <i>Política y Gobierno</i> (Mexico) 26, 1 (2019): 139-58 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/pyg/v26n1/1665-2037-pyg-26-01-139.pdf">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2017" class="citation web cs1">Wilson, Matthew Charles (October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://matthewcharleswilson.com/PSpaper.pdf">"Trends in Political Science Research and the Progress of Comparative Politics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trends+in+Political+Science+Research+and+the+Progress+of+Comparative+Politics&rft.date=2017-10&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmatthewcharleswilson.com%2FPSpaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopsteinLichbach2005" class="citation book cs1">Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NDP8RVXvlUMC"><i>Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order</i></a>. 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(2016-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41111-016-0038-7">"Comparative Politics: its Past, Present and Future"</a>. <i>Chinese Political Science Review</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 397–411. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41111-016-0038-7">10.1007/s41111-016-0038-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2365-4252">2365-4252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Comparative+Politics%3A+its+Past%2C+Present+and+Future&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=397-411&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs41111-016-0038-7&rft.issn=2365-4252&rft.aulast=Schmitter&rft.aufirst=Philippe+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs41111-016-0038-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1972" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Geoffrey K. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44483698">"Comparative Politics Today"</a>. <i>Government and Opposition</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 38–55. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-257X">0017-257X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Government+and+Opposition&rft.atitle=Comparative+Politics+Today&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38-55&rft.date=1972&rft.issn=0017-257X&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44483698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComparative+politics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alford, Robert R., and Roger Friedland. 1985. <i>Powers of Theory. Capitalism, the State, and Democracy</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Almond, Gabriel A. 1968. "Politics, Comparative," pp. 331–36, in David L. Sills (ed.), <i>International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences</i> Vol. 12. New York: Macmillan.</li> <li>Baldez, Lisa. 2010. "The Gender Lacuna in Comparative Politics". <i>Perspectives on Politics</i> 8(1): 199–205.</li> <li>Boix, Carles, and Susan C. Stokes (eds.). 2007. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics</i>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Campus, Donatella, and Gianfranco Pasquino (eds.). 2009. <i>Masters of Political Science</i>, Vol. 1. Colchester: ECPR Press.</li> <li>Campus, Donatella, Gianfranco Pasquino, and Martin Bull (eds.). 2011. <i>Masters of Political Science</i>, Vol. 2. Colchester: ECPR Press.</li> <li>Chilcote, Ronald H., 1994. <i>Theories of Comparative Politics: The Search for a Paradigm Revisited</i>, Second edition. Boulder: Westview Press.</li> <li>Daalder, Hans (ed.). 1997. <i>Comparative European Politics: The Story of a Profession</i>. London: Pinter.</li> <li>Dosek, Tomas. 2020. "Multilevel Research Designs: Case Selection, Levels of Analysis, and Scope Conditions". <i>Studies in Comparative International Development</i> 55:4" 460–80.</li> <li>Eckstein, Harry. 1963. "A Perspective on Comparative Politics, Past and Present," pp. 3–32, in David Apter and Harry Eckstein (eds.), <i>Comparative Politics: A Reader</i>. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/24808_Ch_01.pdf">[4]</a></li> <li>Janos, Andrew C. 1986. <i>Politics and Paradigms. Changing Theories of Change in Social Science</i>. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Landman, Todd, and Neil Robinson (eds.). 2009. <i>The Sage Handbook of Comparative Politics</i>. London: Sage Publications.</li> <li>Lichbach, Mark Irving, and Alan S. Zuckerman (eds.). 2009. <i>Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure</i>, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Mair, Peter. 1996. "Comparative Politics: An Overview," pp. 309–35, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), <i>A New Handbook of Political Science</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Munck, Gerardo L. 2007. "The Past and Present of Comparative Politics," pp. 32–59, in Gerardo Munck and Richard Snyder, <i>Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics</i>. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li>Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). 2007. <i>Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics</i>. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li>Pepinsky, Thomas B. 2019. "The Return of the Single-Country Study." <i>Annual Review of Political Science</i> Vol. 22: 187–203.</li> <li>Schmitter, Philippe C. 2009. "The Nature and Future of Comparative Politics." <i>European Political Science Review</i> 1,1: 33–61.</li> <li>von Beyme, Klaus. 2008. "The Evolution of Comparative Politics," pp. 27–43, in Daniel Caramani (ed.), <i>Comparative Politics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Wilson, Matthew Charles. 2017. "Trends in Political Science Research and the Progress of Comparative Politics," <i>PS: Political Science & Politics</i> 50(4): 979–84.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comparative_politics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Comparative_politics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070308123512/http://poli.haifa.ac.il/~levi/method.html">Comparative Methods in Political & Social Research</a>: useful resources from Prof. David Levi-Faur's course at the University of Haifa.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202160444/http://www.politicacomparada.com.ar/">Comparative Politics in Argentina & Latin America</a>: Site dedicated to the development of comparative politics in Latin America. 