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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Analysis of knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Propositional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propositional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Propositional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propositional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-propositional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-propositional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Non-propositional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-propositional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_priori_and_a_posteriori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_priori_and_a_posteriori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_priori_and_a_posteriori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Limits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_various_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_various_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>In various disciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_various_disciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In various disciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_various_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Knowledge</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 144 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-144" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">144 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennis" title="Kennis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kennis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissen" title="Wissen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wissen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A9" title="معرفة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معرفة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoiximiento" title="Conoiximiento – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Conoiximiento" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conocencia" title="Conocencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Conocencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembikuaa" title="Tembikuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tembikuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilik" title="Bilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="بیلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AC-sek" title="Tì-sek – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tì-sek" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Белем – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Белем" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Веды – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Веды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Веды – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Веды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaaraman" title="Kaaraman – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kaaraman" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Знание – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Знание" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissn" title="Wissn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Wissn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanje" title="Znanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Znanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouiziegezh" title="Gouiziegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gouiziegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC" title="Эрдэм – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эрдэм" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coneixement" title="Coneixement – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Coneixement" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%95%D0%BB%D3%B3" title="Пĕлӳ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пĕлӳ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poznatek" title="Poznatek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Poznatek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruzivo" title="Ruzivo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruzivo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwybodaeth_(epistemoleg)" title="Gwybodaeth (epistemoleg) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwybodaeth (epistemoleg)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viden" title="Viden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Viden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عرفان – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="عرفان" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissen" title="Wissen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadmine" title="Teadmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teadmine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BD%CF%8E%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Γνώση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γνώση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conocimiento" title="Conocimiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conocimiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scio" title="Scio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezagutza" title="Ezagutza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ezagutza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4" title="دانش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دانش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyaan" title="Gyaan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Gyaan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connaissance" title="Connaissance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Connaissance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennis" title="Kennis – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kennis" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C3%B1ecemento" title="Coñecemento – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Coñecemento" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80" title="Ховр – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ховр" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98" title="知識 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="知識" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9D" title="지식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimi" title="Ilimi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ilimi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Գիտելիք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտելիք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanje" title="Znanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savo" title="Savo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Savo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannakaammo" title="Pannakaammo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pannakaammo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengetahuan" title="Pengetahuan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengetahuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognoscentia" title="Cognoscentia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cognoscentia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ULwazi" title="ULwazi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="ULwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eekking" title="Þekking – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þekking" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoscenza" title="Conoscenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conoscenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2" title="ידע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ידע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ცოდნა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცოდნა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC" title="Білім – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Білім" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujuzi" title="Ujuzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ujuzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konesans" title="Konesans – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Konesans" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kon%C3%A9sans" title="Konésans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Konésans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zan%C3%AEn" title="Zanîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zanîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Билим – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Билим" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%AE%E0%BA%B9%E0%BB%89" title="ຄວາມຮູ້ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຄວາມຮູ້" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(declarativa)" title="Scientia (declarativa) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientia (declarativa)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81%C5%A1anas" title="Zināšanas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zināšanas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssen" title="Wëssen – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Wëssen" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDinojimas" title="Žinojimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žinojimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoscenza" title="Conoscenza – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Conoscenza" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismeret" title="Ismeret – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ismeret" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Знаење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Знаење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahalalana" title="Fahalalana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fahalalana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D" title="അറിവ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അറിവ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A9%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="რჩქინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რჩქინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B4" title="دونش – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="دونش" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengetahuan" title="Pengetahuan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengetahuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coincimiento" title="Coincimiento – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Coincimiento" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Мэдлэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мэдлэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kila_(ivakavuvuli)" title="Kila (ivakavuvuli) – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kila (ivakavuvuli)" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennis" title="Kennis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kennis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="ज्ञान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98" title="知識 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="知識" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хаар – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Хаар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weden" title="Weden – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Weden" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunnskap" title="Kunnskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kunnskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunnskap" title="Kunnskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kunnskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coneissen%C3%A7a" title="Coneissença – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Coneissença" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bilim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="معلومات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="معلومات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%87" title="پوهه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پوهه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalij" title="Nalij – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Nalij" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conossensa" title="Conossensa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Conossensa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weten" title="Weten – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Weten" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiedza" title="Wiedza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wiedza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conhecimento" title="Conhecimento – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conhecimento" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Bilim" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunoa%C8%99tere" title="Cunoaștere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cunoaștere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay" title="Yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Знаня – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Знаня" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Знание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Знание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Билии – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Билии" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malamalama" title="Malamalama – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Malamalama" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="विद्या – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विद्या" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1" title="ᱜᱮᱭᱟᱱ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱜᱮᱭᱟᱱ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="علم – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="علم" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knawledge" title="Knawledge – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Knawledge" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njohuria" title="Njohuria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Njohuria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canuscenza" title="Canuscenza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Canuscenza" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B8" title="දැණුම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දැණුම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Knowledge" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedenie_(filozofia)" title="Vedenie (filozofia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedenie (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanje" title="Znanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%99%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%EA%99%97" title="Ꙁнаниꙗ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Ꙁнаниꙗ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqoon" title="Aqoon – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Aqoon" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="زانین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Знање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Знање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanje" title="Znanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Znanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaweruh" title="Pangaweruh – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pangaweruh" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieto" title="Tieto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunskap" title="Kunskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kunskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaalaman" title="Kaalaman – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kaalaman" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="அறிவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamussni" title="Tamussni – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamussni" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Белем – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Белем" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9E%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%82" title="విజ్ఞానం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విజ్ఞానం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%89" title="ความรู้ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความรู้" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Дониш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Дониш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A5%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%94%E1%8E%B2%E1%8E%A2" title="ᎥᎦᏔᎲᎢ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎥᎦᏔᎲᎢ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgi" title="Bilgi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim" title="Bilim – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Bilim" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Знання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Знання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4" title="دانش – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دانش" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caiz" title="Caiz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Caiz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_th%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tri thức – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tri thức" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaaram" title="Kaaram – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaaram" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="知识" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vutivi" title="Vutivi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vutivi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%9F" title="וויסן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וויסן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98" title="知識 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="知識" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BD%C4%97nuoj%C4%97ms" title="Žėnuojėms – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Žėnuojėms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86" title="知识 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="知识" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parbinotoan" title="Parbinotoan – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Parbinotoan" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penemu" title="Penemu – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Penemu" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Knowledge (disambiguation)">Knowledge (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Coin showing the owl of Athena" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg/240px-Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg/360px-Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg 1.5x, 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Knowledge</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Declarative_knowledge" title="Declarative knowledge">awareness of facts</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">familiarity with individuals and situations</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">practical skill</a>. Knowledge of facts, also called <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositional</a> knowledge, is often characterized as <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a>. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies focus on justification. This includes questions like how to understand justification, whether it is needed at all, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified in the latter half of the 20th century due to a series of thought experiments called <i><a href="/wiki/Gettier_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Gettier cases">Gettier cases</a></i> that provoked alternative definitions. </p><p>Knowledge can be produced in many ways. The main source of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical knowledge">empirical knowledge</a> is <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, which involves the usage of the <a href="/wiki/Senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Senses">senses</a> to learn about the external world. <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a> allows people to learn about their internal <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a> and processes. Other sources of knowledge include <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational_intuition" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational intuition">rational intuition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>, some of these sources are basic in that they can justify beliefs, without depending on other mental states. <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentists</a> reject this claim and contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. According to infinitism, an infinite chain of beliefs is needed. </p><p>The main discipline investigating knowledge is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, which studies what people know, how they come to know it, and what it means to know something. It discusses the value of knowledge and the thesis of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>, which questions the possibility of knowledge. Knowledge is relevant to many fields like the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a>, which aim to acquire knowledge using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> based on repeatable <a href="/wiki/Experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimentation">experimentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>. Various religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. The anthropology of knowledge studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated in different cultures. The <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a> examines under what sociohistorical circumstances knowledge arises, and what sociological consequences it has. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_knowledge" title="History of knowledge">history of knowledge</a> investigates how knowledge in different fields has developed, and evolved, in the course of history. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_knowledge" title="Definitions of knowledge">Definitions of knowledge</a></div> <p>Knowledge is a form of familiarity, <a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a>, or acquaintance. It often involves the possession of information learned through <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can be understood as a <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> success or an epistemic contact with reality, like making a discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many academic definitions focus on <a href="/wiki/Propositional_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional knowledge">propositional knowledge</a> in the form of believing certain facts, as in "I know that Dave is at home".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of knowledge include knowledge-how in the form of practical <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a>, as in "she knows how to swim", and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">knowledge by acquaintance</a> as a familiarity with the known object based on previous direct experience, like knowing someone personally.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowledge is often understood as a state of an individual person, but it can also refer to a characteristic of a group of people as group knowledge, social knowledge, or collective knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some social sciences understand knowledge as a broad social phenomenon that is similar to culture.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term may further denote knowledge stored in documents like the "knowledge housed in the library"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge base</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, but intelligence is more about the ability to acquire, process, and apply information, while knowledge concerns information and skills that a person already possesses.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>knowledge</i> has its roots in the 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> word <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">cnawan</i></span>, which comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> word <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">gecnawan</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English word includes various meanings that some other languages distinguish using several words.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In ancient Greek, for example, four important terms for knowledge were used: <i><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">epistēmē</a></i> (unchanging theoretical knowledge), <i><a href="/wiki/Techne" title="Techne">technē</a></i> (expert technical knowledge), <i><a href="/wiki/Metis_(mythology)" title="Metis (mythology)">mētis</a></i> (strategic knowledge), and <i><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnōsis</a></i> (personal intellectual knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main discipline studying knowledge is called <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> or the theory of knowledge. It examines the nature of knowledge and justification, how knowledge arises, and what value it has. Further topics include the different types of knowledge and the limits of what can be known.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite agreements about the general characteristics of knowledge, its exact definition is disputed. Some definitions only focus on the most salient features of knowledge to give a practically useful characterization.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another approach, termed <i>analysis of knowledge</i>, tries to provide a theoretically precise definition by listing the conditions that are <a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">individually necessary and jointly sufficient</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> similar to how <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemists</a> analyze a sample by seeking a list of all the chemical elements composing it.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a different view, knowledge is a unique state that cannot be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars base their definition on abstract intuitions while others focus on concrete cases<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or rely on how the term is used in <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary language">ordinary language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also disagreement about whether knowledge is a rare phenomenon that requires high standards or a common phenomenon found in many everyday situations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_knowledge">Analysis of knowledge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belief#Justified_true_belief" title="Belief">Belief § Justified true belief</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_knowledge#Justified_true_belief" title="Definitions of knowledge">Definitions of knowledge § Justified true belief</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justified_true_belief.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Venn diagram of justified true belief" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Justified_true_belief.png/220px-Justified_true_belief.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Justified_true_belief.png/330px-Justified_true_belief.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Justified_true_belief.png/440px-Justified_true_belief.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>The definition of knowledge as justified true belief is often discussed in the academic literature.</figcaption></figure> <p>An often-discussed definition characterizes knowledge as justified true belief. This definition identifies three essential features: it is (1) a <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> that is (2) <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> and (3) <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justified</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truth is a widely accepted feature of knowledge. It implies that, while it may be possible to believe something false, one cannot know something false.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That knowledge is a form of belief implies that one cannot know something if one does not believe it. Some everyday expressions seem to violate this principle, like the claim that "I do not believe it, I know it!" But the point of such expressions is usually to emphasize one's confidence rather than denying that a belief is involved.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main controversy surrounding this definition concerns its third feature: justification.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This component is often included because of the impression that some true beliefs are not forms of knowledge, such as beliefs based on <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luck" title="Luck">lucky</a> guesses, or erroneous <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>. For example, a person who guesses that a coin flip will land heads usually does not know that even if their belief turns out to be true. This indicates that there is more to knowledge than just being right about something.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cases are excluded by requiring that beliefs have justification for them to count as knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> hold that a belief is justified if it is <a href="/wiki/Evidentialism" title="Evidentialism">based on evidence</a>, which can take the form of <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a> like experience, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, and other beliefs. Others state that beliefs are justified if they are produced by <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliable</a> processes, like sensory perception or logical reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Venn diagram of justified true belief that does not amount to knowledge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg/290px-Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg/435px-Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg/580px-Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>The Gettier problem is grounded in the idea that some justified true beliefs do not amount to knowledge.