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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-GEORGE_1_&_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GEORGE_1_&_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>GEORGE 1 & 2</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GEORGE_1_&_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-GEORGE_3_&_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GEORGE_3_&_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>GEORGE 3 & 4</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-GEORGE_3_&_4-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle GEORGE 3 & 4 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-GEORGE_3_&_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Job_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Job_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Job control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Job_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filestore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filestore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Filestore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filestore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>George 4</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Source_code" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_code"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Source code</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_code-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Documentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modified_Versions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modified_Versions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Modified Versions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modified_Versions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>End of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Obsolescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obsolescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Obsolescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obsolescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Series of operating systems</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/GEORGE_(autocode_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="GEORGE (autocode system)">GEORGE (autocode system)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"GEORGE 1", "GEORGE 2", "GEORGE 3", and "GEORGE 4" redirect here. For George I, see <a href="/wiki/George_I_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="George I (disambiguation)">George I (disambiguation)</a>. For George II, see <a href="/wiki/George_II_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="George II (disambiguation)">George II (disambiguation)</a>. For George III, see <a href="/wiki/George_III_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="George III (disambiguation)">George III (disambiguation)</a>. For George IV, see <a href="/wiki/George_IV_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="George IV (disambiguation)">George IV (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Operating system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">GEORGE</caption><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/International_Computers_and_Tabulators" title="International Computers and Tabulators">International Computers and Tabulators</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Written in</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly language</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Working state</th><td class="infobox-data">Historic</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Source model</th><td class="infobox-data">Source available to licensees.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">1960s</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Latest release</a></th><td class="infobox-data">8,67 / 1985<span class="noprint">; 39 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1985</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">Available in</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Platforms</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ICT_1900_series" title="ICT 1900 series">ICT 1900 series</a> of computers</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a> type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Influenced by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">Default<br />user interface</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">CLI</a> (teletype or block mode terminal)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary</a> <a href="/wiki/Commercial_software" title="Commercial software">commercial software</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>GEORGE</b> was the name given to a series of <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> released by <a href="/wiki/International_Computers_and_Tabulators" title="International Computers and Tabulators">International Computers and Tabulators</a> (ICT) in the 1960s, for the <a href="/wiki/ICT_1900_series" title="ICT 1900 series">ICT 1900 series</a> of computers. These included <b>GEORGE 1</b>, <b>GEORGE 2</b>, <b>GEORGE 3</b>, and <b>GEORGE 4</b>. </p><p>Initially, the 1900 series machines, like the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti-Packard_6000" title="Ferranti-Packard 6000">Ferranti-Packard 6000</a> on which they were based, ran a simple operating system known as <a href="/wiki/Executive_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive (operating system)">Executive</a>, which allowed the system operator to load and run programs from a <a href="/wiki/Teletype_Model_33" title="Teletype Model 33">Teletype Model 33</a> ASR based <a href="/wiki/System_console" class="mw-redirect" title="System console">system console</a>. </p><p>In December 1964, ICT set up an Operating Systems Branch to develop a new operating system for the 1906/7. The branch was initially staffed with people being released by the end of work on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Orion_Master_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orion Master Program (page does not exist)">OMP</a> operating system for the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Orion" title="Ferranti Orion">Ferranti Orion</a>. The initial design of the new system, named George after the head of the Basic Programming Division <a href="/wiki/George_E._Felton" title="George E. Felton">George E. Felton</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was based on ideas from the Orion and the <a href="/wiki/Spooling" title="Spooling">spooling</a> system of the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Computer_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas Computer (Manchester)">Atlas</a> computer.