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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibrid_n%C3%BCv%C9%99" title="Hibrid nüvə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hibrid nüvə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="হাইব্রিড কার্নেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হাইব্রিড কার্নেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Гібрыднае ядро – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гібрыднае ядро" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucli_h%C3%ADbrid" title="Nucli híbrid – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nucli híbrid" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridn%C3%AD_j%C3%A1dro" title="Hybridní jádro – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hybridní jádro" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridkernel" title="Hybridkernel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hybridkernel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_h%C3%ADbrido" title="Núcleo híbrido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Núcleo híbrido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibrida_kerno" title="Hibrida kerno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hibrida kerno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="هسته پیوندی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هسته پیوندی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%EB%93%9C_%EC%BB%A4%EB%84%90" title="하이브리드 커널 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하이브리드 커널" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="हाइब्रिड कर्नेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हाइब्रिड कर्नेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_hibrida" title="Kernel hibrida – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kernel hibrida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ליבה היברידית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ליבה היברידית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_ibrid" title="Kernel ibrid – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Kernel ibrid" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibrid_kernel" title="Hibrid kernel – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hibrid kernel" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%BD" title="ഹൈബ്രിഡ് കേർണൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹൈബ്രിഡ് കേർണൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_hibrid" title="Inti hibrid – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Inti hibrid" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybride_kernel" title="Hybride kernel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hybride kernel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%82%A4%E3%83%96%E3%83%AA%E3%83%83%E3%83%89%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AB" title="ハイブリッドカーネル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハイブリッドカーネル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridkjerne" title="Hybridkjerne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hybridkjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%85dro_hybrydowe" title="Jądro hybrydowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jądro hybrydowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_h%C3%ADbrido" title="Núcleo híbrido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Núcleo híbrido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleu_hibrid" title="Nucleu hibrid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nucleu hibrid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Гибридное ядро – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гибридное ядро" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridn%C3%A9_jadro" title="Hybridné jadro – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hybridné jadro" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridk%C3%A4rna" title="Hybridkärna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hybridkärna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibrit_%C3%A7ekirdek" title="Hibrit çekirdek – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hibrit çekirdek" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Гібридне ядро – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гібридне ядро" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E6%A0%B8%E5%BF%83" title="混合核心 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="混合核心" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Type of operating system kernel</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OS-structure2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/580px-OS-structure2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="580" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/870px-OS-structure2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/1160px-OS-structure2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>Structure of monolithic kernel, <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a> and hybrid kernel-based operating systems</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>hybrid kernel</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a> whose architecture attempts to combine aspects and benefits of <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic kernel</a> architectures used in operating systems.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. OSDev Wiki is user-contributed and Techopedia is not a reliable source (August 2022)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The traditional kernel categories are <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic kernels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernels</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Nanokernel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanokernel">nanokernels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">exokernels</a> seen as more extreme versions of microkernels). The "hybrid" category is controversial, due to the similarity of hybrid kernels and ordinary monolithic kernels; the term has been dismissed by <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> as simple marketing.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea behind a hybrid kernel is to have a kernel structure similar to that of a microkernel, but to implement that structure in the manner of a monolithic kernel. In contrast to a microkernel, all (or nearly all) operating system services in a hybrid kernel are still in <a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">kernel space</a>. There are none of the reliability benefits of having services in <a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">user space</a>, as with a <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a>. However, just as with an ordinary <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic kernel</a>, there is none of the performance overhead for message passing and context switching between kernel and user mode that normally comes with a microkernel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NT_kernel">NT kernel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: NT kernel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hybrid_kernel" title="Special:EditPage/Hybrid kernel">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT#Kernel" title="Architecture of Windows NT">Architecture of Windows NT § Kernel</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Windows_2000_architecture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Windows_2000_architecture.svg/275px-Windows_2000_architecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Windows_2000_architecture.svg/413px-Windows_2000_architecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Windows_2000_architecture.svg/550px-Windows_2000_architecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>The Windows NT operating system family's architecture consists of two layers (<a href="/wiki/User_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="User mode">user mode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kernel_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Kernel mode">kernel mode</a>), with many different modules within both of these layers.