</figcaption></figure> <p>The definition of knowledge as justified true belief came under severe criticism in the 20th century, when epistemologist <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a> formulated a series of counterexamples.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They purport to present concrete cases of justified true beliefs that fail to constitute knowledge. The reason for their failure is usually a form of epistemic luck: the beliefs are justified but their justification is not relevant to the truth.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a well-known example, someone drives along a country road with many <a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">barn facades</a> and only one real barn. The person is not aware of this, stops in front of the real barn by a lucky coincidence, and forms the justified true belief that they are in front of a barn. This example aims to establish that the person does not know that they are in front of a real barn, since they would not have been able to tell the difference.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that it is a lucky coincidence that this justified belief is also true.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some philosophers, these counterexamples show that justification is not required for knowledge<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that knowledge should instead be characterized in terms of reliability or the manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_virtue" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual virtue">cognitive virtues</a>. Another approach defines knowledge in regard to the function it plays in cognitive processes as that which provides reasons for thinking or doing something.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different response accepts justification as an aspect of knowledge and include additional criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many candidates have been suggested, like the requirements that the justified true belief does not depend on any false beliefs, that no <a href="/wiki/Defeater" title="Defeater">defeaters</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are present, or that the person would not have the belief if it was false.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another view states that beliefs have to be infallible to amount to knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further approach, associated with <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>, focuses on the aspect of inquiry and characterizes knowledge in terms of what works as a practice that aims to produce habits of action.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is still very little consensus in the academic discourse as to which of the proposed modifications or reconceptualizations is correct, and there are various <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_knowledge#Other_definitions" title="Definitions of knowledge">alternative definitions of knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <p>A common distinction among types of knowledge is between propositional knowledge, or knowledge-that, and non-propositional knowledge in the form of practical skills or acquaintance.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other distinctions focus on how the knowledge is acquired and on the content of the known information.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propositional">Propositional</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Declarative_knowledge" title="Declarative knowledge">Declarative knowledge</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latin_dictionary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of the Totius Latinitatis Lexicon by Egidio Forcellini, a multi-volume Latin dictionary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/220px-Latin_dictionary.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/330px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/440px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>Declarative knowledge can be stored in books.</figcaption></figure> <p>Propositional knowledge, also referred to as declarative and descriptive knowledge, is a form of theoretical knowledge about facts, like knowing that "2 + 2 = 4". It is the paradigmatic type of knowledge in <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Propositional knowledge is <i>propositional</i> in the sense that it involves a relation to a proposition. Since propositions are often expressed through that-clauses, it is also referred to as <i>knowledge-that</i>, as in "Akari knows that kangaroos hop".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, Akari stands in the <a href="/wiki/Relation_(philosophy)" title="Relation (philosophy)">relation</a> of knowing to the proposition "kangaroos hop". Closely related types of knowledge are <i>know-wh</i>, for example, <i>knowing who</i> is coming to dinner and <i>knowing why</i> they are coming.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These expressions are normally understood as types of propositional knowledge since they can be paraphrased using a that-clause.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Propositional knowledge takes the form of mental representations involving concepts, ideas, theories, and general rules. These representations connect the knower to certain parts of reality by showing what they are like. They are often context-independent, meaning that they are not restricted to a specific use or purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Propositional knowledge encompasses both knowledge of specific facts, like that the atomic mass of gold is 196.97 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">u</a>, and generalities, like that the color of leaves of some trees changes in autumn.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the dependence on mental representations, it is often held that the capacity for propositional knowledge is exclusive to relatively sophisticated creatures, such as humans. This is based on the claim that advanced intellectual capacities are needed to believe a proposition that expresses what the world is like.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-propositional">Non-propositional</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bicycle_ride.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of someone riding a bicycle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Bicycle_ride.jpg/220px-Bicycle_ride.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Bicycle_ride.jpg/330px-Bicycle_ride.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Bicycle_ride.jpg/440px-Bicycle_ride.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="1641" /></a><figcaption>Knowing how to ride a bicycle is one form of non-propositional knowledge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Non-propositional knowledge is knowledge in which no essential relation to a proposition is involved. The two most well-known forms are knowledge-how (know-how or <a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">procedural knowledge</a>) and knowledge by acquaintance.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To possess knowledge-how means to have some form of practical <a href="/wiki/Ability" title="Ability">ability</a>, skill, or <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like knowing how to ride a bicycle or knowing how to swim. Some of the abilities responsible for knowledge-how involve forms of knowledge-that, as in knowing how to prove a <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> theorem, but this is not generally the case.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some types of knowledge-how do not require a highly developed mind, in contrast to propositional knowledge, and are more common in the animal kingdom. For example, an <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ant</a> knows how to walk even though it presumably lacks a mind sufficiently developed to represent the corresponding proposition.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowledge by acquaintance is familiarity with something that results from direct experiential contact.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The object of knowledge can be a person, a thing, or a place. For example, by eating chocolate, one becomes acquainted with the taste of chocolate, and visiting <a href="/wiki/Lake_Taup%C5%8D" title="Lake Taupō">Lake Taupō</a> leads to the formation of knowledge by acquaintance of Lake Taupō. In these cases, the person forms non-inferential knowledge based on first-hand experience without necessarily acquiring factual information about the object. By contrast, it is also possible to indirectly learn a lot of propositional knowledge about chocolate or Lake Taupō by reading books without having the direct experiential contact required for knowledge by acquaintance.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of knowledge by acquaintance was first introduced by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>. He holds that knowledge by acquaintance is more basic than propositional knowledge since to understand a proposition, one has to be acquainted with its constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_priori_and_a_posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></div> <p>The distinction between <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge depends on the role of experience in the processes of formation and justification.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To know something <i>a posteriori</i> means to know it based on experience.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, by seeing that it rains outside or hearing that the baby is crying, one acquires <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge of these facts.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>A priori</i> knowledge is possible without any experience to justify or support the known proposition.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematical knowledge, such as that 2 + 2 = 4, is traditionally taken to be <i>a priori</i> knowledge since no empirical investigation is necessary to confirm this fact. In this regard, <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge is empirical knowledge while <i>a priori</i> knowledge is non-empirical knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relevant experience in question is primarily identified with <a href="/wiki/Experience#Perception" title="Experience">sensory experience</a>. Some non-sensory experiences, like memory and introspection, are often included as well. Some conscious phenomena are excluded from the relevant experience, like rational insight. For example, conscious thought processes may be required to arrive at <i>a priori</i> knowledge regarding the solution of mathematical problems, like when performing <a href="/wiki/Mental_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental arithmetic">mental arithmetic</a> to multiply two numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same is the case for the experience needed to learn the words through which the claim is expressed. For example, knowing that "all bachelors are unmarried" is <i>a priori</i> knowledge because no sensory experience is necessary to confirm this fact even though experience was needed to learn the meanings of the words "bachelor" and "unmarried".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is difficult to explain how <i>a priori</i> knowledge is possible and some empiricists deny it exists. It is usually seen as unproblematic that one can come to know things through experience, but it is not clear how knowledge is possible without experience. One of the earliest solutions to this problem comes from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, who argues that the soul already possesses the knowledge and just needs to recollect, or remember, it to access it again.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar explanation is given by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, who holds that <i>a priori</i> knowledge exists as <a href="/wiki/Innate_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Innate knowledge">innate knowledge</a> present in the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> of each human.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further approach posits a special mental faculty responsible for this type of knowledge, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Rational_intuition" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational intuition">rational intuition</a> or rational insight.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div> <p>Various other types of knowledge are discussed in the academic literature. In philosophy, "self-knowledge" refers to a person's knowledge of their own <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thoughts</a>, beliefs, and other mental states. A common view is that self-knowledge is more direct than knowledge of the external world, which relies on the interpretation of sense data. Because of this, it is traditionally claimed that self-knowledge is indubitable, like the claim that a person cannot be wrong about whether they are in pain. However, this position is not universally accepted in the contemporary discourse and an alternative view states that self-knowledge also depends on interpretations that could be false.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a slightly different sense, <a href="/wiki/Self-knowledge_(psychology)" title="Self-knowledge (psychology)">self-knowledge</a> can also refer to knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a> as a persisting entity with certain <a href="/wiki/Personality_traits" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality traits">personality traits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preference" title="Preference">preferences</a>, physical attributes, relationships, goals, and <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">social identities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Metaknowledge" title="Metaknowledge">Metaknowledge</a> is knowledge about knowledge. It can arise in the form of self-knowledge but includes other types as well, such as knowing what someone else knows or what information is contained in a scientific article. Other aspects of metaknowledge include knowing how knowledge can be acquired, stored, distributed, and used.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Common_knowledge" title="Common knowledge">Common knowledge</a> is knowledge that is publicly known and shared by most individuals within a community. It establishes a common ground for communication, understanding, social cohesion, and cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a> encompasses common knowledge but also includes knowledge that many people have been exposed to but may not be able to immediately recall.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common knowledge contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Domain_knowledge" title="Domain knowledge">domain knowledge</a> or specialized knowledge, which belongs to a specific domain and is only possessed by experts.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Situated_knowledge"></span> <b>Situated knowledge</b> is knowledge specific to a particular situation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is closely related to practical or tacit knowledge, which is learned and applied in specific circumstances. This especially concerns certain forms of acquiring knowledge, such as <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a> or learning from experience.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, situated knowledge usually lacks a more explicit structure and is not articulated in terms of universal ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is often used in <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> to argue that many forms of knowledge are not absolute but depend on the concrete historical, cultural, and linguistic context.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">Explicit knowledge</a> is knowledge that can be fully articulated, shared, and explained, like the knowledge of historical dates and mathematical formulas. It can be acquired through traditional learning methods, such as reading books and attending lectures. It contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">tacit knowledge</a>, which is not easily articulated or explained to others, like the ability to recognize someone's face and the practical expertise of a master craftsman. Tacit knowledge is often learned through first-hand experience or direct practice.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive load theory">Cognitive load theory</a> distinguishes between biologically primary and secondary knowledge. Biologically primary knowledge is knowledge that humans have as part of their evolutionary heritage, such as knowing how to recognize faces and speech and many general problem-solving capacities. Biologically secondary knowledge is knowledge acquired because of specific social and cultural circumstances, such as knowing how to read and write.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowledge can be <a href="/wiki/Belief#Occurrent_and_dispositional" title="Belief">occurrent or dispositional</a>. Occurrent knowledge is knowledge that is actively involved in cognitive processes. Dispositional knowledge, by contrast, lies dormant in the back of a person's mind and is given by the mere ability to access the relevant information. For example, if a person knows that cats have <a href="/wiki/Whiskers" title="Whiskers">whiskers</a> then this knowledge is dispositional most of the time and becomes occurrent while they are thinking about it.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many forms of Eastern spirituality and religion distinguish between higher and lower knowledge. They are also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Para_Vidya" title="Para Vidya">para vidya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vidya_(philosophy)#Hierarchy_of_knowledge" title="Vidya (philosophy)">apara vidya</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">two truths doctrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. Lower knowledge is based on the senses and the intellect. It encompasses both mundane or conventional truths as well as discoveries of the empirical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher knowledge is understood as knowledge of God, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">the absolute</a>, the <a href="/wiki/True_self" class="mw-redirect" title="True self">true self</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_reality" title="Ultimate reality">ultimate reality</a>. It belongs neither to the external world of physical objects nor to the internal world of the experience of emotions and concepts. Many spiritual teachings stress the importance of higher knowledge to progress on the spiritual path and to see reality as it truly is beyond the <a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">veil of appearances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Five_Senses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photos of the five senses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Five_Senses.jpg/220px-Five_Senses.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Five_Senses.jpg/330px-Five_Senses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Five_Senses.jpg/440px-Five_Senses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1182" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>Perception relies on the <a href="/wiki/Senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Senses">senses</a> to acquire knowledge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sources of knowledge are ways in which people come to know things. They can be understood as cognitive capacities that are exercised when a person acquires new knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various sources of knowledge are discussed in the academic literature, often in terms of the mental faculties responsible. They include perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony. However, not everyone agrees that all of them actually lead to knowledge. Usually, <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> or observation, i.e. using one of the <a href="/wiki/Senses" class="mw-redirect" title="Senses">senses</a>, is identified as the most important source of empirical knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowing that a baby is sleeping is observational knowledge if it was caused by a perception of the snoring baby. However, this would not be the case if one learned about this fact through a telephone conversation with one's spouse. Perception comes in different modalities, including <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">sound</a>, <a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">touch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory perception">smell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>, which correspond to different <a href="/wiki/Physical_stimulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical stimulation">physical stimuli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an active process in which sensory signals are selected, organized, and interpreted to form a representation of the environment. This leads in some cases to <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusions</a> that misrepresent certain aspects of reality, like the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion" title="Müller-Lyer illusion">Müller-Lyer illusion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ponzo_illusion" title="Ponzo illusion">Ponzo illusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a> is often seen in analogy to perception as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of internal <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a>. A traditionally common view is that introspection has a special epistemic status by being infallible. According to this position, it is not possible to be mistaken about introspective facts, like whether one is in pain, because there is no difference between appearance and reality. However, this claim has been contested in the contemporary discourse and critics argue that it may be possible, for example, to mistake an unpleasant itch for a pain or to confuse the experience of a slight ellipse for the experience of a circle.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perceptual and introspective knowledge often act as a form of fundamental or basic knowledge. According to some <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a>, they are the only sources of basic knowledge and provide the foundation for all other knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Memory differs from perception and introspection in that it is not as independent or basic as they are since it depends on other previous experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The faculty of memory retains knowledge acquired in the past and makes it accessible in the present, as when remembering a past event or a friend's phone number.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is generally seen as a reliable source of knowledge. However, it can be deceptive at times nonetheless, either because the original experience was unreliable or because the memory degraded and does not accurately represent the original experience anymore.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowledge based on perception, introspection, and memory may give rise to inferential knowledge, which comes about when reasoning is applied to draw inferences from other known facts.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the perceptual knowledge of a Czech stamp on a postcard may give rise to the inferential knowledge that one's friend is visiting the Czech Republic. This type of knowledge depends on other sources of knowledge responsible for the premises. Some <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a> argue for rational intuition as a further source of knowledge that does not rely on observation and introspection. They hold for example that some beliefs, like the mathematical belief that 2 + 2 = 4, are justified through pure reason alone.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Borochov-testimony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a person giving testimony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Borochov-testimony.jpg/220px-Borochov-testimony.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Borochov-testimony.jpg/330px-Borochov-testimony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Borochov-testimony.jpg/440px-Borochov-testimony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Knowledge by testimony relies on statements given by other people, like the testimony given at a trial.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">Testimony</a> is often included as an additional source of knowledge that, unlike the other sources, is not tied to one specific cognitive faculty. Instead, it is based on the idea that one person can come to know a fact because another person talks about this fact. Testimony can happen in numerous ways, like regular speech, a letter, a newspaper, or a <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blog</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_testimony" title="Philosophy of testimony">problem of testimony</a> consists in clarifying why and under what circumstances testimony can lead to knowledge. A common response is that it depends on the reliability of the person pronouncing the testimony: only testimony from reliable sources can lead to knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limits">Limits</h2></div> <p>The problem of the limits of knowledge concerns the question of which facts are <a href="/wiki/Unknowability" title="Unknowability">unknowable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These limits constitute a form of inevitable <a href="/wiki/Ignorance" title="Ignorance">ignorance</a> that can affect both what is knowable about the external world as well as what one can know about oneself and about what is good.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some limits of knowledge only apply to particular people in specific situations while others pertain to humanity at large.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fact is unknowable to a person if this person lacks access to the relevant information, like facts in the past that did not leave any significant traces. For example, it may be unknowable to people today what <a href="/wiki/Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar">Caesar</a>'s breakfast was the <a href="/wiki/Ides_of_March" title="Ides of March">day he was assassinated</a> but it was knowable to him and some contemporaries.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another factor restricting knowledge is given by the limitations of the human <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> faculties. Some people may lack the cognitive ability to understand highly abstract mathematical truths and some facts cannot be known by any human because they are too complex for the human mind to conceive.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further limit of knowledge arises due to certain logical <a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxes</a>. For instance, there are some ideas that will never occur to anyone. It is not possible to know them because if a person knew about such an idea then this idea would have occurred at least to them.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many disputes about what can or cannot be known in certain fields. <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a> is the view that beliefs about God or other religious doctrines do not amount to knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Moral skepticism</a> encompasses a variety of views, including the claim that <a href="/wiki/Ethics#Moral_knowledge" title="Ethics">moral knowledge</a> is impossible, meaning that one cannot know what is morally good or whether a certain behavior is morally right.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An influential theory about the limits of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> knowledge was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>. For him, knowledge is restricted to the field of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">appearances</a> and does not reach the <a href="/wiki/Thing_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing in itself">things in themselves</a>, which exist independently of humans and lie beyond the realm of appearances. Based on the observation that metaphysics aims to characterize the things in themselves, he concludes that no metaphysical knowledge is possible, like knowing whether <a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_antinomies#The_first_antinomy_(of_space_and_time)" title="Kant's antinomies">the world has a beginning or is infinite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also limits to knowledge in the empirical sciences, such as the <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>, which states that it is impossible to know the exact magnitudes of certain certain pairs of physical properties, like the position and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> of a particle, at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples are physical systems studied by <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>, for which it is not practically possible to predict how they will behave since they are so sensitive to <a href="/wiki/Initial_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Initial conditions">initial conditions</a> that even the slightest of variations may produce a completely different behavior. This phenomenon is known as the <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">butterfly effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosopher,_marble_head,_Roman_copy,_AM_Corfu,_Krfm22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of Pyrrho of Elis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/180px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/270px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/360px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> was one of the first philosophical skeptics.