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In public it was claimed that George stood for GEneral ORGanisational Environment, but contemporary sources say that was a <a href="/wiki/Backronym" title="Backronym">backronym</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1965, a team from ICT was present at a seminar at <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">NPL</a> describing the <a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">CTSS</a> operating system developed for <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Project_MAC" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MAC">Project MAC</a>. They decided that the ICT would need to provide <a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">multi-access</a> facilities, known to ICT as MOP, "Multiple Online Processing". In November 1965 <a href="/w/index.php?title=H._P._Goodman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H. P. Goodman (page does not exist)">H. P. Goodman</a>, head of the Operating Systems Branch attended the <a href="/wiki/Fall_Joint_Computer_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall Joint Computer Conference">Fall Joint Computer Conference</a> in Las Vegas where plans for <a href="/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a> were initially described.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the Multics features discussed influenced future development of George, notably the tree structured filestore. </p><p>Towards the end of 1965, ICT marketing requested that a simpler operating system be made available quickly, especially for the smaller members of the range. It was decided that two smaller systems, known as George 1 and George 2 be released rapidly, and the larger operating system was renamed George 3. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="GEORGE_1_&_2"><span id="GEORGE_1_.26_2"></span>GEORGE 1 & 2</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: GEORGE 1 & 2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George 1 was a simple <a href="/wiki/Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch processing</a> system, <i>Job descriptions</i> were read from cards or paper tape which controlled the loading and running of programs, either loaded from cards or paper tape or magnetic tape. The <a href="/wiki/Job_control_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Job control language">job control language</a> allowed definition of the peripherals and files to be used and handling of exception conditions. The job description would be checked for errors before the job was run. George used the <i>trusted program</i> facilities provided by executive to run the user programs. </p><p>George 2 added the concept of <i>off line</i> peripheral handling (<a href="/wiki/Spooling" title="Spooling">spooling</a>). Several different modules, running in parallel, allowed overlapping of input, processing and output operations: </p> <ul><li>Jobs were read from cards or paper tape to temporary files on magnetic disk or tape by an input module.</li> <li>A central module executed the user programs, taking input from the temporary input files and writing program output to temporary files.</li> <li>An output module wrote the temporary output files to physical printers and punches.</li> <li>A module was also available for entering jobs from <a href="/wiki/Remote_job_entry" title="Remote job entry">remote job entry</a> stations, the output of the job could be printed on the remote printer.</li></ul> <p>If the installation was large enough multiple copies of the central module could be run, allowing multiple jobs to be processed in parallel. </p><p>The George 2 job control language allowed use of stored <i>macros</i> with conditional facilities. </p><p>George 2 provided no file system, the system and user programs relied on the facilities provided by <i>executive</i>. Files on disk were accessed by unique 12 character names and no security other than a "do not erase" bit was provided. </p><p><a href="/wiki/MINIMOP" title="MINIMOP">MINIMOP</a> could be run simultaneously with GEORGE 2 on the same machine, to provide on-line time-sharing facilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="GEORGE_3_&_4"><span id="GEORGE_3_.26_4"></span>GEORGE 3 & 4</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: GEORGE 3 & 4"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GEORGE 3<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the main version of the operating system series for the larger machines of the 1900 series. Initially it was released for the 1906/7; eventually it was made available for models down to the 1902T. In contrast to George 1 & 2 which ran as user-mode programs under executive, George 3 was a full operating system, leaving only low-level peripheral and interrupt handling to a cut-down version of executive. </p><p>George 3 was implemented as a small memory-resident part and a collection of <i>chapters</i> (<a href="/wiki/Overlay_(programming)" title="Overlay (programming)">overlays</a>) which were loaded into and removed from memory as needed. Chapters were strictly location-independent, allowing best use of memory. Internally George used <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">cooperative multitasking</a>; <a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">context switches</a> could take place at any <i>chapter change</i> (call from one chapter to another), or at other specified places in the code. User-level code was run using <a href="/wiki/Preemptive_multitasking" class="mw-redirect" title="Preemptive multitasking">preemptive multitasking</a>; context switches were forced on I/O operations or clock ticks.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>George was written in a special assembler, <i>GIN</i> (George INput), which had richer conditional compilation and macro facilities than the standard PLAN assembler. Macros were heavily used by the code to reduce the effort of programming such a large system in assembly language. In later versions the macro features of GIN were used to add <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a> features to the code. Writing the system was estimated to have taken 75 <a href="/wiki/Man-hour" title="Man-hour">programmer-years</a> of effort.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Job_control">Job control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Job control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George 3 was a mixed batch and online system. Jobs could be run from cards or tape in the same manner as George 2, or interactively from <i>MOP</i> (Multiple Online Processing) terminals, either simple <a href="/wiki/Teletype_Corporation" title="Teletype Corporation">Teletype</a> <a href="/wiki/ASR-33_Teletype" class="mw-redirect" title="ASR-33 Teletype">Model 33 ASR</a> terminals or <a href="/wiki/Block-oriented_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Block-oriented terminal">block mode</a> <i>VDU</i> terminals. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Job_Control_Language" title="Job Control Language">job control language</a> was the same on terminals or in batch jobs and included conditional operations and <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> operations. In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> systems the job control language was part of the operating system rather than being a user level <a href="/wiki/Shell_(computing)" title="Shell (computing)">shell</a> process. </p><p>A job could only have one program loaded in to memory at a time, but one job could start other jobs to run concurrently, if system resources and site policy would permit. The system would swap user programs out of memory while they were waiting for input or output if other activities required memory to run. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filestore">Filestore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Filestore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George 3 provided a tree structured Filestore, inspired in part by <a href="/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a>. </p><p>Every user of the system had a home directory with as many sub directories as needed under it. A users home directory could be accessed directly, for example the directory for user <i>JOHN</i> could be referred to as <i>:JOHN</i>, or by a full path, for example if <i>JOHN</i> was in the computer science department his home directory might be <i>:MANAGER.USERS.COMPSCI.JOHN</i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Access_control_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Access control list">Access control lists</a> were used for security, a user could permit or deny any user or group of users access to his files or directories. </p><p>File data storage was two-level: files could be either currently on disk, or, if the system was low on disk space they could be automatically relegated to magnetic tape. If an attempt was made to access a currently off line file the job would be suspended and the operators requested to load the appropriate tape. When the tape was made available the file would be brought back to disk and the job resumed. </p><p>The underlying disc storage mechanism George 3, in 1968, was probably the earliest commercial version of a <a href="/wiki/Copy-On-Write" class="mw-redirect" title="Copy-On-Write">Copy-On-Write</a> file system. The way this worked was that all modified blocks would be written to blocks on a "free" list. Blocks containing metadata were also treated in the same way but were, together with data blocks, physically written in an order in such a way that, when the final "master" block had been written, the file was committed. If the machine failed at any point, it was guaranteed by the hardware that the file would be in either its original, unmodified, form or fully up to date. </p><p>Another useful feature was that the Filestore could emulate all the standard peripherals, such as card readers and punches, magnetic tapes and discs. This allowed older George 1 & 2 programs that required these physical devices, to be run under George 3 without modification. This could speed up jobs that required many tape or disc changes on George 1 & 2 to be automated to the extent that something that had required two operators, several tens of tape changes and five hours, now required no operators, other than for mounting two work tapes for the results, and finished in 45 minutes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_4">George 4</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: George 4"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starting with the 1904A, a <a href="/wiki/Paging" class="mw-redirect" title="Paging">paging</a> unit was available for larger 1900 processors and George 4 was written to take advantage of it. George 4 remained compatible with George 3. It was common to alternate George 3 and 4 on the same machine and filestore, running George 3 during the day for small, interactive workloads and George 4 at night for large, memory intensive, jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>George 4 introduced the concept of a <i>sparse</i> program, a program that had an addressing space larger than its allocated memory and read-only (<i>pure</i>) data and code regions. New versions of the <i>consolidator</i> (linker) and compilers were provided to use these facilities. </p><p>The source code of George 3 and 4 were the same; <a href="/wiki/Conditional_compilation" title="Conditional compilation">conditional compilation</a> facilities of the GIN assembler were used to select which version of the system was being compiled. </p><p>As the 1900 paging feature was not emulated by the 2900 series machines used by later George installations, George 4 fell out of use before George 3. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_code">Source code</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Source code"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George was distributed in a form that allowed a site to modify large parts of the system. A compilation of the system was started, then interrupted just before the end and dumped to magnetic tape. The GIN compiler allowed the compilation to be continued from this point at the user site, possibly modifying code already compiled. </p><p>Versions of George 3 before release 8 were provided in binary form. Any modifications needed to the system were made as binary patches. To simplify the process most George chapters included an empty <i>MEND</i> area at the end. </p><p>Starting with release 8 the source of George was distributed with the binary, both on magnetic tape and microfiche. A system of source level patches, known as <i>MENDITS</i> was used to modify the system and an existing chapter could be completely replaced by the new modified chapter. </p><p>The George user group set up a "MEND exchange scheme" to share interesting modifications to George. Some modifications were distributed freely, others were available for a fee. When ICL produced a new version of George they would sometimes include modifications produced by the users. </p><p>For the last released version, 8.67, most of the patches from the MEND exchange scheme were included in the standard George source, switched off by <a href="/wiki/Conditional_compilation" title="Conditional compilation">conditional compilation</a>. They can be turned on as part of the standard process of tailoring George for a site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentation">Documentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Documentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George was well documented internally in a series of looseleaf folders, distributed as an initial version plus amendments. Eventually all the original pages were replaced, so any new copy of the manuals consisted of a box of empty looseleaf folders and a pile of amendments. The first amendment was a list of contributors, and the technical reason for the amendment was described as "to keep everyone happy". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modified_Versions">Modified Versions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modified Versions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A modified version of George 3 was supplied to the University of Manchester Regional Computer Centre (UMRCC). This linked George 3 to a <a href="/wiki/CDC_Cyber" title="CDC Cyber">CDC Cyber</a> machine, to which George supplied the offline I/O and Job queueing functions. Online support was supplied by both ICL and Cyber for both hardware and software. The Cyber support team worked in an office with the name "<a href="/wiki/Cybermen" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybermen">Cybermen</a>" on the door.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_life">End of life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: End of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Obsolescence">Obsolescence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Obsolescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the release of ICL's "new range", the <a href="/wiki/ICL_2900" class="mw-redirect" title="ICL 2900">2900 series</a> with its <a href="/wiki/ICL_VME" title="ICL VME">VME</a> operating system, George became obsolete. However, due to the legacy of investment in software for George, ICL released options to run 1900 series software, including George, on 2900 series machines, initially the <a href="/wiki/ICL_Direct_Machine_Environment" title="ICL Direct Machine Environment">Direct Machine Environment</a> (DME), later the Concurrent Machine Environment (CME) which allowed simultaneous running of 1900 and 2900 code on the same system. </p><p>New versions of George 3 continued to be released for the 2900. The last version was 8.67, released in 1983. </p><p>As of 2005 at least one site in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> was still running George 3 under DME.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 2014 George 3 was run on a reconditioned <a href="/wiki/ICL_2966" class="mw-redirect" title="ICL 2966">ICL 2966</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Computing">National Museum of Computing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emulation">Emulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Emulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Holdsworth_(Leeds_University)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Holdsworth (Leeds University) (page does not exist)">David Holdsworth</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Delwyn_Holroyd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Delwyn Holroyd (page does not exist)">Delwyn Holroyd</a> obtained copies of George 3 issue tapes when the last live site in the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a>, at <a href="/wiki/British_Steel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="British Steel Corporation">British Steel Corporation</a>, was being decommissioned and wrote an <a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators#24-bit_ICL_1900" title="List of computer system emulators">emulator</a> for the 1900 hardware and executive that allows running of George on <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> as part of a project for the <a href="/wiki/Computer_Conservation_Society" title="Computer Conservation Society">Computer Conservation Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bitsandbytes.shedlandz.co.uk/anotherICL_anthology.pdf">"Another ICL Anthology"</a> George Felton explains the origin of the name as follows:<br />"About January 1965, there was a meeting in my office, while I was away abroad, discussing different ways of allotting functions between the proposed operating system and Executive. Scheme A was discussed and rejected. Scheme B ditto. And Schemes C, D, E and F were also discarded in quick succession. When Scheme G came up, everybody was happy, and it was decided to adopt it. The "<b>GE</b>neral <b>ORG</b>anisational <b>E</b>nvironment' was also quickly formulated as the official expansion of the acronym. But the name 'GEORGE' was in any case a natural choice: it had echoes of aircraft <a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">autopilots</a>; it was a bit of fun; and I certainly wasn't going to object".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2004" class="citation web cs1">Goodman, H. P. (2004-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184215/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/v.pasquali/3-4%201900%20George%20Operating%20Systems.htm">"3.4.2- George Operating Systems for the ICL 1900 Series Computer Range"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.ntlworld.com/v.pasquali/3-4%201900%20George%20Operating%20Systems.htm">the original</a> on 2011-06-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=3.4.2-+George+Operating+Systems+for+the+ICL+1900+Series+Computer+Range.&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=H.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepage.ntlworld.com%2Fv.pasquali%2F3-4%25201900%2520George%2520Operating%2520Systems.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichael1998" class="citation book cs1">Carmichael, Hamish (November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bitsandbytes.shedlandz.co.uk/anotherICL_anthology.pdf"><i>Another ICL Anthology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Laidlaw Hicks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9527389-2-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9527389-2-3"><bdi>978-0-9527389-2-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Another+ICL+Anthology&rft.pub=Laidlaw+Hicks&rft.date=1998-11&rft.isbn=978-0-9527389-2-3&rft.aulast=Carmichael&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bitsandbytes.shedlandz.co.uk%2FanotherICL_anthology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.multicians.org/papers.html">"Multics Technical Papers online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Multics+Technical+Papers+online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.multicians.org%2Fpapers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icl1900.co.uk/g3/index.html">GEORGE 3 Online Reference</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOestreicher1971" class="citation journal cs1">Oestreicher, M. D. (April–June 1971). "The design of the internal structure of the ICL George 3 operating system". <i>Software: Practice and Experience</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 189–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fspe.4380010209">10.1002/spe.4380010209</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43403696">43403696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Software%3A+Practice+and+Experience&rft.atitle=The+design+of+the+internal+structure+of+the+ICL+George+3+operating+system&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=189-200&rft.date=1971-04%2F1971-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fspe.4380010209&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43403696%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Oestreicher&rft.aufirst=M.