</figcaption></figure> <p>One prominent example of a hybrid kernel is the <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT#Kernel_mode" title="Architecture of Windows NT">NT kernel</a> that powers all operating systems in the <a href="/wiki/Windows_NT" title="Windows NT">Windows NT</a> family, up to and including <a href="/wiki/Windows_11" title="Windows 11">Windows 11</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windows_Server_2022" title="Windows Server 2022">Windows Server 2022</a>, and powers <a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_8" title="Windows Phone 8">Windows Phone 8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_8.1" title="Windows Phone 8.1">Windows Phone 8.1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_10_Mobile" title="Windows 10 Mobile">Windows 10 Mobile</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Xbox_One" title="Xbox One">Xbox One</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xbox_Series_X_and_Series_S" title="Xbox Series X and Series S">Xbox Series</a> consoles. </p><p>Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need reliable source that says NT is hybrid (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a>, influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Mach_(kernel)" title="Mach (kernel)">Mach microkernel</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rashid" title="Richard Rashid">Richard Rashid</a> at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel. NT-based Windows is classified as a hybrid kernel (or a macrokernel<sup id="cite_ref-Microsoft_2007_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microsoft_2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) rather than a monolithic kernel because the emulation subsystems run in user-mode server processes, rather than in kernel mode as on a monolithic kernel, and further because of the large number of design goals which resemble design goals of Mach (in particular the separation of OS personalities from a general kernel design). Conversely, the reason NT is not a microkernel system is because most of the system components run in the same <a href="/wiki/Address_space" title="Address space">address space</a> as the kernel, as would be the case with a monolithic design (in a traditional monolithic design, there would not be a microkernel per se, but the kernel would implement broadly similar functionality to NT's microkernel and kernel-mode subsystems). </p><p>The primary operating system personality on Windows is the <a href="/wiki/Windows_API" title="Windows API">Windows API</a>, which is always present. The emulation subsystem which implements the Windows personality is called the <a href="/wiki/Client/Server_Runtime_Subsystem" title="Client/Server Runtime Subsystem">Client/Server Runtime Subsystem</a> (csrss.exe). On versions of NT prior to 4.0, this subsystem process also contained the window manager, graphics device interface and graphics device drivers. For performance reasons, however, in version 4.0 and later, these modules (which are often implemented in user mode even on monolithic systems, especially those designed without internal graphics support) run as a kernel-mode subsystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Microsoft_2007_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microsoft_2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Applications that run on NT are written to one of the OS personalities (usually the Windows API), and not to the native NT API for which documentation is not publicly available (with the exception of routines used in device driver development). An OS personality is implemented via a set of user-mode DLLs (see <a href="/wiki/Dynamic-link_library" title="Dynamic-link library">Dynamic-link library</a>), which are mapped into application processes' address spaces as required, together with an emulation subsystem server process (as described previously). Applications access system services by calling into the OS personality DLLs mapped into their address spaces, which in turn call into the NT run-time library (ntdll.dll), also mapped into the process address space. The NT run-time library services these requests by trapping into kernel mode to either call kernel-mode Executive routines or make <a href="/wiki/Local_Inter-Process_Communication" title="Local Inter-Process Communication">Local Procedure Calls</a> (LPCs) to the appropriate user-mode subsystem server processes, which in turn use the NT API to communicate with application processes, the kernel-mode subsystems and each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Probert2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Probert2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg/275px-The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg/413px-The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg/550px-The_XNU_Kernel_Graphic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The XNU Kernel</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="XNU_kernel">XNU kernel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: XNU kernel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a></div> <p><b>XNU</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernel</a> that <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple Inc.</a> acquired and developed for use in the <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/WatchOS" title="WatchOS">watchOS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/TvOS" title="TvOS">tvOS</a> operating systems and released as <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open source software">free and open source software</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Darwin_(operating_system)" title="Darwin (operating system)">Darwin operating system</a>. <i>XNU</i> is an <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a> for <i>X is Not <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally developed by <a href="/wiki/NeXT" title="NeXT">NeXT</a> for the <a href="/wiki/NeXTSTEP" title="NeXTSTEP">NeXTSTEP</a> operating system, XNU was a hybrid kernel combining version 2.5 of the <a href="/wiki/Mach_(kernel)" title="Mach (kernel)">Mach kernel</a> with components from <a href="/wiki/BSD#4.3BSD" class="mw-redirect" title="BSD">4.3BSD</a> and an object-oriented API for writing drivers called Driver Kit. </p><p>After Apple acquired NeXT, the Mach component was upgraded to OSFMK 7.3,<sup id="cite_ref-wwdc-2000-session-106_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wwdc-2000-session-106-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is a microkernel.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apple uses a heavily modified OSFMK 7.3 functioning as a hybrid kernel with parts of FreeBSD included.<sup id="cite_ref-wwdc-2000-session-106_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wwdc-2000-session-106-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (OSFMK 7.3 includes applicable code from the University of Utah Mach 4 kernel and applicable code from the many Mach 3.0 variants that <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">forked</a> off from the original Carnegie Mellon University Mach 3.0 kernel.) The BSD components were upgraded with code from the <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a> project and the Driver Kit was replaced with a <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> <a href="/wiki/API" title="API">API</a> for writing drivers called I/O Kit<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Description">Description</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like some other modern <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">kernels</a>, XNU is a hybrid, containing features of both <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">monolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernels</a>, attempting to make the best use of both technologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Message_passing" title="Message passing">message passing</a> capability of microkernels enabling greater