</figcaption></figure> <p>The strongest position about the limits of knowledge is <a href="/wiki/Radical_skepticism" title="Radical skepticism">radical or global skepticism</a>, which holds that humans lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">dream argument</a> states that perceptual experience is not a source of knowledge since dreaming provides unreliable information and a person could be dreaming without knowing it. Because of this inability to discriminate between dream and perception, it is argued that there is no perceptual knowledge of the external world.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This thought experiment is based on the problem of <a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">underdetermination</a>, which arises when the available evidence is not sufficient to make a rational decision between competing theories. In such cases, a person is not justified in believing one theory rather than the other. If this is always the case then global skepticism follows.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another skeptical argument assumes that knowledge requires absolute certainty and aims to show that all human cognition is fallible since it fails to meet this standard.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An influential argument against radical skepticism states that radical skepticism is <a href="/wiki/Self-refuting_idea" title="Self-refuting idea">self-contradictory</a> since denying the existence of knowledge is itself a knowledge-claim.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other arguments rely on <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or deny that infallibility is required for knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very few philosophers have explicitly defended radical skepticism but this position has been influential nonetheless, usually in a negative sense: many see it as a serious challenge to any epistemological theory and often try to show how their preferred theory overcomes it.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Another form of philosophical skepticism</a> advocates the <a href="/wiki/Epoche" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoche">suspension of judgment</a> as a form of attaining <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">tranquility</a> while remaining <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humble</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open-minded" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-minded">open-minded</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A less radical limit of knowledge is identified by <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilists</a>, who argue that the possibility of error can never be fully excluded. This means that even the best-researched scientific theories and the most fundamental common-sense views could still be subject to error. Further research may reduce the possibility of being wrong, but it can never fully exclude it. Some fallibilists reach the skeptical conclusion from this observation that there is no knowledge but the more common view is that knowledge exists but is fallible.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pragmatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatists">Pragmatists</a> argue that one consequence of fallibilism is that inquiry should not aim for truth or absolute certainty but for well-supported and justified beliefs while remaining open to the possibility that one's beliefs may need to be <a href="/wiki/Belief_revision" title="Belief revision">revised</a> later.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <p>The structure of knowledge is the way in which the mental states of a person need to be related to each other for knowledge to arise.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common view is that a person has to have good reasons for holding a belief if this belief is to amount to knowledge. When the belief is challenged, the person may justify it by referring to their reason for holding it. In many cases, this reason depends itself on another belief that may as well be challenged. An example is a person who believes that Ford cars are cheaper than BMWs. When their belief is challenged, they may justify it by claiming that they heard it from a reliable source. This justification depends on the assumption that their source is reliable, which may itself be challenged. The same may apply to any subsequent reason they cite.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This threatens to lead to an <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress" title="Infinite regress">infinite regress</a> since the epistemic status at each step depends on the epistemic status of the previous step.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theories of the structure of knowledge offer responses for how to solve this problem.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foundationalism,_coherentism,_infinitism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram showing the differences between foundationalism, coherentism, and infinitism" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg/330px-Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg/495px-Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg/660px-Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="232" /></a><figcaption>Foundationalism, coherentism, and infinitism are theories of the structure of knowledge. The black arrows symbolize how one belief supports another belief.</figcaption></figure> <p>Three traditional theories are <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">infinitism</a>. Foundationalists and coherentists deny the existence of an infinite regress, in contrast to infinitists.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_132-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to foundationalists, some basic reasons have their epistemic status independent of other reasons and thereby constitute the endpoint of the regress.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some foundationalists hold that certain sources of knowledge, like perception, provide basic reasons. Another view is that this role is played by certain self-evident truths, like the <a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">knowledge of one's own existence</a> and the content of one's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The view that basic reasons exist is not universally accepted. One criticism states that there should be a reason why some reasons are basic while others are not. According to this view, the putative basic reasons are not actually basic since their status would depend on other reasons. Another criticism is based on <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and argues that all <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic_circle" title="Hermeneutic circle">understanding is circular</a> and requires interpretation, which implies that knowledge does not need a secure foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coherentists and infinitists avoid these problems by denying the contrast between basic and non-basic reasons. Coherentists argue that there is only a finite number of reasons, which mutually support and justify one another. This is based on the intuition that beliefs do not exist in isolation but form a complex web of interconnected ideas that is justified by its coherence rather than by a few privileged foundational beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One difficulty for this view is how to demonstrate that it does not involve the fallacy of <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If two beliefs mutually support each other then a person has a reason for accepting one belief if they already have the other. However, mutual support alone is not a good reason for newly accepting both beliefs at once. A closely related issue is that there can be distinct sets of coherent beliefs. Coherentists face the problem of explaining why someone should accept one coherent set rather than another.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For infinitists, in contrast to foundationalists and coherentists, there is an infinite number of reasons. This view embraces the idea that there is a regress since each reason depends on another reason. One difficulty for this view is that the human mind is limited and may not be able to possess an infinite number of reasons. This raises the question of whether, according to infinitism, human knowledge is possible at all.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value">Value</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sculpture showing a torch being passed form one person to another" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg/200px-Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg/300px-Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg/400px-Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><i>Los portadores de la antorcha (The Torch-Bearers)</i> – sculpture by <a href="/wiki/Anna_Hyatt_Huntington" title="Anna Hyatt Huntington">Anna Hyatt Huntington</a> symbolizing the transmission of knowledge from one generation to the next (<a href="/wiki/Complutense_University_of_Madrid" title="Complutense University of Madrid">Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Knowledge may be valuable either because it is useful or because it is good in itself. Knowledge can be useful by helping a person achieve their goals. For example, if one knows the answers to questions in an exam one is able to pass that exam or by knowing which horse is the fastest, one can earn money from bets. In these cases, knowledge has <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental value">instrumental value</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all forms of knowledge are useful and many beliefs about trivial matters have no instrumental value. This concerns, for example, knowing how many grains of sand are on a specific beach or memorizing phone numbers one never intends to call. In a few cases, knowledge may even have a negative value. For example, if a person's life depends on gathering the courage to jump over a ravine, then having a true belief about the involved dangers may hinder them from doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of early childhood education in Ziway, Ethiopia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg/220px-Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg/330px-Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg/440px-Early_Childhood_Education_USAID_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption>The value of knowledge plays a key role in education for deciding which knowledge to pass on to the students.</figcaption></figure> <p>Besides having instrumental value, knowledge may also have <a href="/wiki/Axiology#Intrinsic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">intrinsic value</a>. This means that some forms of knowledge are good in themselves even if they do not provide any practical benefits. According to philosopher <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a>, this applies to forms of knowledge linked to <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is controversial whether all knowledge has intrinsic value, including knowledge about trivial facts like knowing whether the biggest apple tree had an even number of leaves yesterday morning. One view in favor of the intrinsic value of knowledge states that having no belief about a matter is a neutral state and knowledge is always better than this neutral state, even if the value difference is only minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more specific issue in epistemology concerns the question of whether or why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is wide agreement that knowledge is usually good in some sense but the thesis that knowledge is better than true belief is controversial. An early discussion of this problem is found in Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> in relation to the claim that both knowledge and true belief can successfully guide <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a> and, therefore, have apparently the same value. For example, it seems that mere true belief is as effective as knowledge when trying to find the way to <a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Plato, knowledge is better because it is more stable.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another suggestion is that knowledge gets its additional value from justification. One difficulty for this view is that while justification makes it more probable that a belief is true, it is not clear what additional value it provides in comparison to an unjustified belief that is already true.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problem of the value of knowledge is often discussed in relation to <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliabilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">virtue epistemology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reliabilism can be defined as the thesis that knowledge is reliably formed true belief. This view has difficulties in explaining why knowledge is valuable or how a reliable belief-forming process adds additional value.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to an analogy by philosopher <a href="/wiki/Linda_Zagzebski" title="Linda Zagzebski">Linda Zagzebski</a>, a cup of coffee made by a reliable coffee machine has the same value as an equally good cup of coffee made by an unreliable coffee machine.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This difficulty in solving the value problem is sometimes used as an argument against reliabilism.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virtue epistemology, by contrast, offers a unique solution to the value problem. Virtue epistemologists see knowledge as the manifestation of cognitive virtues. They hold that knowledge has additional value due to its association with virtue. This is based on the idea that cognitive success in the form of the manifestation of virtues is inherently valuable independent of whether the resulting states are instrumentally useful.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Acquiring and transmitting knowledge often comes with certain costs, such as the material resources required to obtain new information and the time and energy needed to understand it. For this reason, an awareness of the value of knowledge is crucial to many fields that have to make decisions about whether to seek knowledge about a specific matter. On a political level, this concerns the problem of identifying the most promising research programs to allocate funds.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar concerns affect businesses, where stakeholders have to decide whether the cost of acquiring knowledge is justified by the economic benefits that this knowledge may provide, and the military, which relies on <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">intelligence</a> to identify and prevent threats.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the field of education, the value of knowledge can be used to choose which knowledge should be passed on to the students.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div> <p>The scientific approach is usually regarded as an exemplary process of how to gain knowledge about empirical facts.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific knowledge includes mundane knowledge about easily observable facts, for example, <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a> knowledge that certain reactants become hot when mixed together. It also encompasses knowledge of less tangible issues, like claims about the behavior of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A key aspect of most forms of science is that they seek natural laws that explain empirical observations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific knowledge is discovered and tested using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method aims to arrive at reliable knowledge by formulating the problem in a clear way and by ensuring that the evidence used to support or refute a specific theory is public, reliable, and replicable. This way, other researchers can repeat the experiments and observations in the initial study to confirm or disconfirm it.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientific method is often analyzed as a series of steps that begins with regular observation and data collection. Based on these insights, scientists then try to find a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> that explains the observations. The hypothesis is then tested using a controlled experiment to compare whether predictions based on the hypothesis match the observed results. As a last step, the results are interpreted and a conclusion is reached whether and to what degree the findings confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empirical sciences are usually divided into <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>. The natural sciences, like <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, focus on <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative research</a> methods to arrive at knowledge about natural phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantitative research happens by making precise numerical <a href="/wiki/Measurements" class="mw-redirect" title="Measurements">measurements</a> and the natural sciences often rely on advanced technological <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instruments</a> to perform these measurements and to setup experiments. Another common feature of their approach is to use mathematical tools to <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">analyze the measured data</a> and formulate <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">exact and general laws</a> to describe the observed phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The social sciences, like <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, examine social phenomena on the level of human behavior, relationships, and society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While they also make use of quantitative research, they usually give more emphasis to <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative methods</a>. Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data, often with the goal of arriving at a deeper understanding of the meaning and interpretation of social phenomena from the perspective of those involved.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach can take various forms, such as <a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">interviews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focus_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Focus groups">focus groups</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mixed-method_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-method research">Mixed-method research</a> combines quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the same phenomena from a variety of perspectives to get a more comprehensive understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The progress of scientific knowledge is traditionally seen as a gradual and continuous process in which the existing body of knowledge is increased at each step. This view has been challenged by some philosophers of science, such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>, who holds that between phases of incremental progress, there are so-called scientific revolutions in which a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> occurs. According to this view, some basic assumptions are changed due to the paradigm shift, resulting in a radically new perspective on the body of scientific knowledge that is <a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">incommensurable</a> with the previous outlook.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a> refers to a group of views that privilege the sciences and the scientific method over other forms of inquiry and knowledge acquisition. In its strongest formulation, it is the claim that there is no other knowledge besides scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common critique of scientism, made by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, is that the fixed requirement of following the scientific method is too rigid and results in a misleading picture of reality by excluding various relevant phenomena from the scope of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_knowledge" title="History of knowledge">History of knowledge</a></div> <p>The history of knowledge is the field of inquiry that studies how knowledge in different fields has developed and evolved in the course of history. It is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, but covers a wider area that includes knowledge from fields like <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">religion</a>. It further covers practical knowledge of specific <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">crafts</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">medicine</a>, and everyday practices. It investigates not only how knowledge is created and employed, but also how it is disseminated and preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Before the ancient period</a>, knowledge about social conduct and survival skills was passed down orally and in the form of customs from one generation to the next.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a> saw the rise of major civilizations starting about 3000 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">China</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Invention of writing">invention of writing</a> in this period significantly increased the amount of stable knowledge within society since it could be stored and shared without being limited by <a href="/wiki/Memory#Failures" title="Memory">imperfect human memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the first developments in scientific fields like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were made. They were later formalized and greatly expanded by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> starting in the 6th century BCE. Other ancient advancements concerned knowledge in the fields of agriculture, law, and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of a replica of the printing press created by Johannes Gutenberg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg/180px-Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg/270px-Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg/360px-Printing_machine_of_Johanes_Gutenbrg1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="2093" /></a><figcaption>The invention of the printing press in the 15th century greatly expanded access to written materials.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a>, religious knowledge was a central concern, and religious institutions, like the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in Europe, influenced intellectual activity.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish communities set up <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivas</a> as centers for studying religious texts and <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a> schools were established and focused on <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many intellectual achievements of the ancient period were preserved, refined, and expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> from the 8th to 13th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Centers of higher learning were established in this period in various regions, like <a href="/wiki/Al-Qarawiyyin_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qarawiyyin University">Al-Qarawiyyin University</a> in Morocco,<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a> in Egypt,<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in Iraq,<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first universities in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period also saw the formation of <a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">guilds</a>, which preserved and advanced technical and craft knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period, starting in the 14th century, there was a renewed interest in the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was invented in the 15th century and significantly increased the availability of written media and general <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These developments served as the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> starting in the 16th and 17th centuries. It led to an explosion of knowledge in fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, and the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technological advancements that accompanied this development made possible the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, the development of computers and the Internet led to a vast expansion of knowledge by revolutionizing how knowledge is stored, shared, and created.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_various_disciplines">In various disciplines</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_knowledge" title="Resacralization of knowledge">Resacralization of knowledge</a></div> <p>Knowledge plays a central role in many religions. Knowledge claims about the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a> or <a href="/wiki/Religious_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious doctrine">religious doctrines</a> about how each one should live their lives are found in almost every culture.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such knowledge claims are often controversial and are commonly rejected by <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">religious skeptics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atheists" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheists">atheists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penelhum1971_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penelhum1971-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Religious_epistemology" title="Religious epistemology">epistemology of religion</a> is the field of inquiry studying whether <a href="/wiki/Belief_in_God" title="Belief in God">belief in God</a> and in other religious doctrines is <a href="/wiki/Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a> and amounts to knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One important view in this field is <a href="/wiki/Evidentialism" title="Evidentialism">evidentialism</a>, which states that belief in religious doctrines is justified if it is supported by sufficient evidence. Suggested examples of evidence for religious doctrines include <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experiences</a> such as direct contact with the divine or inner testimony when hearing God's voice.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidentialists often reject that belief in religious doctrines amounts to knowledge based on the claim that there is not sufficient evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A famous saying in this regard is due to Bertrand Russell. When asked how he would justify his lack of belief in God when facing his judgment after death, he replied "Not enough evidence, God! Not enough evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, religious teachings about the existence and nature of God are not always seen as knowledge claims by their defenders. Some explicitly state that the proper attitude towards such doctrines is not knowledge but <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>. This is often combined with the assumption that these doctrines are true but cannot be fully understood by reason or verified through rational inquiry. For this reason, it is claimed that one should accept them even though they do not amount to knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Penelhum1971_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penelhum1971-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a view is reflected in a famous saying by Immanuel Kant where he claims that he "had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith."<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distinct religions often differ from each other concerning the doctrines they proclaim as well as their understanding of the role of knowledge in religious practice.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both the Jewish and the Christian traditions, knowledge plays a role in the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a>, in which Adam and Eve were expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a>. Responsible for this fall was that they ignored God's command and ate from the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_the_knowledge_of_good_and_evil" title="Tree of the knowledge of good and evil">tree of knowledge</a>, which gave them the knowledge of good and evil. This is seen as a rebellion against God since this knowledge belongs to God and it is not for humans to decide what is right or wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Christian literature, knowledge is seen as one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_gifts_of_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit">seven gifts of the Holy Spirit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, "the Knowing" (<i>al-ʿAlīm</i>) is one of the <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_the_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Names of God in the Qur'an">99 names</a> reflecting distinct attributes of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> asserts that knowledge comes from <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> and the acquisition of knowledge is encouraged in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">teachings of Muhammad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oil painting showing Saraswati" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/180px-Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/270px-Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/360px-Saraswati_-_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a> is the goddess of knowledge and the arts in Hinduism.