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCambell-Kelly1989" class="citation book cs1">Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1989). <i>ICL: A Business and Technical History</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-853918-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-853918-5"><bdi>0-19-853918-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ICL%3A+A+Business+and+Technical+History&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-19-853918-5&rft.aulast=Cambell-Kelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acoombe.co.uk/UEA/CPC-annual-report-1975-76.pdf">"UEA CPC Annual report 1975-76"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UEA+CPC+Annual+report+1975-76&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acoombe.co.uk%2FUEA%2FCPC-annual-report-1975-76.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoldsworth2005" class="citation journal cs1">Holdsworth, David (Autumn 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res36.htm">"Society Activity"</a>. <i>RESURRECTION the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society</i> (36)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-14</span></span>. <q>Out of the blue I have received a mail message from a Russian who still has a George 3 system running on DME.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RESURRECTION+the+Bulletin+of+the+Computer+Conservation+Society&rft.atitle=Society+Activity&rft.ssn=fall&rft.issue=36&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Holdsworth&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.man.ac.uk%2FCCS%2Fres%2Fres36.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolroyd2014" class="citation journal cs1">Holroyd, Delwyn (Winter 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res68.htm">"Society Activity"</a>. <i>RESURRECTION the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society</i> (68). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0958-7403">0958-7403</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-12</span></span>. <q>I'm pleased to report that the 2966 project has reached a major milestone this month. On 15th November we successfully loaded George 3 under CME for the first time and by the end of the day the 7501 terminal was available for visitors to play the Colossal Cave adventure which is normally hosted on a Raspberry Pi running the George 3 Executive Emulator.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RESURRECTION+the+Bulletin+of+the+Computer+Conservation+Society&rft.atitle=Society+Activity&rft.ssn=winter&rft.issue=68&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0958-7403&rft.aulast=Holroyd&rft.aufirst=Delwyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.man.ac.uk%2FCCS%2Fres%2Fres68.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGEORGE+%28operating+system%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icl1900.co.uk/preserve/g3ee.html">GEORGE 3 Emulator from the University of Leeds</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sw.ccs.bcs.org/CCs/g3/g3pi.htm">George3</a> running on <a href="/wiki/Raspberry_Pi" title="Raspberry Pi">Raspberry Pi</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEORGE_(operating_system)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOestreicherBaileyStrauss1967" class="citation journal cs1">Oestreicher, M. D.; Bailey, M. J.; Strauss, J. I. (1967-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363790.363806">"GEORGE 3---A general purpose time sharing and operating system"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>10</b> (11): 685–693. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363790.363806">10.1145/363790.363806</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18176176">18176176</a>.</cite><span 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<li><a href="/wiki/Groupe_Bull" title="Groupe Bull">Groupe Bull</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Multics-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Multics-logo.svg/100px-Multics-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Multics-logo.svg/150px-Multics-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Multics-logo.svg/200px-Multics-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="2016" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_D._Clark" title="David D. Clark">David D. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_J._Corbat%C3%B3" title="Fernando J. Corbató">Fernando J. Corbató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Davidoff" title="Monte Davidoff">Monte Davidoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter J. Denning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Dennis" title="Jack Dennis">Jack Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Feldman" title="Stuart Feldman">Stuart Feldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Graham_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert M. Graham (computer scientist)">Robert M. Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Greenberg" title="Bernard Greenberg">Bernard Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_McIlroy" title="Douglas McIlroy">Douglas McIlroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(cryptographer)" title="Robert Morris (cryptographer)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_G._Neumann" title="Peter G. Neumann">Peter G. Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Ossanna" title="Joe Ossanna">Joe Ossanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_A._Padlipsky" title="Michael A. Padlipsky">Michael A. Padlipsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Saltzer" title="Jerry Saltzer">Jerry Saltzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Schroeder" title="Glenda Schroeder">Glenda Schroeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schroeder" title="Michael Schroeder">Michael Schroeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Soley" title="Richard Soley">Richard Soley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Van_Vleck" title="Tom Van Vleck">Tom Van Vleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._Vyssotsky" title="Victor A. Vyssotsky">Victor A. Vyssotsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Travel_(video_game)" title="Space Travel (video game)">Space Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maclisp" title="Maclisp">Maclisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macsyma" title="Macsyma">Macsyma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multics_Emacs" title="Multics Emacs">Multics Emacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multics_Relational_Data_Store" title="Multics Relational Data Store">Multics Relational Data Store</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multics-like<br />systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domain/OS" title="Domain/OS">Domain/OS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Comprehensive_Operating_System" title="General Comprehensive Operating System">General Comprehensive Operating System</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">GEORGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICL_VME" title="ICL VME">ICL VME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_Console_Time_Sharing_System" title="Multiple Console Time Sharing System">Multiple Console Time Sharing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRIMOS" title="PRIMOS">PRIMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratus_VOS" title="Stratus VOS">Stratus VOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_MAC" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MAC">Project MAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System" title="Compatible Time-Sharing System">Compatible Time-Sharing System</a> (predecessor)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Multics" title="Category:Multics">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Operating_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Operating_systems" title="Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Operating_systems" title="Template talk:Operating systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Operating_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Operating_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_software_engineering" title="Forensic software engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_operating_systems" title="List of operating systems">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of user features of operating systems">User features comparison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">Disk operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_operating_system" title="Distributed operating system">Distributed operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobbyist_operating_system" title="Hobbyist operating system">Hobbyist operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_enough_operating_system" title="Just enough operating system">Just enough operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_operating_system" title="Mobile operating system">Mobile operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">Network operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_operating_system" title="Object-oriented operating system">Object-oriented operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer_operating_system" title="Supercomputer operating system">Supercomputer operating system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_kernel" title="Hybrid kernel">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multikernel" title="Multikernel">Multikernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vkernel" title="Vkernel">vkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rump_kernel" title="Rump kernel">Rump kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unikernel" title="Unikernel">Unikernel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">User space and kernel space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">Context switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">IPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control_block" title="Process control block">Process control block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling<br />algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling" title="Fixed-priority pre-emptive scheduling">Fixed-priority preemptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilevel_feedback_queue" title="Multilevel feedback queue">Multilevel feedback queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">Round-robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortest_job_next" title="Shortest job next">Shortest job next</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_(operating_systems)" title="Memory management (operating systems)">Memory management</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/System_resource" title="System resource">resource</a> protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bus_error" title="Bus error">Bus error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_protection_fault" title="General protection fault">General protection fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_ring" title="Protection ring">Protection ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">Segmentation fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Storage</a> access,<br /><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booting#BOOT-LOADER" title="Booting">Boot loader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defragmentation" title="Defragmentation">Defragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_file" title="Device file">Device file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_attribute" title="File attribute">File attribute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inode" title="Inode">Inode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journaling_file_system" title="Journaling file system">Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_tape_library" title="Virtual tape library">Virtual tape library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supporting concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/API" title="API">API</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_abstraction" title="Hardware abstraction">HAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_CD" title="Live CD">Live CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_USB" title="Live USB">Live USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(computing)" title="Shell (computing)">Shell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">CLI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">User interface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preboot_Execution_Environment" title="Preboot Execution Environment">PXE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" 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