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Index</a></li></ul></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_of_the_World" title="Economic Freedom of the World">Economic Freedom of the World</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Enabling_Trade_Report" title="Global Enabling Trade Report">Global Enabling Trade Report</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Economic_Freedom" title="Index of Economic Freedom">Index of Economic Freedom</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Corruption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bribe_Payers_Index" title="Bribe Payers Index">Bribe Payers Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption Perceptions Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Corruption_Barometer" title="Global Corruption Barometer">Global Corruption Barometer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report" title="Global Competitiveness Report">Competitiveness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composite_Index_of_National_Capability" title="Composite Index of National Capability">Composite Index of National Capability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_current_flag_adoption" title="List of sovereign states by date of current flag adoption">Flag adoption date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_formation" title="List of sovereign states by date of formation">Formation date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">Largest empires</a></li> <li>Timeline of geopolitical changes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)" title="Timeline of geopolitical changes (before 1500)">before 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500%E2%80%931899)" title="Timeline of geopolitical changes (1500–1899)">1500–1899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900%E2%80%931999)" title="Timeline of geopolitical changes (1900–1999)">1900–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000%E2%80%93present)" title="Timeline of geopolitical changes (2000–present)">2000–present</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Gender_Gap_Report" title="Global Gender Gap Report">Global Gender Gap Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_International" title="Privacy International">Privacy International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Justice_Project#WJP_Rule_of_Law_Index" title="World Justice Project">World Justice Project Rule of Law Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_country" title="Censorship by country">Censorship by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_by_country" title="Freedom of speech by country">Freedom of speech by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_and_surveillance_by_country" title="Internet censorship and surveillance by country">Internet censorship and surveillance by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Democracy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_indices" title="Democracy indices">Democracy indices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/V-Dem_Democracy_Indices" title="V-Dem Democracy Indices">V-Dem Democracy Indices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Economist_Democracy_Index" title="The Economist Democracy Index">The Economist Democracy Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertelsmann_Transformation_Index" title="Bertelsmann Transformation Index">Bertelsmann Transformation Index</a></li></ul></li> <li>Aspects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system#Presidentialism_metrics" title="Presidential system">Presidentialism metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallagher_index" title="Gallagher index">Gallagher index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_number_of_parties" title="Effective number of parties">Effective number of parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy#Direct_democracy_by_country" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy index</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_bank#Central_bank_independence_indices" title="Central bank">Central bank independence indices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commitment_to_Development_Index" title="Commitment to Development Index">Commitment to Development Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_consultation_on_rule-making" title="List of countries by consultation on rule-making">Consultation on rule-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ease_of_doing_business_index" title="Ease of doing business index">Ease of doing business index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Performance_Index" title="Environmental Performance Index">Environmental Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Fragile_States_Index" title="List of countries by Fragile States Index">Fragile States Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Liveability_Ranking" title="Global Liveability Ranking">Global Liveability Ranking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Peace_Index" title="Global Peace Index">Global Peace Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Slavery_Index" title="Global Slavery Index">Global Slavery Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Terrorism_Index" title="Global Terrorism Index">Global Terrorism Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Country_Index" title="Good Country Index">Good Country Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence#Judicial_independence_metrics" title="Judicial independence">Judicial independence metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_incarceration_rate" title="List of countries by incarceration rate">Incarceration rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatum_Prosperity_Index" title="Legatum Prosperity Index">Legatum Prosperity Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD_Better_Life_Index" title="OECD Better Life Index">OECD Better Life Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_terror_scale" title="Political terror scale">Political terror scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satisfaction_with_Life_Index" title="Satisfaction with Life Index">Satisfaction with Life Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_rankings" title="List of international rankings">List of international rankings</a></li> <li><a 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class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vergleichende politische Wissenschaft"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4137685-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85029298">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Science politique -- Études comparatives"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950239g">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Science politique -- Études comparatives"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950239g">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01081027">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span 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