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Buddhism, knowledge that leads to <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">liberation</a> is called <i>vijjā</i>. It contrasts with <i><a href="/wiki/Avijj%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Avijjā">avijjā</a></i> or ignorance, which is understood as the root of all <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">suffering</a>. This is often explained in relation to the claim that humans suffer because they crave things that are <a href="/wiki/Impermanence#Buddhism" title="Impermanence">impermanent</a>. The ignorance of the impermanent nature of things is seen as the factor responsible for this craving.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central goal of Buddhist practice is to stop suffering. This aim is to be achieved by understanding and practicing the teaching known as the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> and thereby overcoming ignorance.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge plays a key role in the classical path of Hinduism known as <i><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">jñāna yoga</a></i> or "path of knowledge". It aims to achieve oneness with the divine by fostering an understanding of the self and its relation to <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> or ultimate reality.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3></div> <p>The <i>anthropology of knowledge</i> is a multi-disciplinary field of inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special interest is given to how knowledge is reproduced and changes in relation to social and cultural circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Allwood2013_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allwood2013-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, the term <i>knowledge</i> is used in a very broad sense, roughly equivalent to terms like <i>understanding</i> and <i>culture</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the forms and reproduction of understanding are studied irrespective of their <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a>. In epistemology, by contrast, knowledge is usually restricted to forms of true belief. The main focus in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> is on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical observations</a> of how people ascribe truth values to meaning contents, like when affirming an assertion, even if these contents are false.<sup id="cite_ref-Allwood2013_209-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allwood2013-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also includes practical components: knowledge is what is employed when interpreting and acting on the world and involves diverse phenomena, such as feelings, embodied skills, information, and concepts. It is used to understand and anticipate events to prepare and react accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reproduction of knowledge and its changes often happen through some form of communication used to <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">transfer knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes face-to-face discussions and online communications as well as seminars and rituals. An important role in this context falls to institutions, like university departments or scientific journals in the academic context.<sup id="cite_ref-Allwood2013_209-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allwood2013-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologists of knowledge understand traditions as knowledge that has been reproduced within a society or geographic region over several generations. They are interested in how this reproduction is affected by external influences. For example, societies tend to interpret knowledge claims found in other societies and incorporate them in a modified form.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within a society, people belonging to the same social group usually understand things and organize knowledge in similar ways to one another. In this regard, social identities play a significant role: people who associate themselves with similar identities, like age-influenced, professional, religious, and ethnic identities, tend to embody similar forms of knowledge. Such identities concern both how a person sees themselves, for example, in terms of the ideals they pursue, as well as how other people see them, such as the expectations they have toward the person.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a></div> <p>The sociology of knowledge is the subfield of sociology that studies how thought and society are related to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the anthropology of knowledge, it understands "knowledge" in a wide sense that encompasses philosophical and political ideas, religious and ideological doctrines, folklore, law, and technology. The sociology of knowledge studies in what sociohistorical circumstances knowledge arises, what consequences it has, and on what existential conditions it depends. The examined conditions include physical, demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors. For instance, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> claimed that the dominant ideology in a society is a product of and changes with the underlying socioeconomic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is found in forms of decolonial scholarship that claim that colonial powers are responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> of Western knowledge systems. They seek a <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a> to undermine this hegemony.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related issue concerns the link between knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>, in particular, the extent to which knowledge is power. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> explored this issue and examined how knowledge and the institutions responsible for it control people through what he termed <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">biopower</a> by shaping societal norms, values, and regulatory mechanisms in fields like <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, medicine, and the <a href="/wiki/Penal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal system">penal system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A central subfield is the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">sociology of scientific knowledge</a>, which investigates the social factors involved in the production and validation of scientific knowledge. This encompasses examining the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">distribution of resources</a> and rewards on the scientific process, which leads some areas of research to flourish while others languish. Further topics focus on selection processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">how academic journals decide</a> whether to publish an article and how academic institutions recruit researchers, and the general values and norms characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientific profession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others_2">Others</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a> studies knowledge using formal tools found in mathematics and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important issue in this field concerns the epistemic principles of knowledge. These are rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. The transparency principle, also referred to as the <i>luminosity of knowledge</i>, states that it is impossible for someone to know something without knowing that they know it.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the conjunction principle, if a person has justified beliefs in two separate propositions, then they are also justified in believing the <a href="/wiki/Logical_conjunction" title="Logical conjunction">conjunction</a> of these two propositions. In this regard, if Bob has a justified belief that dogs are animals and another justified belief that cats are animals, then he is justified to believe the conjunction that both dogs and cats are animals. Other commonly discussed principles are the closure principle and the evidence transfer principle.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a> is the process of creating, gathering, storing, and sharing knowledge. It involves the management of information assets that can take the form of <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">documents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a>, policies, and procedures. It is of particular interest in the field of business and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational development">organizational development</a>, as it directly impacts <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_planning" title="Strategic planning">strategic planning</a>. Knowledge management efforts are often employed to increase <a href="/wiki/Operational_efficiency" title="Operational efficiency">operational efficiency</a> in attempts to gain a <a href="/wiki/Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive advantage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key processes in the field of knowledge management are knowledge creation, <a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data storage">knowledge storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">knowledge sharing</a>, and knowledge application. Knowledge creation is the first step and involves the production of new information. Knowledge storage can happen through media like books, audio recordings, film, and digital databases. Secure storage facilitates knowledge sharing, which involves the transmission of information from one person to another. For the knowledge to be beneficial, it has to be put into practice, meaning that its insights should be used to either improve existing practices or implement new ones.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">Knowledge representation</a> is the process of storing organized information, which may happen using various forms of media and also includes information stored in the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It plays a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, where the term is used for the field of inquiry that studies how computer systems can efficiently represent information. This field investigates how different <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a> and interpretative procedures can be combined to achieve this goal and which formal languages can be used to express knowledge items. Some efforts in this field are directed at developing general languages and systems that can be employed in a great variety of domains while others focus on an optimized representation method within one specific domain. Knowledge representation is closely linked to <a href="/wiki/Automatic_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic reasoning">automatic reasoning</a> because the purpose of knowledge representation formalisms is usually to construct a <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge base</a> from which <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferences</a> are drawn.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influential knowledge base formalisms include logic-based systems, <a href="/wiki/Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">rule-based systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semantic_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic networks">semantic networks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Frame (artificial intelligence)">frames</a>. Logic-based systems rely on <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a> employed in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> to represent knowledge. They use linguistic devices like individual terms, <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)" title="Predicate (mathematical logic)">predicates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantifiers</a>. For rule-based systems, each unit of information is expressed using a conditional production rule of the form "if A then B". Semantic nets model knowledge as a <a href="/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)" title="Graph (discrete mathematics)">graph</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)" title="Vertex (graph theory)">vertices</a> to represent facts or concepts and edges to represent the relations between them. Frames provide complex taxonomies to group items into classes, subclasses, and instances.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Teaching_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching methods">teaching methods</a> or the art of teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It explores <a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">how learning takes place</a> and which techniques teachers may employ to transmit knowledge to students and improve their learning experience while keeping them motivated.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a great variety of teaching methods and the most effective approach often depends on factors like the subject matter and the age and proficiency level of the learner.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In teacher-centered education, the teacher acts as the authority figure imparting information and directing the learning process. <a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered approaches</a> give a more active role to students with the teacher acting as a coach to facilitate the process.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further methodological considerations encompass the difference between group work and individual learning and the use of instructional media and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">educational technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic modal logic</a> – Type of modal logic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignorance" title="Ignorance">Ignorance</a> – Lack of knowledge and understanding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_falsification" title="Knowledge falsification">Knowledge falsification</a> – Deliberate misrepresentation of knowledge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a> – Capacity to know everything</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_knowledge" title="Outline of knowledge">Outline of knowledge</a> – Knowledge: what is known, understood, proven; information and products of learning</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this context, testimony is what other people report, both in spoken and written form.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A similar approach was already discussed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a> in Plato's dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>, where <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> pondered the distinction between knowledge and true belief but rejected this definition.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Truth is usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objectivity</a>. This view is rejected by <a href="/wiki/Factual_relativism" title="Factual relativism">relativism about truth</a>, which argues that what is true depends on one's perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A defeater of a belief is evidence that this belief is false.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A distinction similar to the one between knowledge-that and knowledge-how was already discussed in ancient Greece as the contrast between <i><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">epistēmē</a></i> (unchanging theoretical knowledge) and <i><a href="/wiki/Techne" title="Techne">technē</a></i> (expert technical knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, to know whether Ben is rich can be understood as knowing that Ben is rich, in case he is, and knowing that Ben is not rich, in case he is not.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However, it is controversial to what extent goal-directed behavior in lower animals is comparable to human knowledge-how.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavese2022§_7.4_Knowledge-How_in_Preverbal_Children_and_Nonhuman_Animals_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavese2022§_7.4_Knowledge-How_in_Preverbal_Children_and_Nonhuman_Animals-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Individuals may lack a deeper understanding of their character and feelings and attaining self-knowledge is one step in <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a> is a special type of <a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">memory error</a> that consists remembering events that did not happen, often provoked by an attempt to fill memory gaps.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An often-cited paradox from the field of formal epistemology is <a href="/wiki/Fitch%27s_paradox_of_knowability" title="Fitch's paradox of knowability">Fitch's paradox of knowability</a>, which states that knowledge has limits because denying this claim leads to the absurd conclusion that every truth is known.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A similar often-cited <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> assumes that a person is not a regular human being but a <a href="/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat" title="Brain in a vat">brain in a vat</a> that receives electrical stimuli. These stimuli give the brain the false impression of having a body and interacting with the external world. Since the person is unable to tell the difference, it is argued that they do not know that they have a body responsible for reliable perceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is controversial to what extent there is a single scientific method that applies equally to all sciences rather than a group of related approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is controversial how radical the difference between paradigms is and whether they truly are incommensurable.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The internet also reduced the cost of accessing knowledge with a lot of <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">information being freely available</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This principle implies that if Heike knows that today is Monday, then she also knows that she knows that today is Monday.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The exact definition of the term is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022a">AHD staff 2022a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMW_Staff2023">MW Staff 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCD_staff">CD staff</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 109</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, Lead Section, § 1. The Varieties of Cognitive Success</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.1 The Truth Condition, § 1.2 The Belief Condition</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 1. The Varieties of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1b. Knowledge-That</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1. Kinds of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStanleyWilllamson2001">Stanley & Willlamson 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV">411–412</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 92</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlausen2015">Klausen 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/bbee5873-28f2-46d5-94b6-49ef5b18a38b">813–818</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLackey2021">Lackey 2021</a>, pp. 111–112</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllwood2013">Allwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025">69–72</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAllen2005">Allen 2005</a>, § Sociology of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBarth2002">Barth 2002</a>, p. 1</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022a">AHD staff 2022a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMageePopper1971">Magee & Popper 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernbritishphi0000mage/page/74">74–75</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022b">AHD staff 2022b</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWalton2005">Walton 2005</a>, pp. 59, 64</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRothbergErickson2005">Rothberg & Erickson 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GT7qIH4PPmMC">5, 14–15</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChristopherPrasathVanga2018">Christopher, Prasath & Vanga 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9nSADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">93–94</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022a">AHD staff 2022a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022c">AHD staff 2022c</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, pp. 254–255</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWise2011">Wise 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EathAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT80">80</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 2. What Is Knowledge?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2005">Allen 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTruncellito2023">Truncellito 2023</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoser2005">Moser 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 99</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 2. Knowledge as a Kind</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHannon2021">Hannon 2021</a>, Knowledge, Concept of</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, pp. 92, 96–97</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 96</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGupta2021">Gupta 2021</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">3 Defining knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcCain2022">McCain 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 2. Chisholm on the Problem of the Criterion</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFumerton2008">Fumerton 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195183214-e-3">34–36</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Origins of Knowledge, § Analytic Epistemology</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGarcía-Arnaldos2020">García-Arnaldos 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/hpla/23/2/article-p507_11.xml">508</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington">Hetherington</a>, § 8. Implications of Fallibilism: No Knowledge?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 6. Standards for Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlack2002">Black 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdcnet.org/swphilreview/content/swphilreview_2002_0018_0001_0023_0032">23–32</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, Lead Section, § 3. Warrant</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, pp. 99–100</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllen2005">Allen 2005</a>, Lead Section, § Gettierology</li><li><a href="#CITEREFParikhRenero2017">Parikh & Renero 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-53280-6_4">93–102</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChappell2019">Chappell 2019</a>, § 8. Third Definition (D3): 'Knowledge Is True Judgement With an Account': 201d–210a</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.1 The Truth Condition</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1b. Knowledge-That, § 5. Understanding Knowledge?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLandau2017">Landau 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fDoqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119">119–120</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Grady">O'Grady</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.2 The Belief Condition</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 1. The Varieties of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 93</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.3 The Justification Condition, § 6. Doing Without Justification?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, Lead Section, § 3. Warrant</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 100</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 2. Propositional Knowledge Is Not Mere True Belief, § 3. Warrant</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 5a. The Justified-True-Belief Conception of Knowledge, § 6e. Mere True Belief</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.3 The Justification Condition</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.3 The Justification Condition</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 3. Warrant</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 5a. The Justified-True-Belief Conception of Knowledge, § 6e. Mere True Belief</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 1.3 The Justification Condition, § 6.1 Reliabilist Theories of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism, § 6. Externalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 5a. The Justified-True-Belief Conception of Knowledge, § 7. Knowing’s Point</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022">Hetherington 2022</a>, Lead Section, § Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 5. Defeasibility Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 5. Understanding Knowledge?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 100</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRodríguez2018">Rodríguez 2018</a>, pp. 29–32</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGoldman1976">Goldman 1976</a>, pp. 771–773</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSudduth2022">Sudduth 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 10.2 Fake Barn Cases</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 10.2 Fake Barn Cases</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 4. No False Lemmas, § 5. Modal Conditions, § 6. Doing Without Justification?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 2.3 Knowing Facts</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDuránFormanek2018">Durán & Formanek 2018</a>, pp. 648–650</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCainStaplefordSteup2021">McCain, Stapleford & Steup 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IeNBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT111">111</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSudduth2022">Sudduth 2022</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 5c. Questioning the Gettier Problem, § 6. Standards for Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKraft2012">Kraft 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/KRASIF">49–50</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAmesYajunHershock2021">Ames, Yajun & Hershock 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDcWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">86–87</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeggHookway2021">Legg & Hookway 2021</a>, § 4.2 Inquiry</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBagginiSouthwell2016">Baggini & Southwell 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k60YDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48">48</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018">Ichikawa & Steup 2018</a>, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, pp. 93–94, 104–105</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 2.3 Knowing Facts</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1. Kinds of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBarnett1990">Barnett 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eTjlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">40</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLilleyLightfootAmaral2004">Lilley, Lightfoot & Amaral 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HT8VDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162–163</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2005">Allen 2005</a>, Lead Section</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFaberMarusterJorna2017">Faber, Maruster & Jorna 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KKo0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT340">340</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGertler2021">Gertler 2021</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2005">Rescher 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o7m3amAbDEsC&pg=PA20">20</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 1. The Varieties of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1b. Knowledge-That</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1b. Knowledge-That</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 92</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1b. Knowledge-That, § 1c. Knowledge-Wh</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1c. Knowledge-Wh</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1c. Knowledge-Wh</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMorrison2005">Morrison 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&pg=PA371">371</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFReif2008">Reif 2008</a>, p. 33</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 93</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoolfolkMargetts2012">Woolfolk & Margetts 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=whziBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA251">251</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto6-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">1 Some preliminaries</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1. Kinds of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Nature of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStanleyWilllamson2001">Stanley & Willlamson 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV">411–412</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1d. Knowing-How</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">1 Some preliminaries</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 2.2 Knowing How</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPavese2022">Pavese 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 6. The Epistemology of Knowledge-How</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavese2022§_7.4_Knowledge-How_in_Preverbal_Children_and_Nonhuman_Animals-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavese2022§_7.4_Knowledge-How_in_Preverbal_Children_and_Nonhuman_Animals_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPavese2022">Pavese 2022</a>, § 7.4 Knowledge-How in Preverbal Children and Nonhuman Animals.