modularity<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and larger portions of the OS to benefit from <a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">protected memory</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as well as retaining the speed of monolithic kernels for certain critical tasks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BeOS" title="BeOS">BeOS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haiku_(operating_system)" title="Haiku (operating system)">Haiku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllable_Desktop" title="Syllable Desktop">Syllable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution" title="Berkeley Software Distribution">BSD</a>-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DragonFly_BSD" title="DragonFly BSD">DragonFly BSD</a> (first non-<a href="/wiki/Mach_(kernel)" title="Mach (kernel)">Mach</a> BSD OS to use a hybrid kernel)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NetWare" title="NetWare">NetWare</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9 from Bell Labs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferno_(operating_system)" title="Inferno (operating system)">Inferno</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OS/2" title="OS/2">OS/2</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EComStation" title="EComStation">eComStation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ArcaOS" title="ArcaOS">ArcaOS</a></li> <li>OS/4</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ReactOS" title="ReactOS">ReactOS</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanokernel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanokernel">Nanokernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_address_space_operating_system" title="Single address space operating system">Single address space operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT" title="Architecture of Windows NT">Architecture of Windows NT</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hybrid_kernel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.osdev.org/Hybrid_Kernel">"Hybrid Kernel - OSDev Wiki"</a>. <i>wiki.osdev.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wiki.osdev.org&rft.atitle=Hybrid+Kernel+-+OSDev+Wiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.osdev.org%2FHybrid_Kernel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHybrid+kernel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techopedia.com/definition/27004/hybrid-kernel">"What is Hybrid Kernel? - Definition from Techopedia"</a>. <i>Techopedia.com</i>. 22 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Techopedia.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Hybrid+Kernel%3F+-+Definition+from+Techopedia&rft.date=2011-08-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techopedia.com%2Fdefinition%2F27004%2Fhybrid-kernel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHybrid+kernel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.realworldtech.com/forum/?threadid=65915&curpostid=65936">"Linus Torvalds"</a>. <q>As to the whole "hybrid kernel" thing - it's just marketing. It's "Oh, those microkernels had good PR, how can we try to get good PR for our working kernel? Oh, I know, let's use a cool name and try to imply that it has all the PR advantages that that other system has.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linus+Torvalds&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.realworldtech.com%2Fforum%2F%3Fthreadid%3D65915%26curpostid%3D65936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHybrid+kernel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Microsoft_2007-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Microsoft_2007_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Microsoft_2007_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions//cc750820(v=technet.10)">"MS Windows NT Kernel-mode User and GDI White Paper"</a>. 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Operating_systems" title="Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Operating_systems" title="Template talk:Operating systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Operating_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Operating systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Operating_systems310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_software_engineering" title="Forensic software engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_operating_systems" title="List of operating systems">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of user features of operating systems">User features comparison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">Disk operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_operating_system" title="Distributed operating system">Distributed operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobbyist_operating_system" title="Hobbyist operating system">Hobbyist operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_enough_operating_system" title="Just enough operating system">Just enough operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_operating_system" title="Mobile operating system">Mobile operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">Network operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_operating_system" title="Object-oriented operating system">Object-oriented operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer_operating_system" title="Supercomputer operating system">Supercomputer operating system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multikernel" title="Multikernel">Multikernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vkernel" title="Vkernel">vkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rump_kernel" title="Rump kernel">Rump kernel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unikernel" title="Unikernel">Unikernel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">User space and kernel space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_switch" title="Context switch">Context switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">IPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control_block" title="Process control block">Process control block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling<br />algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling" title="Fixed-priority pre-emptive scheduling">Fixed-priority preemptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilevel_feedback_queue" title="Multilevel feedback queue">Multilevel feedback queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">Round-robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortest_job_next" title="Shortest job next">Shortest job next</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_management_(operating_systems)" title="Memory management (operating systems)">Memory management</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/System_resource" title="System resource">resource</a> protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bus_error" title="Bus error">Bus error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_protection_fault" title="General protection fault">General protection fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_ring" title="Protection ring">Protection ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">Segmentation fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Storage</a> access,<br /><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booting#BOOT-LOADER" title="Booting">Boot loader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defragmentation" title="Defragmentation">Defragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_file" title="Device file">Device file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_attribute" title="File attribute">File attribute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inode" title="Inode">Inode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journaling_file_system" title="Journaling file system">Journal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a></li> <li><a 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