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § St. Anselm of Canterbury</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski1999">Zagzebski 1999</a>, p. 92</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPeels2023">Peels 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acCpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">28</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeydornJesudason2013">Heydorn & Jesudason 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6QDqPIsiEXEC&pg=PT10">10</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFoxall2017">Foxall 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HSE6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT75">75</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHasanFumerton2020">Hasan & Fumerton 2020</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDePoe2022">DePoe 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 1. The Distinction: Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHasanFumerton2020">Hasan & Fumerton 2020</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-acquaindescrip/">introduction</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaymesÖzdalga2016">Haymes & Özdalga 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iz6uCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">26–28</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMiah2006">Miah 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l7KvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">19–20</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlterNagasawa2015">Alter & Nagasawa 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FgPWBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">93–94</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § A Priori and a Posteriori Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell2020">Russell 2020</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoser2016">Moser 2016</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, Lead Section</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell2020">Russell 2020</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoser2016">Moser 2016</a>, Lead Section</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, § 1. An Initial Characterization, § 4. The Relevant Sense of 'Experience'</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell2020">Russell 2020</a>, § 4.1 A Priori Justification Is Justification That Is Independent of Experience</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell2020">Russell 2020</a>, § 4.1 A Priori Justification Is Justification That Is Independent of Experience</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoolf2013">Woolf 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/mind/article/122/485/171/961176">192–193</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHirschberger2019">Hirschberger 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LWGlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22">22</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMoser1998">Moser 1998</a>, § 2. Innate concepts, certainty and the a priori</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkie1998">Markie 1998</a>, § 2. Innate ideas</li><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Brien2006">O'Brien 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TOQcebWMstwC&pg=PA31">31</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkieFolescu2023">Markie & Folescu 2023</a>, § 2. The Intuition/Deduction Thesis</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2022">Baehr 2022</a>, § 1. An Initial Characterization, § 6. Positive Characterizations of the A Priori</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGertler2021">Gertler 2021</a>, Lead Section, § 1. The Distinctiveness of Self-Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGertler2010">Gertler 2010</a>, p. 1</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcGeer2001">McGeer 2001</a>, pp. 13837–13841</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGertler2021a">Gertler 2021a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorinRacy2021">Morin & Racy 2021</a>, pp. 373–374</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKernis2013">Kernis 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r0gahbOYsU4C&pg=PA209">209</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWilson2002">Wilson 2002</a>, pp. 3–4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFReginster2017">Reginster 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pr5LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231">231–232</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEvansFoster2011">Evans & Foster 2011</a>, pp. 721–725</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2005">Rescher 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o7m3amAbDEsC&pg=PA20">20</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCoxRaja2011">Cox & Raja 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OR4Ld8NeFE8C&pg=PA134">134</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeondes2001">Leondes 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5kSamKhS560C&pg=PA416">416</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDesouzaAwazu2005">Desouza & Awazu 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GRyBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53">53</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJorna2017">Jorna 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KKo0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT340">340</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFaberMarusterJorna2017">Faber, Maruster & Jorna 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KKo0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT340">340</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchneiderMcGrew2022">Schneider & McGrew 2022</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bqKgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115">115–116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFaberMarusterJorna2017">Faber, Maruster & Jorna 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KKo0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT340">340</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFVempala2014">Vempala 2014</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qfcOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA277">Creativity, Theories of Musical</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAPA_staff2022">APA staff 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHunter2009">Hunter 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230244481_23">151–153</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnett2006">Barnett 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WX9UVK6FYSkC&pg=PA146">146–147</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunter2009">Hunter 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230244481_23">151–153</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGascoigneThornton2014">Gascoigne & Thornton 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVlsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8, 37, 81, 108</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHill2009">Hill 2009</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/management/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/knowledge-based-view-firm">§ Idiosyncratic Views of Knowledge</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSwellerAyresKalyuga2011">Sweller, Ayres & Kalyuga 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sSAwbd8qOAAC&pg=PA3">3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSweller2010">Sweller 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mFJe8ZnAb3EC&pg=PA31">31</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § Occasional and Dispositional Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBartlett2018">Bartlett 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BAROS-4">1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwitzgebel2021">Schwitzgebel 2021</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRambachan2006">Rambachan 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ORPkAf3SZBQC&pg=PA10">10–11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFThakchoe2022">Thakchoe 2022</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMishra2021">Mishra 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v8s7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">52</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGhose1998">Ghose 1998</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://incarnateword.in/cwsa/7/the-glory-of-god-in-man">Political Writings and Speeches. 1890–1908: The Glory of God in Man</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRambachan2006">Rambachan 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ORPkAf3SZBQC&pg=PA10">10–11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMishra2021">Mishra 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v8s7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">52</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGhose1998">Ghose 1998</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://incarnateword.in/cwsa/7/the-glory-of-god-in-man">Political Writings and Speeches. 1890–1908: The Glory of God in Man</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKern2017">Kern 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eyh5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–10, 133</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSpaulding2016">Spaulding 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ct5CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223">223–224</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 3. Ways of Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Origins of Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Brien2022">O'Brien 2022</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBertelsonGelder2004">Bertelson & Gelder 2004</a>, pp. 141–142</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMartin1998">Martin 1998</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.1 Perception, § 5.5 Testimony</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKhatoon2012">Khatoon 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ha1KBZm9CXQC&pg=PA104">104</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMartin1998">Martin 1998</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.2 Introspection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 3. Ways of Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § The Origins of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.3 Memory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2002">Audi 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3">72–75</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGardiner2001">Gardiner 2001</a>, pp. 1351–1352</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMichaelianSutton2017">Michaelian & Sutton 2017</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.3 Memory</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBairdMaskill2017">Baird & Maskill 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6WbgDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_Staff2022e">AHD Staff 2022e</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 3d. Knowing by Thinking-Plus-Observing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.4 Reason</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2002">Audi 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3">85, 90–91</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkieFolescu2023">Markie & Folescu 2023</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 5.5 Testimony</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeonard2021">Leonard 2021</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Reductionism and Non-Reductionism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGreen2022">Green 2022</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, pp. ix, 1–2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2005a">Rescher 2005a</a>, p. 479</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkieFolescu2023">Markie & Folescu 2023</a>, § 1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkieFolescu2023">Markie & Folescu 2023</a>, § 1. Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, pp. 2, 6</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStoltz2021">Stoltz 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120">120</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, pp. 2, 6</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009a">Rescher 2009a</a>, pp. 140–141</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, pp. 10, 93</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009a">Rescher 2009a</a>, pp. x–xi, 57–58</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDika2023">Dika 2023</a>, p. 163</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009">Rescher 2009</a>, pp. 3, 9, 65–66</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2009a">Rescher 2009a</a>, pp. 32–33</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWeisberg2021">Weisberg 2021</a>, § 4. Fourth Case Study: The Limits of Knowledge</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeisberg2021">Weisberg 2021</a>, § 4.2 The Knowability Paradox (a.k.a. the Church-Fitch Paradox)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKreeftTacelli2009">Kreeft & Tacelli 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1DH1ZPyyTkIC&pg=PA371">371</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2019">Sinnott-Armstrong 2019</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Varieties of Moral Skepticism, § 2. A Presumption Against Moral Skepticism?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, § 5. Moral Epistemology</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcCormick">McCormick</a>, § 4. Kant's Transcendental Idealism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWilliams2023">Williams 2023</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Theoretical reason: reason’s cognitive role and limitations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlackburn2008">Blackburn 2008</a>, p. 101</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRutten2012">Rutten 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8sHJD2fXDg4C&pg=PA189">189</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFYanofsky2013">Yanofsky 2013</a>, pp. 185–186</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYanofsky2013">Yanofsky 2013</a>, pp. 161–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWindt2021">Windt 2021</a>, § 1.1 Cartesian Dream Skepticism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 4. Sceptical Doubts About Knowing</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 6. Standards for Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStroll2023">Stroll 2023</a>, § Skepticism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 6.2 Responses to the Closure Argument</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLycan2019">Lycan 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cfeEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT21">21–22, 5–36</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcDermid2023">McDermid 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMisak2002">Misak 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6WHAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53">53</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHamner2003">Hamner 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uno8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87">87</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington2022a">Hetherington 2022a</a>, § 4. Sceptical Doubts About Knowing</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAttie-Picker2020">Attie-Picker 2020</a>, pp. 97–98</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPerin2020">Perin 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351168120-23/tranquility-goal-pyrrhonian-skepticism-casey-perin">285–286</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHetherington">Hetherington</a>, Lead Section, § 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing Fallibly?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher1998">Rescher 1998</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeggHookway2021">Legg & Hookway 2021</a>, 4.1 Skepticism versus Fallibilism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLeggHookway2021">Legg & Hookway 2021</a>, 4.1 Skepticism versus Fallibilism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHookway2012">Hookway 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_4KOTIyzMfwC&pg=PA39">39–40</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHasanFumerton2018">Hasan & Fumerton 2018</a>, Lead Section, 2. The Classical Analysis of Foundational Justification</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFumerton2022">Fumerton 2022</a>, § Summary</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_132-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, Lead Section, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCameron2018">Cameron 2018</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFClark1988">Clark 1988</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CLAVIR">369–370</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, Lead Section, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 4.1 Foundationalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPoston">Poston</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/foundationalism-in-epistemology/">Lead Section</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHasanFumerton2022">Hasan & Fumerton 2022</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/">§ 1. Regress Arguments for Foundationalism</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLehrer2015">Lehrer 2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKG9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1. The Analysis of Knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGeorge2021">George 2021</a>, § 1.2 Against Foundationalism, § 1.3 The Hermeneutical Circle</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2022">Murphy 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLammenranta2022">Lammenranta 2022</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 4. Foundationalism and Coherentism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDegenhardt2019">Degenhardt 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">2 The value of knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, pp. 874–875</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">2 The value of knowledge</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">2 The value of knowledge</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDegenhardt2019">Degenhardt 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–6</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLemos1994">Lemos 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GPPCnahLmggC&pg=PA88">88–89</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBergström1987">Bergström 1987</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lUzgW4vN4YoC&pg=PA55">53–55</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, pp. 874–875</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, pp. 874–875</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPlato2002">Plato 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fivedialogueseut00plat/page/89">89–90, 97b–98a</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, p. 875</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 6. Other Accounts of the Value of Knowledge</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, p. 874</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2007">Pritchard 2007</a>, pp. 85–86</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a>, § 2. Reliabilism and the Meno Problem, § 3. Virtue Epistemology and the Value Problem</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurriAlfanoGreco2021">Turri, Alfano & Greco 2021</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a>, § 2. Reliabilism and the Meno Problem</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022">Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022</a>, § 3. Virtue Epistemology and the Value Problem</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOlsson2011">Olsson 2011</a>, p. 877</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTurriAlfanoGreco2021">Turri, Alfano & Greco 2021</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue/#EpisValu">§ 6. Epistemic Value</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStehrAdolf2016">Stehr & Adolf 2016</a>, pp. 483–485</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPowell2020">Powell 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GYdnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132">132–133</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMeirmansButlinCharmantierEngelstädter2019">Meirmans et al. 2019</a>, pp. 754–756</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLengnick-HallLengnick-Hall2003">Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t8RLT77_VHMC&pg=PA85">85</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAwadGhaziri2003">Awad & Ghaziri 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qzREBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT28">28–29</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDegenhardt2019">Degenhardt 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2013">Pritchard 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ">115–118</a>, 11 Scientific Knowledge</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoser2005">Moser 2005</a>, p. 385</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoser2005">Moser 2005</a>, p. 386</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHepburnAndersen2021">Hepburn & Andersen 2021</a>, Lead Section, § 1. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFThorntonLanzer2018">Thornton & Lanzer 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCRZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDanesi2013">Danesi 2013</a>, pp. 178–181</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="#CITEREFDanesi2013">Danesi 2013</a>, pp. 178–181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClark2022">Clark 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 2. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllwood2013">Allwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025">69–72</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBoyer2007">Boyer 2007</a>, 1. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllwood2013">Allwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025">69–72</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBarth2002">Barth 2002</a>, p. 1</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarth2002">Barth 2002</a>, pp. 1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAllwood2013">Allwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025">69–72</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40606072">S193–S202</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteupNeta2020">Steup & Neta 2020</a>, § 3.3 Internal Vs. External</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDasSalow2018">Das & Salow 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/DASTAT-2">3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDokicÉgré2009">Dokic & Égré 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/DOKMFE-2">1–2</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlein1998">Klein 1998</a>, § 7. Epistemic Principles</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLengnick-HallLengnick-Hall2003">Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t8RLT77_VHMC&pg=PA85">85</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAwadGhaziri2003">Awad & Ghaziri 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qzREBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT28">28</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChoo2002">Choo 2002</a>, pp. 503–504</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2004">Witzel 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=riM-iG8Ib64C&pg=PT252">252</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcNabb2015">McNabb 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3W1sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT41">41</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSonneveldLoening1993">Sonneveld & Loening 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BbBBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA188">188</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarkman2006">Markman 2006</a>, p. 1</li><li><a href="#CITEREFShapiro2006">Shapiro 2006</a>, p. 1</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCastilhoLopes2009">Castilho & Lopes 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aOeAoTz24jUC&pg=PA287">287</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKandel1992">Kandel 1992</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9r4dh4pdQNkC&pg=PA5">5–6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCaiLiuChenWang2021">Cai et al. 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x30xEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">21</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCastilhoLopes2009">Castilho & Lopes 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aOeAoTz24jUC&pg=PA287">287–288</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKandel1992">Kandel 1992</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9r4dh4pdQNkC&pg=PA5">5–6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAkerkarSajja2010">Akerkar & Sajja 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj8r3A-0dZkC&pg=PA71">71–72</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatkinsMortimore1999">Watkins & Mortimore 1999</a>, pp. 1–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWatkinsMortimore1999">Watkins & Mortimore 1999</a>, pp. 1–3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPayne2003">Payne 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abocsyBzTMMC&pg=PA264">264</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGabriel2022">Gabriel 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PreYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16">16</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBartlettBurton2007">Bartlett & Burton 2007</a>, pp. 81–85</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2003">Murphy 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BjqQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5, 19–20</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmaliana2017">Emaliana 2017</a>, pp. 59–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexander2013">Alexander 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNvQENpKy2AC&pg=PA109">109–110</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBukoye2019">Bukoye 2019</a>, p. 1395</li></ul></div></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_2">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAHD_staff2022a" class="citation web cs1">AHD staff (2022a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=knowledge">"Knowledge"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129072236/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=knowledge">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Knowledge&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dknowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_staff2022b" class="citation web cs1">AHD staff (2022b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=knowledge+base">"Knowledge Base"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319181514/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=knowledge+base">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Knowledge+Base&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dknowledge%2Bbase&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_staff2022c" class="citation web cs1">AHD staff (2022c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=intelligence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Intelligence"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240108124050/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=intelligence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Intelligence&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dintelligence%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_Staff2022d" class="citation web cs1">AHD Staff (2022d). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=social+science&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Social Science"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Social+Science&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dsocial%2Bscience%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_Staff2022e" class="citation web cs1">AHD Staff (2022e). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=confabulation&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Confabulate"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Confabulate&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dconfabulation%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmesYajunHershock2021" class="citation book cs1">Ames, Roger T.; Yajun, Chen; Hershock, Peter D. (2021). <i>Confucianism and Deweyan Pragmatism: Resources for a New Geopolitics of Interdependence</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8857-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8857-2"><bdi>978-0-8248-8857-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+and+Deweyan+Pragmatism%3A+Resources+for+a+New+Geopolitics+of+Interdependence&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-8857-2&rft.aulast=Ames&rft.aufirst=Roger+T.&rft.au=Yajun%2C+Chen&rft.au=Hershock%2C+Peter+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkerkarSajja2010" class="citation book cs1">Akerkar, Rajendra; Sajja, Priti (2010). <i>Knowledge-Based Systems</i>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-02790-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-02790-1"><bdi>978-1-136-02790-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Pedagogy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-02790-1&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMNvQENpKy2AC%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2005" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Barry (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822095315/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/knowledge">"Knowledge"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/knowledge">the original</a> on 22 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge&rft.btitle=New+Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.pages=1199-1204&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55800981&rft.isbn=978-0-684-31377-1&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fcomputers-and-electrical-engineering%2Fcomputers-and-computing%2Fknowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Allwood, Carl Martin (2013). "Anthropology of Knowledge". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025"><i>The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 69–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118339893.wbeccp025">10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33989-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33989-3"><bdi>978-1-118-33989-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220926085332/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anthropology+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cross-Cultural+Psychology&rft.pages=69-72&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118339893.wbeccp025&rft.isbn=978-1-118-33989-3&rft.aulast=Allwood&rft.aufirst=Carl+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781118339893.wbeccp025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlterNagasawa2015" class="citation book cs1">Alter, Torin; Nagasawa, Yujin (2015). <i>Consciousness in the Physical World: Perspectives on Russellian Monism</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 93–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992736-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992736-4"><bdi>978-0-19-992736-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consciousness+in+the+Physical+World%3A+Perspectives+on+Russellian+Monism&rft.pages=93-94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-992736-4&rft.aulast=Alter&rft.aufirst=Torin&rft.au=Nagasawa%2C+Yujin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAPA_staff2022" class="citation web cs1">APA staff (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.apa.org/situated-knowledge">"Situated Knowledge"</a>. <i>APA Dictionary of Psychology</i>. American Psychological Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171203/https://dictionary.apa.org/situated-knowledge">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=APA+Dictionary+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Situated+Knowledge&rft.date=2022&rft.au=APA+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.apa.org%2Fsituated-knowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppelrouthEdles2008" class="citation book cs1">Appelrouth, Scott; Edles, Laura Desfor (2008). <i>Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings</i>. Pine Forge Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2793-8"><bdi>978-0-7619-2793-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+and+Contemporary+Sociological+Theory%3A+Text+and+Readings&rft.pub=Pine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2793-8&rft.aulast=Appelrouth&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Edles%2C+Laura+Desfor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAqilBabekriNadmi2020" class="citation book cs1">Aqil, Moulay Driss; Babekri, El Hassane; Nadmi, Mustapha (2020). "Morocco: Contributions to Mathematics Education From Morocco". In Vogeli, Bruce R.; Tom, Mohamed E. A. El (eds.). <i>Mathematics And Its Teaching In The Muslim World</i>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-314-679-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-314-679-2"><bdi>978-981-314-679-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morocco%3A+Contributions+to+Mathematics+Education+From+Morocco&rft.btitle=Mathematics+And+Its+Teaching+In+The+Muslim+World&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-981-314-679-2&rft.aulast=Aqil&rft.aufirst=Moulay+Driss&rft.au=Babekri%2C+El+Hassane&rft.au=Nadmi%2C+Mustapha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAttie-Picker2020" class="citation book cs1">Attie-Picker, Mario (2020). "Does Skepticism Lead to Tranquility? Exploring a Pyrrhonian Theme". In Lombrozo, Tania; Knobe, Joshua; Nichols, Shaun (eds.). <i>Oxford Studies in Experimental Philosophy</i>. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198852407.003.0005">10.1093/oso/9780198852407.003.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885240-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885240-7"><bdi>978-0-19-885240-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Does+Skepticism+Lead+to+Tranquility%3F+Exploring+a+Pyrrhonian+Theme&rft.btitle=Oxford+Studies+in+Experimental+Philosophy&rft.pages=97-125&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198852407.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-885240-7&rft.aulast=Attie-Picker&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAudi2002" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert (2002). "The Sources of Knowledge". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Epistemology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513005-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513005-8"><bdi>978-0-19-513005-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112116/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sources+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Epistemology&rft.pages=71-94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513005-8&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FAUDTSO-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAwadGhaziri2003" class="citation book cs1">Awad, Elias M.; Ghaziri, Hassan (2003). <i>Knowledge Management</i>. Pearson Education India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-325-0619-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-325-0619-0"><bdi>978-93-325-0619-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+Management&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-93-325-0619-0&rft.aulast=Awad&rft.aufirst=Elias+M.&rft.au=Ghaziri%2C+Hassan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaehr2022" class="citation web cs1">Baehr, Jason S. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/">"A Priori and A Posteriori"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191004061905/https://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Priori+and+A+Posteriori&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Baehr&rft.aufirst=Jason+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagginiSouthwell2016" class="citation book cs1">Baggini, J.; Southwell, G. (2016). <i>Philosophy: Key Themes</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-00887-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-00887-9"><bdi>978-1-137-00887-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy%3A+Key+Themes&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-00887-9&rft.aulast=Baggini&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Southwell%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdMaskill2017" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Tess; Maskill, Linda (2017). "Memory". In Maskill, Linda; Tempest, Stephanie (eds.). <i>Neuropsychology for Occupational Therapists: Cognition in Occupational Performance</i>. 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In Young, Michael; Gamble, Jeanne (eds.). <i>Knowledge, Curriculum and Qualifications for South African Further Education</i>. HSRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7969-2154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7969-2154-3"><bdi>978-0-7969-2154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vocational+Knowledge+and+Vocational+Pedagogy&rft.btitle=Knowledge%2C+Curriculum+and+Qualifications+for+South+African+Further+Education&rft.pub=HSRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7969-2154-3&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarth2002" class="citation journal cs1">Barth, Fredrik (2002). "An Anthropology of Knowledge". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F324131">10.1086/324131</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1956%2F4191">1956/4191</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=An+Anthropology+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1956%2F4191&rft.issn=0011-3204&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F324131&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Fredrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlettBurton2007" class="citation book cs1">Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2007). <i>Introduction to Education Studies</i> (2nd ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Occurrent+States&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220316213%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBAROS-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeins2017" class="citation book cs1">Beins, Bernard C. (2017). <i>Research Method: A Tool for Life</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-43623-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-43623-6"><bdi>978-1-108-43623-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Method%3A+A+Tool+for+Life&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-108-43623-6&rft.aulast=Beins&rft.aufirst=Bernard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergström1987" class="citation book cs1">Bergström, Lars (1987). "On the Value of Scientific Knowledge". In Lehrer, Keith (ed.). <i>Science and Ethics</i>. Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6203-670-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6203-670-7"><bdi>978-90-6203-670-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Value+of+Scientific+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Science+and+Ethics&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-90-6203-670-7&rft.aulast=Bergstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Lars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertelsonGelder2004" class="citation book cs1">Bertelson, Paul; Gelder, BéAtrice De (2004). "The Psychology of Multimodal Perception". <i>Crossmodal Space and Crossmodal Attention</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198524861.003.0007">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524861.003.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191689260" title="Special:BookSources/9780191689260"><bdi>9780191689260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Psychology+of+Multimodal+Perception&rft.btitle=Crossmodal+Space+and+Crossmodal+Attention&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198524861.003.0007&rft.isbn=9780191689260&rft.aulast=Bertelson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Gelder%2C+B%C3%A9Atrice+De&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2022" class="citation web cs1">Bird, Alexander (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/">"Thomas Kuhn"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Thomas+Kuhn&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fthomas-kuhn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackÁlvarez2019" class="citation book cs1">Black, Charlene Villaseñor; Álvarez, Mari-Tere (2019). <i>Renaissance Futurities: Science, Art, Invention</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96951-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96951-3"><bdi>978-0-520-96951-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Futurities%3A+Science%2C+Art%2C+Invention&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-520-96951-3&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Charlene+Villase%C3%B1or&rft.au=%C3%81lvarez%2C+Mari-Tere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2002" class="citation journal cs1">Black, Tim (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdcnet.org/swphilreview/content/swphilreview_2002_0018_0001_0023_0032">"Relevant Alternatives and the Shifting Standards of Knowledge"</a>. <i>Southwest Philosophy Review</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 23–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fswphilreview20021813">10.5840/swphilreview20021813</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215108/https://www.pdcnet.org/swphilreview/content/swphilreview_2002_0018_0001_0023_0032">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southwest+Philosophy+Review&rft.atitle=Relevant+Alternatives+and+the+Shifting+Standards+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-32&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fswphilreview20021813&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Fswphilreview%2Fcontent%2Fswphilreview_2002_0018_0001_0023_0032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn2008" class="citation book cs1">Blackburn, Simon (2008). "Ding an sich". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095719249"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-954143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ding+an+sich&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954143-0&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803095719249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlayney1769" class="citation book cs1">Blayney, Benjamin, ed. (1769). "Genesis". <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#3:22"><i>The King James Bible</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/745260506">745260506</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230130092757/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#3:22">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genesis&rft.btitle=The+King+James+Bible&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1769&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F745260506&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FBible_%28King_James%29%2FGenesis%233%3A22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloor2004" class="citation book cs1">Bloor, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-1986-9_25">"Sociology of Scientific Knowledge"</a>. <i>Handbook of Epistemology</i>. Springer Netherlands. pp. 919–962. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-1986-9_25">10.1007/978-1-4020-1986-9_25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1986-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1986-9"><bdi>978-1-4020-1986-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sociology+of+Scientific+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Epistemology&rft.pages=919-962&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-1986-9_25&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-1986-9&rft.aulast=Bloor&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-1986-9_25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosančić2018" class="citation book cs1">Bosančić, Saša (2018). "Self-positioning of Semi-skilled Workers: Analysing Subjectification Processes with SKAD". <i>The Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse: Investigating the Politics of Knowledge and Meaning-making</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-04872-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-04872-0"><bdi>978-1-138-04872-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Self-positioning+of+Semi-skilled+Workers%3A+Analysing+Subjectification+Processes+with+SKAD&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Knowledge+Approach+to+Discourse%3A+Investigating+the+Politics+of+Knowledge+and+Meaning-making&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-138-04872-0&rft.aulast=Bosan%C4%8Di%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Sa%C5%A1a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowenGelpiAnweiler2023" class="citation web cs1">Bowen, James; Gelpi, Ettore; Anweiler, Oskar (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/education">"Education"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071212112030/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47496/education">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Education&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Gelpi%2C+Ettore&rft.au=Anweiler%2C+Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Feducation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowker2003" class="citation book cs1">Bowker, John (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-4426?rskey=Q7d2v0&result=1"><i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280094-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280094-7"><bdi>978-0-19-280094-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+World+Religions&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280094-7&rft.aulast=Bowker&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192800947.001.0001%2Facref-9780192800947-e-4426%3Frskey%3DQ7d2v0%26result%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Boyer, Dominic (2007). "1. Of Dialectical Germans and Dialectical Ethnographers: Notes from an Engagement with Philosophy". In Harris, Mark (ed.). <i>Ways of Knowing: Anthropological Approaches to Crafting Experience and Knowledge</i>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-364-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-364-0"><bdi>978-1-84545-364-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Of+Dialectical+Germans+and+Dialectical+Ethnographers%3A+Notes+from+an+Engagement+with+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Ways+of+Knowing%3A+Anthropological+Approaches+to+Crafting+Experience+and+Knowledge&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84545-364-0&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBukoye2019" class="citation book cs1">Bukoye, Roseline Olufunke (2019). "Utilization of Instruction Materials as Tools for Effective Academic Performance of Students: Implications for Counselling". <i>The 2nd Innovative and Creative Education and Teaching International Conference</i>. ICETIC. p. 1395. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fproceedings2211395">10.3390/proceedings2211395</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Utilization+of+Instruction+Materials+as+Tools+for+Effective+Academic+Performance+of+Students%3A+Implications+for+Counselling&rft.btitle=The+2nd+Innovative+and+Creative+Education+and+Teaching+International+Conference&rft.pages=1395&rft.pub=ICETIC&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fproceedings2211395&rft.aulast=Bukoye&rft.aufirst=Roseline+Olufunke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2015" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Peter (2015). <i>What Is the History of Knowledge?</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-0306-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-0306-3"><bdi>978-1-5095-0306-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+the+History+of+Knowledge%3F&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-5095-0306-3&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton2002" class="citation journal cs1">Burton, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400322">"Knowledge and Liberation: Philosophical Ruminations on a Buddhist Conundrum"</a>. <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 326–345. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2002.0011">10.1353/pew.2002.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8221">0031-8221</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400322">1400322</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145257341">145257341</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230217131701/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400322">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Knowledge+and+Liberation%3A+Philosophical+Ruminations+on+a+Buddhist+Conundrum&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=326-345&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0031-8221&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145257341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1400322%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2002.0011&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1400322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaiLiuChenWang2021" class="citation book cs1">Cai, Zixing; Liu, Lijue; Chen, Baifan; Wang, Yong (2021). <i>Artificial Intelligence: From Beginning To Date</i>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-12-2371-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-12-2371-6"><bdi>978-981-12-2371-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+From+Beginning+To+Date&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-981-12-2371-6&rft.aulast=Cai&rft.aufirst=Zixing&rft.au=Liu%2C+Lijue&rft.au=Chen%2C+Baifan&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2018" class="citation web cs1">Cameron, Ross (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/infinite-regress/">"Infinite Regress Arguments"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200102233254/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/infinite-regress/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Infinite+Regress+Arguments&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Finfinite-regress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampo2009" class="citation book cs1">Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. Infobase Publishing. p. 515. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2696-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2696-8"><bdi>978-1-4381-2696-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=515&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-2696-8&rft.aulast=Campo&rft.aufirst=Juan+Eduardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsonCerrito2003" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Thomas; Cerrito, Joann, eds. (2003). <i>New Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 14: Thi–Zwi</i> (2nd ed.). Thomson/Gale. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4018-7"><bdi>978-0-7876-4018-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Catholic+Encyclopedia+Vol.+14%3A+Thi%E2%80%93Zwi&rft.pages=164&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomson%2FGale&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-4018-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastilhoLopes2009" class="citation book cs1">Castilho, Luciana V.; Lopes, Heitor S. (2009). "An Ontology-Based System for Knowledge Management and Learning in Neuropediatric Physiotherapy". In Szczerbicki, Edward; Nguyen, Ngoc Thanh (eds.). <i>Smart Information and Knowledge Management: Advances, Challenges, and Critical Issues</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04583-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04583-7"><bdi>978-3-642-04583-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Ontology-Based+System+for+Knowledge+Management+and+Learning+in+Neuropediatric+Physiotherapy&rft.btitle=Smart+Information+and+Knowledge+Management%3A+Advances%2C+Challenges%2C+and+Critical+Issues&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-642-04583-7&rft.aulast=Castilho&rft.aufirst=Luciana+V.&rft.au=Lopes%2C+Heitor+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCD_staff" class="citation web cs1">CD staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/knowledge">"Knowledge"</a>. <i>Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116203440/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/knowledge">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Advanced+Learner%27s+Dictionary+%26+Thesaurus&rft.atitle=Knowledge&rft.au=CD+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fknowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelenza2021" class="citation book cs1">Celenza, Christopher S. (2021). <i>The Italian Renaissance and the Origin of the Humanities: An Intellectual History, 1400–1800</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83340-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83340-0"><bdi>978-1-108-83340-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Renaissance+and+the+Origin+of+the+Humanities%3A+An+Intellectual+History%2C+1400%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-83340-0&rft.aulast=Celenza&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappell2019" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell, Sophie-Grace</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-theaetetus/">"Plato on Knowledge in the <i>Theaetetus</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710154406/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-theaetetus/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Plato+on+Knowledge+in+the+Theaetetus&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Sophie-Grace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fplato-theaetetus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhary2017" class="citation book cs1">Chaudhary, Angraj (2017). "Avijjā". In Sarao, K.T.S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.). <i>Buddhism and Jainism</i>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-024-0851-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-024-0851-5"><bdi>978-94-024-0851-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Avijj%C4%81&rft.btitle=Buddhism+and+Jainism&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-94-024-0851-5&rft.aulast=Chaudhary&rft.aufirst=Angraj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhary2017a" class="citation book cs1">Chaudhary, Angraj (2017a). "Wisdom (Buddhism)". In Sarao, K.T.S.; Long, Jeffery D. (eds.). <i>Buddhism and Jainism</i>. 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In Schement, Jorge Reina (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/businesses-and-occupations/knowledge-management"><i>Encyclopedia of Communication and Information</i></a>. Macmillan Reference USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865385-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865385-3"><bdi>978-0-02-865385-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202183023/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/businesses-and-occupations/knowledge-management">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-05918-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-05918-7"><bdi>978-3-030-05918-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expert+Intelligence%3A+Theory+of+the+Missing+Facet&rft.btitle=Mining+Intelligence+and+Knowledge+Exploration%3A+6th+International+Conference&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-030-05918-7&rft.aulast=Christopher&rft.aufirst=Jabez&rft.au=Prasath%2C+Rajendra&rft.au=Vanga%2C+Odelu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1988" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Romane (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CLAVIR">"Vicious Infinite Regress Arguments"</a>. <i>Philosophical Perspectives</i>. <b>2</b>: 369–380. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2214081">10.2307/2214081</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2214081">2214081</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220326133203/https://philpapers.org/rec/CLAVIR">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Vicious+Infinite+Regress+Arguments&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=369-380&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2214081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2214081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Romane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCLAVIR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2022" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Kelly James (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/">"Religious Epistemology"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921184650/https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute&rft.atitle=Anthropology+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=S193-S202&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0012-9B72-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40606072%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9655.2010.01617.x&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40606072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2013" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Robert S. (2013). <i>The Natural Sciences and the Social Sciences: Some Critical and Historical Perspectives</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-3391-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-3391-5"><bdi>978-94-017-3391-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+Sciences+and+the+Social+Sciences%3A+Some+Critical+and+Historical+Perspectives&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-017-3391-5&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColander2016" class="citation book cs1">Colander, David C. (2016). <i>Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-22573-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-22573-7"><bdi>978-1-317-22573-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Science%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Society&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-22573-7&rft.aulast=Colander&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConner2009" class="citation book cs1">Conner, Clifford D. (2009). <i>A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and Low Mechanicks</i>. Bold Type Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-3786-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-3786-4"><bdi>978-0-7867-3786-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+Science%3A+Miners%2C+Midwives%2C+and+Low+Mechanicks&rft.pub=Bold+Type+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-3786-4&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Clifford+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoser2009" class="citation book cs1">Coser, Lewis A. (2009) [1968]. "Knowledge, Sociology of". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge"><i>International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences</i></a>. Gale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-928751-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-928751-4"><bdi>978-0-02-928751-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307092450/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge%2C+Sociology+of&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-02-928751-4&rft.aulast=Coser&rft.aufirst=Lewis+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fsocial-sciences-and-law%2Fsociology-and-social-reform%2Fsociology-general-terms-and-concepts%2Fsociology-knowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmanJones2009" class="citation book cs1">Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2009). <i>Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set</i>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0907-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0907-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-0907-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+the+Medieval+World%2C+3-Volume+Set&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-0907-7&rft.aulast=Cosman&rft.aufirst=Madeleine+Pelner&rft.au=Jones%2C+Linda+Gale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxRaja2011" class="citation book cs1">Cox, Michael T.; Raja, Anita (2011). <i>Metareasoning: Thinking About Thinking</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01480-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01480-9"><bdi>978-0-262-01480-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metareasoning%3A+Thinking+About+Thinking&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01480-9&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft.au=Raja%2C+Anita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanesi2013" class="citation book cs1">Danesi, Marcel (2013). <i>Encyclopedia of Media and Communication</i>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-9553-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-9553-5"><bdi>978-1-4426-9553-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Media+and+Communication&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-9553-5&rft.aulast=Danesi&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDasSalow2018" class="citation journal cs1">Das, Nilanjan; Salow, Bernhard (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/DASTAT-2">"Transparency and the KK Principle"</a>. <i>Noûs</i>. <b>52</b> (1): 3–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnous.12158">10.1111/nous.12158</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112741/https://philpapers.org/rec/DASTAT-2">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=No%C3%BBs&rft.atitle=Transparency+and+the+KK+Principle&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-23&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fnous.12158&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Nilanjan&rft.au=Salow%2C+Bernhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FDASTAT-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaston2017" class="citation journal cs1">Daston, Lorraine (2017). "The History of Science and the History of Knowledge". <i>KNOW: A Journal on the Formation of Knowledge</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 131–154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F691678">10.1086/691678</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-002C-EDB1-5">11858/00-001M-0000-002C-EDB1-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164680540">164680540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KNOW%3A+A+Journal+on+the+Formation+of+Knowledge&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Science+and+the+History+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=131-154&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-002C-EDB1-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164680540%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F691678&rft.aulast=Daston&rft.aufirst=Lorraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegenhardt2019" class="citation book cs1">Degenhardt, M. A. B. (2019). <i>Education and the Value of Knowledge</i>. Routledge. pp. 1–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-62799-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-62799-2"><bdi>978-1-000-62799-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+and+the+Value+of+Knowledge&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-000-62799-2&rft.aulast=Degenhardt&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelahuntyDignen2012" class="citation book cs1">Delahunty, Andrew; Dignen, Sheila (2012). "Tree of Knowledge". <i>Oxford Dictionary of Reference and Allusion</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956746-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956746-1"><bdi>978-0-19-956746-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tree+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Reference+and+Allusion&rft.pages=365&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956746-1&rft.aulast=Delahunty&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Dignen%2C+Sheila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDePoe2022" class="citation web cs1">DePoe, John M. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/knowacq/">"Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602105753/https://iep.utm.edu/knowacq/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Knowledge+by+Acquaintance+and+Knowledge+by+Description&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=DePoe&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fknowacq%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesouzaAwazu2005" class="citation book cs1">Desouza, K.; Awazu, Y. (2005). <i>Engaged Knowledge Management: Engagement with New Realities</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-00607-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-00607-2"><bdi>978-0-230-00607-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engaged+Knowledge+Management%3A+Engagement+with+New+Realities&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-230-00607-2&rft.aulast=Desouza&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Awazu%2C+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDika2023" class="citation book cs1">Dika, Tarek (2023). <i>Descartes's Method: The Formation of the Subject of Science</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286986-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286986-9"><bdi>978-0-19-286986-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descartes%27s+Method%3A+The+Formation+of+the+Subject+of+Science&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286986-9&rft.aulast=Dika&rft.aufirst=Tarek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddZambettiDeneve2023" class="citation book cs1">Dodd, Ashley C.; Zambetti, Benjamin R.; Deneve, Jeremiah (2023). "Scientific Method". <i>Translational Surgery</i>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-90630-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-90630-2"><bdi>978-0-323-90630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Method&rft.btitle=Translational+Surgery&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-323-90630-2&rft.aulast=Dodd&rft.aufirst=Ashley+C.&rft.au=Zambetti%2C+Benjamin+R.&rft.au=Deneve%2C+Jeremiah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDokicÉgré2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dokic, Jérôme; Égré, Paul (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/DOKMFE-2">"Margin for Error and the Transparency of Knowledge"</a>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>166</b> (1): 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-007-9245-y">10.1007/s11229-007-9245-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14221986">14221986</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112738/https://philpapers.org/rec/DOKMFE-2">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Margin+for+Error+and+the+Transparency+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-007-9245-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14221986%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dokic&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me&rft.au=%C3%89gr%C3%A9%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FDOKMFE-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoren1992" class="citation book cs1">Doren, Charles Van (1992). <i>A History of Knowledge: Past, Present, and Future</i>. Random House Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-37316-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-37316-8"><bdi>978-0-345-37316-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Knowledge%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-345-37316-8&rft.aulast=Doren&rft.aufirst=Charles+Van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDougherty2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dougherty, Trent (2014). "Faith, Trust, and Testimony". <i>Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue</i>: 97–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199672158.003.0005">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967215-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967215-8"><bdi>978-0-19-967215-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religious+Faith+and+Intellectual+Virtue&rft.atitle=Faith%2C+Trust%2C+and+Testimony&rft.pages=97-123&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199672158.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967215-8&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=Trent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dreyer, Jaco S. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4102%2Fhts.v73i4.4805">"Practical Theology and the Call for the Decolonisation of Higher Education in South Africa: Reflections and Proposals"</a>. <i>HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4102%2Fhts.v73i4.4805">10.4102/hts.v73i4.4805</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=HTS+Teologiese+Studies+%2F+Theological+Studies&rft.atitle=Practical+Theology+and+the+Call+for+the+Decolonisation+of+Higher+Education+in+South+Africa%3A+Reflections+and+Proposals&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4102%2Fhts.v73i4.4805&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=Jaco+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4102%252Fhts.v73i4.4805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuránFormanek2018" class="citation journal cs1">Durán, Juan M.; Formanek, Nico (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-018-9481-6">"Grounds for Trust: Essential Epistemic Opacity and Computational Reliabilism"</a>. <i>Minds and Machines</i>. <b>28</b> (4): 645–666. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.01052">1904.01052</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-018-9481-6">10.1007/s11023-018-9481-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-8641">1572-8641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53102940">53102940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minds+and+Machines&rft.atitle=Grounds+for+Trust%3A+Essential+Epistemic+Opacity+and+Computational+Reliabilism&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=645-666&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1904.01052&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53102940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1572-8641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11023-018-9481-6&rft.aulast=Dur%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Juan+M.&rft.au=Formanek%2C+Nico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11023-018-9481-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmaliana2017" class="citation journal cs1">Emaliana, Ive (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161">"Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?"</a>. <i>Jurnal Sosial Humaniora</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161">10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148796695">148796695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jurnal+Sosial+Humaniora&rft.atitle=Teacher-Centered+or+Student-Centered+Learning+Approach+To+Promote+Learning%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148796695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Emaliana&rft.aufirst=Ive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.12962%252Fj24433527.v10i2.2161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2003" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). "Madrasa". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100125907"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0"><bdi>978-0-19-512558-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231209131614/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100125907">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Madrasa&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512558-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100125907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansFoster2011" class="citation journal cs1">Evans, James A.; Foster, Jacob G. (2011). "Metaknowledge". <i>Science</i>. <b>331</b> (6018): 721–725. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...331..721E">2011Sci...331..721E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1201765">10.1126/science.1201765</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21311014">21311014</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220090552">220090552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Metaknowledge&rft.volume=331&rft.issue=6018&rft.pages=721-725&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1201765&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220090552%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21311014&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...331..721E&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Foster%2C+Jacob+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaberMarusterJorna2017" class="citation book cs1">Faber, Niels R.; Maruster, Laura; Jorna, René J. (2017). "Assessing and Determining Social Sustainability". In Jorna, René (ed.). <i>Sustainable Innovation: The Organisational, Human and Knowledge Dimension</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-28034-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-28034-1"><bdi>978-1-351-28034-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Assessing+and+Determining+Social+Sustainability&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Innovation%3A+The+Organisational%2C+Human+and+Knowledge+Dimension&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-28034-1&rft.aulast=Faber&rft.aufirst=Niels+R.&rft.au=Maruster%2C+Laura&rft.au=Jorna%2C+Ren%C3%A9+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaganDurrani2016" class="citation book cs1">Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2016). <i>World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction</i>. 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"A Critique of Scientism Not Science per se". <i>Interchange</i>. <b>31</b> (1): 83–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fa%3A1007695016458">10.1023/a:1007695016458</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141495171">141495171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interchange&rft.atitle=A+Critique+of+Scientism+Not+Science+per+se&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-86&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2Fa%3A1007695016458&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141495171%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForrest2021" class="citation web cs1">Forrest, Peter (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/">"The Epistemology of Religion"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710182220/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Epistemology+of+Religion&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Forrest&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Freligion-epistemology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxall2017" class="citation book cs1">Foxall, Gordon (2017). <i>Context and Cognition in Consumer Psychology: How Perception and Emotion Guide Action</i>. Routledge. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-67738-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-67738-3"><bdi>978-1-317-67738-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Context+and+Cognition+in+Consumer+Psychology%3A+How+Perception+and+Emotion+Guide+Action&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-67738-3&rft.aulast=Foxall&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriesen2017" class="citation book cs1">Friesen, Norm (2017). <i>The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media</i>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2434-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2434-7"><bdi>978-1-4214-2434-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Textbook+and+the+Lecture%3A+Education+in+the+Age+of+New+Media&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-2434-7&rft.aulast=Friesen&rft.aufirst=Norm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFumerton2008" class="citation book cs1">Fumerton, Richard (2008). "The Problem of the Criterion". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195183214-e-3"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 34–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195183214.003.0003">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.003.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518321-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518321-4"><bdi>978-0-19-518321-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215110/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195183214-e-3">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009028868">10.1017/9781009028868</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02886-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02886-8"><bdi>978-1-009-02886-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112214/https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/foundationalism/1B82DBB2B5A167EBDD8170F0C5899D81">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundationalism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009028868&rft.isbn=978-1-009-02886-8&rft.aulast=Fumerton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Felements%2Fabs%2Ffoundationalism%2F1B82DBB2B5A167EBDD8170F0C5899D81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabriel2022" class="citation book cs1">Gabriel, Cle-Anne (2022). <i>Why Teach with Cases?: Reflections on Philosophy and Practice</i>. Emerald Group Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80382-399-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80382-399-7"><bdi>978-1-80382-399-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Teach+with+Cases%3F%3A+Reflections+on+Philosophy+and+Practice&rft.pub=Emerald+Group+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-80382-399-7&rft.aulast=Gabriel&rft.aufirst=Cle-Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcía-Arnaldos2020" class="citation journal cs1">García-Arnaldos, María Dolores (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/hpla/23/2/article-p507_11.xml">"An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge, Written by O'Brien, D."</a> <i>History of Philosophy & Logical Analysis</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30965%2F26664275-20210003">10.30965/26664275-20210003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2666-4275">2666-4275</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228985437">228985437</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230304103826/https://brill.com/view/journals/hpla/23/2/article-p507_11.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Philosophy+%26+Logical+Analysis&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Knowledge%2C+Written+by+O%27Brien%2C+D.&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=508&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228985437%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2666-4275&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30965%2F26664275-20210003&rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa-Arnaldos&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Dolores&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fhpla%2F23%2F2%2Farticle-p507_11.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner2001" class="citation journal cs1">Gardiner, J. M. 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Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>356</b> (1413): 1351–1361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0955">10.1098/rstb.2001.0955</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088519">1088519</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11571027">11571027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Episodic+Memory+and+Autonoetic+Consciousness%3A+A+First-person+Approach&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=1413&rft.pages=1351-1361&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088519%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11571027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2001.0955&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGascoigneThornton2014" class="citation book cs1">Gascoigne, Neil; Thornton, Tim (2014). <i>Tacit Knowledge</i>. Routledge. pp. 8, 37, 81, 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54726-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54726-6"><bdi>978-1-317-54726-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tacit+Knowledge&rft.pages=8%2C+37%2C+81%2C+108&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-54726-6&rft.aulast=Gascoigne&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2003" class="citation book cs1">Gauch, Hugh G. (2003). <i>Scientific Method in Practice</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4"><bdi>978-0-521-01708-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01708-4&rft.aulast=Gauch&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge2021" class="citation web cs1">George, Theodore (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/">"Hermeneutics"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Hermeneutics&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=George&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fhermeneutics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGertler2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brie_Gertler" title="Brie Gertler">Gertler, Brie</a> (2010). "1. Introduction". <i>Self-Knowledge</i>. Routledge. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-85811-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-85811-6"><bdi>978-1-136-85811-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Introduction&rft.btitle=Self-Knowledge&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-136-85811-6&rft.aulast=Gertler&rft.aufirst=Brie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGertler2021" class="citation web cs1">Gertler, Brie (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-knowledge/">"Self-Knowledge"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211111053236/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-knowledge/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Self-Knowledge&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Gertler&rft.aufirst=Brie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fself-knowledge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGertler2021a" class="citation web cs1">Gertler, Brie (2021a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-knowledge/supplement.html">"Self-Knowledge > Knowledge of the Self"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220703092637/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-knowledge/supplement.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Self-Knowledge+%3E+Knowledge+of+the+Self&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Gertler&rft.aufirst=Brie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fself-knowledge%2Fsupplement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhose1998" class="citation book cs1">Ghose, Aurobindo (1998). "Political Writings and Speeches. 1890–1908: The Glory of God in Man". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://incarnateword.in/cwsa/7/the-glory-of-god-in-man"><i>Bande Mataram II</i></a>. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Publication Department. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7058-416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7058-416-2"><bdi>978-81-7058-416-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230309124953/https://incarnateword.in/cwsa/7/the-glory-of-god-in-man">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Discrimination and Perceptual Knowledge". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>73</b> (20): 771–791. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025679">10.2307/2025679</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2025679">2025679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Discrimination+and+Perceptual+Knowledge&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=771-791&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2025679&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2025679%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Alvin+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2022" class="citation web cs1">Green, Christopher R. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/ep-testi/">"Epistemology of Testimony"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123956/https://iep.utm.edu/ep-testi/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220501014300/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/definitions/#ReaNomDef">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515547-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515547-1"><bdi>978-0-19-515547-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Pragmatism%3A+A+Religious+Genealogy&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515547-1&rft.aulast=Hamner&rft.aufirst=M.+Gail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannon2021" class="citation book cs1">Hannon, Michael (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HANTCO-45">"Knowledge, Concept of"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-P031-2">10.4324/9780415249126-P031-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07310-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07310-3"><bdi>978-0-415-07310-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215108/https://philpapers.org/rec/HANTCO-45">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Foundationalist+Theories+of+Epistemic+Justification&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Hasan&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft.au=Fumerton%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjustep-foundational%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasanFumerton2020" class="citation web cs1">Hasan, Ali; Fumerton, Richard (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-acquaindescrip/#Dis">"Knowledge by Acquaintance Vs. Description: 1. The Distinction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531070118/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-acquaindescrip/#Dis">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Knowledge+by+Acquaintance+Vs.+Description%3A+1.+The+Distinction&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Hasan&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft.au=Fumerton%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fknowledge-acquaindescrip%2F%23Dis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasanFumerton2022" class="citation web cs1">Hasan, Ali; Fumerton, Richard (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/">"Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190805002103/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Foundationalist+Theories+of+Epistemic+Justification&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Hasan&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft.au=Fumerton%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjustep-foundational%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatfield1998" class="citation book cs1">Hatfield, Gary (1998). 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Springer. pp. 26–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19066-9"><bdi>978-1-349-19066-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concept+Of+The+Knowledge+Of+God&rft.pages=26-28&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-349-19066-9&rft.aulast=Haymes&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=%C3%96zdalga%2C+Elisabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHepburnAndersen2021" class="citation web cs1">Hepburn, Brian; <a href="/wiki/Hanne_Andersen_(philosopher)" title="Hanne Andersen (philosopher)">Andersen, Hanne</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/">"Scientific Method"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Gettier+Problems&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Hetherington&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fgettier%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHetherington2022a" class="citation web cs1">Hetherington, Stephen (2022a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/">"Knowledge"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602105750/https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-62842-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-62842-7"><bdi>978-1-107-62842-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decoding+Theory+of+Knowledge+for+the+IB+Diploma&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-62842-7&rft.aulast=Heydorn&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Jesudason%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Sonya D., ed. (2009). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-31145-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-31145-7"><bdi>978-1-000-31145-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+Western+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-000-31145-7&rft.aulast=Hirschberger&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoad1993" class="citation book cs1">Hoad, T. F. (1993). <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology</i>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958838-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958838-1"><bdi>978-0-19-958838-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pragmatic+Maxim%3A+Essays+on+Peirce+and+Pragmatism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-11-08&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958838-1&rft.aulast=Hookway&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell2013" class="citation book cs1">Howell, Kerry E. (2013). <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology</i>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0298-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0298-2"><bdi>978-1-4462-0298-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Methodology&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-0298-2&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Kerry+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2009" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Lynette (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230244481_23">"Situated Knowledge"</a>. <i>Mapping Landscapes for Performance as Research: Scholarly Acts and Creative Cartographies</i>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 151–153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230244481_23">10.1057/9780230244481_23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24448-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-24448-1"><bdi>978-0-230-24448-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173930/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230244481_23">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Situated+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Mapping+Landscapes+for+Performance+as+Research%3A+Scholarly+Acts+and+Creative+Cartographies&rft.pages=151-153&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230244481_23&rft.isbn=978-0-230-24448-1&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Lynette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1057%2F9780230244481_23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018" class="citation web cs1">Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins; Steup, Matthias (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/">"The Analysis of Knowledge"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220502031402/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Analysis+of+Knowledge&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Ichikawa&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Jenkins&rft.au=Steup%2C+Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fknowledge-analysis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonStearns2023" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Mark S.; Stearns, Peter N. (2023). <i>Education in World History</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81337-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81337-8"><bdi>978-1-317-81337-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+in+World+History&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-317-81337-8&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Mark+S.&rft.au=Stearns%2C+Peter+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesRyan2006" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006). <i>Encyclopedia of Hinduism</i>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5"><bdi>978-0-8160-7564-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Constance&rft.au=Ryan%2C+James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJorna2017" class="citation book cs1">Jorna, René (2017). <i>Sustainable Innovation: The Organisational, Human and Knowledge Dimension</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-28034-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-28034-1"><bdi>978-1-351-28034-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Innovation%3A+The+Organisational%2C+Human+and+Knowledge+Dimension&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-28034-1&rft.aulast=Jorna&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandel1992" class="citation book cs1">Kandel, Abraham (1992). <i>Fuzzy Expert Systems</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-4297-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-4297-4"><bdi>978-0-8493-4297-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fuzzy+Expert+Systems&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-4297-4&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemmisEdwards-Groves2017" class="citation book cs1">Kemmis, Stephen; Edwards-Groves, Christine (2017). <i>Understanding Education: History, Politics and Practice</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-6433-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-10-6433-3"><bdi>978-981-10-6433-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Education%3A+History%2C+Politics+and+Practice&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-981-10-6433-3&rft.aulast=Kemmis&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Edwards-Groves%2C+Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKern2017" class="citation book cs1">Kern, Andrea (2017). <i>Sources of Knowledge: On the Concept of a Rational Capacity for Knowledge</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 8–10, 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41611-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41611-6"><bdi>978-0-674-41611-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Knowledge%3A+On+the+Concept+of+a+Rational+Capacity+for+Knowledge&rft.pages=8-10%2C+133&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-674-41611-6&rft.aulast=Kern&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKernis2013" class="citation book cs1">Kernis, Michael H. (2013). <i>Self-Esteem Issues and Answers: A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives</i>. Psychology Press. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-95270-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-95270-0"><bdi>978-1-134-95270-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Self-Esteem+Issues+and+Answers%3A+A+Sourcebook+of+Current+Perspectives&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-95270-0&rft.aulast=Kernis&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhatoon2012" class="citation book cs1">Khatoon, Naima (2012). <i>General Psychology</i>. Pearson Education India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-5999-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-5999-8"><bdi>978-81-317-5999-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Psychology&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-81-317-5999-8&rft.aulast=Khatoon&rft.aufirst=Naima&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchener1996" class="citation book cs1">Kitchener, Richard F. (1996). "Genetic Epistemology and Cognitive Psychology of Science". In O'Donohue, William; Kitchener, Richard F. (eds.). <i>The Philosophy of Psychology</i>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85702-612-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85702-612-5"><bdi>978-0-85702-612-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genetic+Epistemology+and+Cognitive+Psychology+of+Science&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Psychology&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-85702-612-5&rft.aulast=Kitchener&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlausen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Klausen, Søren Harnow (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/bbee5873-28f2-46d5-94b6-49ef5b18a38b">"Group Knowledge: A Real-world Approach"</a>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>192</b> (3): 813–839. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-014-0589-9">10.1007/s11229-014-0589-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207246817">207246817</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201125116/https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/group-knowledge-a-real-world-approach">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Group+Knowledge%3A+A+Real-world+Approach&rft.volume=192&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=813-839&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-014-0589-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207246817%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Klausen&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren+Harnow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fportal.findresearcher.sdu.dk%2Fda%2Fpublications%2Fbbee5873-28f2-46d5-94b6-49ef5b18a38b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1998" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Peter D. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/knowledge-concept-of/v-1">"Knowledge, Concept of"</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-P031-1">10.4324/9780415249126-P031-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25069-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38096851">38096851</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220613025031/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/knowledge-concept-of/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge%2C+Concept+of&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38096851&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-P031-1&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25069-6&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Peter+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Fknowledge-concept-of%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlenke2014" class="citation book cs1">Klenke, Karin (2014). "Sculpting the Contours of the Qualitative Landscape of Leadership Research". In Day, David (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021377-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021377-0"><bdi>978-0-19-021377-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sculpting+the+Contours+of+the+Qualitative+Landscape+of+Leadership+Research&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Leadership+and+Organizations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-021377-0&rft.aulast=Klenke&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraft2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kraft, Tim (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/KRASIF">"Scepticism, Infallibilism, Fallibilism"</a>. <i>Discipline Filosofiche</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 49–70. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2279-7343">2279-7343</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215107/https://philpapers.org/rec/KRASIF">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discipline+Filosofiche&rft.atitle=Scepticism%2C+Infallibilism%2C+Fallibilism&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=49-70&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=2279-7343&rft.aulast=Kraft&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FKRASIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreeftTacelli2009" class="citation book cs1">Kreeft, Peter; Tacelli, Ronald K. (2009). <i>Handbook of Christian Apologetics</i>. InterVarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-7544-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-7544-3"><bdi>978-0-8308-7544-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Christian+Apologetics&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-7544-3&rft.aulast=Kreeft&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Tacelli%2C+Ronald+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1992" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Thomas S. (1992). <i>The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41747-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41747-2"><bdi>978-0-674-41747-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Copernican+Revolution%3A+Planetary+Astronomy+in+the+Development+of+Western+Thought&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-674-41747-2&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuruk2020" class="citation book cs1">Kuruk, Paul (2020). <i>Traditional Knowledge, Genetic Resources, Customary Law and Intellectual Property: A Global Primer</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78536-848-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78536-848-6"><bdi>978-1-78536-848-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditional+Knowledge%2C+Genetic+Resources%2C+Customary+Law+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+A+Global+Primer&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-78536-848-6&rft.aulast=Kuruk&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLackey2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Lackey" title="Jennifer Lackey">Lackey, Jennifer</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/31841/chapter-abstract/267480629?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>The Epistemology of Groups</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965660-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965660-8"><bdi>978-0-19-965660-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221025083743/https://academic.oup.com/book/31841/chapter-abstract/267480629?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Epistemology+of+Groups&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965660-8&rft.aulast=Lackey&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F31841%2Fchapter-abstract%2F267480629%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLammenranta2022" class="citation web cs1">Lammenranta, Markus (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/ep-circ/">"Epistemic Circularity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127070943/https://iep.utm.edu/ep-circ/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Epistemic+Circularity&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Lammenranta&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fep-circ%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandau2017" class="citation book cs1">Landau, Iddo (2017). <i>Finding Meaning in an Imperfect World</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-065768-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-065768-0"><bdi>978-0-19-065768-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Meaning+in+an+Imperfect+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-065768-0&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Iddo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorntonLanzer2018" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Tim; Lanzer, Peter (2018). Lanzer, Peter (ed.). <i>Textbook of Catheter-Based Cardiovascular Interventions: A Knowledge-Based Approach</i>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-55994-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-55994-0"><bdi>978-3-319-55994-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Catheter-Based+Cardiovascular+Interventions%3A+A+Knowledge-Based+Approach&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-55994-0&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Lanzer%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2017" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Jerry Won (2017). <i>The Politics of Translingualism: After Englishes</i>. Routledge. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-31051-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-31051-0"><bdi>978-1-315-31051-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Translingualism%3A+After+Englishes&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-315-31051-0&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jerry+Won&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggHookway2021" class="citation web cs1">Legg, Catherine; Hookway, Christopher (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">"Pragmatism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Hookway%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegge2017" class="citation book cs1">Legge, Dominic (2017). <i>The Trinitarian Christology of St Thomas Aquinas</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879419-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879419-6"><bdi>978-0-19-879419-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trinitarian+Christology+of+St+Thomas+Aquinas&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-879419-6&rft.aulast=Legge&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehrer2015" class="citation book cs1">Lehrer, Keith (2015). "1. The Analysis of Knowledge". <i>Theory of Knowledge</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19609-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19609-7"><bdi>978-1-135-19609-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+The+Analysis+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-135-19609-7&rft.aulast=Lehrer&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemos1994" class="citation book cs1">Lemos, Noah M. (1994). <i>Intrinsic Value: Concept and Warrant</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46207-5"><bdi>978-0-521-46207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intrinsic+Value%3A+Concept+and+Warrant&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46207-5&rft.aulast=Lemos&rft.aufirst=Noah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLengnick-HallLengnick-Hall2003" class="citation book cs1">Lengnick-Hall, Mark L.; Lengnick-Hall, Cynthia A. (2003). <i>Human Resource Management in the Knowledge Economy: New Challenges, New Roles, New Capabilities</i>. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57675-159-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57675-159-6"><bdi>978-1-57675-159-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Resource+Management+in+the+Knowledge+Economy%3A+New+Challenges%2C+New+Roles%2C+New+Capabilities&rft.pub=Berrett-Koehler+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57675-159-6&rft.aulast=Lengnick-Hall&rft.aufirst=Mark+L.&rft.au=Lengnick-Hall%2C+Cynthia+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard2021" class="citation web cs1">Leonard, Nick (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/testimony-episprob/">"Epistemological Problems of Testimony"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710155155/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/testimony-episprob/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Epistemological+Problems+of+Testimony&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ftestimony-episprob%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeondes2001" class="citation book cs1">Leondes, Cornelius T. (2001). <i>Expert Systems: The Technology of Knowledge Management and Decision Making for the 21st Century</i>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-053145-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-053145-8"><bdi>978-0-08-053145-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Expert+Systems%3A+The+Technology+of+Knowledge+Management+and+Decision+Making+for+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-08-053145-8&rft.aulast=Leondes&rft.aufirst=Cornelius+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLilleyLightfootAmaral2004" class="citation book cs1">Lilley, Simon; Lightfoot, Geoffrey; Amaral, Paulo (2004). <i>Representing Organization: Knowledge, Management, and the Information Age</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 162–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-877541-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-877541-6"><bdi>978-0-19-877541-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Representing+Organization%3A+Knowledge%2C+Management%2C+and+the+Information+Age&rft.pages=162-163&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-877541-6&rft.aulast=Lilley&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Lightfoot%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Amaral%2C+Paulo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLycan2019" class="citation book cs1">Lycan, William G. (2019). "2. Moore Against the New Skeptics". <i>On Evidence in Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256526-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256526-6"><bdi>978-0-19-256526-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Moore+Against+the+New+Skeptics&rft.btitle=On+Evidence+in+Philosophy&rft.pages=21-36&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-256526-6&rft.aulast=Lycan&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMageePopper1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Magee" title="Bryan Magee">Magee, Bryan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl R.</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernbritishphi0000mage/page/66">"Conversation with Karl Popper"</a></span>. In Magee, Bryan (ed.). <i>Modern British Philosophy</i>. St. Martin's Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernbritishphi0000mage/page/74">74–75</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283047-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283047-0"><bdi>978-0-19-283047-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314039">314039</a>. <q>Popper: Putting our ideas into words, or better, writing them down, makes an important difference. ... It is what I call 'knowledge in the objective sense'. Scientific knowledge belongs to it. It is this knowledge which is stored in our libraries rather than our heads. Magee: And you regard the knowledge stored in our libraries as more important than the knowledge stored in our heads. Popper: Much more important, from every point of view</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conversation+with+Karl+Popper&rft.btitle=Modern+British+Philosophy&rft.pages=74-75&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F314039&rft.isbn=978-0-19-283047-0&rft.aulast=Magee&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft.au=Popper%2C+Karl+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernbritishphi0000mage%2Fpage%2F66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahadevan2007" class="citation book cs1">Mahadevan, Kanchana (2007). "Gadamerian Hermeneutics: Between Strangers and Friends". 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Cambridge University Press. p. 371. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82417-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82417-0"><bdi>978-0-521-82417-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Thinking+and+Reasoning&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82417-0&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoser1998" class="citation web cs1">Moser, Paul K. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020818-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020818-9"><bdi>978-0-19-020818-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Scientific+Knowledge&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Epistemology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-020818-9&rft.aulast=Moser&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoser2016" class="citation web cs1">Moser, Paul K. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/a-posteriori/v-1">"A Posteriori"</a>. <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170718/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/a-posteriori/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Posteriori&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Moser&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Fa-posteriori%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulsow2018" class="citation book cs1">Mulsow, Martin (2018). "6. History of Knowledge". In Tamm, Marek; Burke, Peter (eds.). <i>Debating New Approaches to History</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-8193-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-8193-5"><bdi>978-1-4742-8193-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.+History+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Debating+New+Approaches+to+History&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-8193-5&rft.aulast=Mulsow&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2003" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Patricia (2003). "1. Defining Pedagogy". In Gipps, Caroline V. (ed.). <i>Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Coherentism+in+Epistemology&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fcoherentism-in-epistemology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMW_Staff2023" class="citation web cs1">MW Staff (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/knowledge">"Definition of Knowledge"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231221035457/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/knowledge">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2165-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2165-7"><bdi>978-1-4129-2165-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qualitative+Research+in+Business+%26+Management&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-2165-7&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiiniluoto2019" class="citation web cs1">Niiniluoto, Ilkka (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-progress/">"Scientific Progress"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230306151757/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-progress/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Scientific+Progress&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Niiniluoto&rft.aufirst=Ilkka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscientific-progress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2006" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Dan (2006). <i>An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge</i>. Polity. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3316-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3316-9"><bdi>978-0-7456-3316-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3316-9&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2022" class="citation web cs1">O'Brien, Daniel (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/epis-per/">"The Epistemology of Perception"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090508190020/http://iep.utm.edu/e/epis-per.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The Value of Knowledge". <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>6</b> (12): 874–883. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2011.00425.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2011.00425.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143034920">143034920</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Value+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=874-883&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2011.00425.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143034920%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Olsson&rft.aufirst=Erik+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaden2005" class="citation book cs1">Paden, William E. 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Macmillan Reference USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0028657332" title="Special:BookSources/978-0028657332"><bdi>978-0028657332</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+Religion&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0028657332&rft.aulast=Paden&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fenvironment%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fcomparative-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaden2009" class="citation book cs1">Paden, William E. (2009). "Comparative Religion". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203868768-19/comparative-religion-william-paden"><i>The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 239–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203868768-19">10.4324/9780203868768-19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86876-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86876-8"><bdi>978-0-203-86876-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921184650/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203868768-19/comparative-religion-william-paden">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science. Vol. 324. Springer International Publishing. pp. 93–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-53280-6_4">10.1007/978-3-319-53280-6_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-53280-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-53280-6"><bdi>978-3-319-53280-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602105750/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-53280-6_4">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125132818/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-how/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Knowledge+How&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Pavese&rft.aufirst=Carlotta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fknowledge-how%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2003" class="citation book cs1">Payne, William Harold (2003). "Contributions to the Science of Education and The Education of Teachers". In Salvatori, Mariolina Rizzi (ed.). <i>Pedagogy: Disturbing History, 1820-1930</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7246-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7246-4"><bdi>978-0-8229-7246-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contributions+to+the+Science+of+Education+and+The+Education+of+Teachers&rft.btitle=Pedagogy%3A+Disturbing+History%2C+1820-1930&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7246-4&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=William+Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeels2023" class="citation book cs1">Peels, Rik (2023). <i>Ignorance: A Philosophical Study</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-765451-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-765451-4"><bdi>978-0-19-765451-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ignorance%3A+A+Philosophical+Study&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-765451-4&rft.aulast=Peels&rft.aufirst=Rik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenelhum1971" class="citation book cs1">Penelhum, Terence (1971). "1. Faith, Scepticism and Philosophy". <i>Problems of Religious Knowledge</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-10633-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-10633-4"><bdi>978-0-333-10633-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Faith%2C+Scepticism+and+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Problems+of+Religious+Knowledge&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-333-10633-4&rft.aulast=Penelhum&rft.aufirst=Terence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerin2020" class="citation book cs1">Perin, Casey (2020). "23. Tranquility as the Goal in Pyrrhonian Skepticism". In Arenson, Kelly (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351168120-23/tranquility-goal-pyrrhonian-skepticism-casey-perin"><i>The Routledge Handbook of Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 285–294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781351168120-23">10.4324/9781351168120-23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-16812-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-16812-0"><bdi>978-1-351-16812-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225751581">225751581</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231212092435/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351168120-23/tranquility-goal-pyrrhonian-skepticism-casey-perin">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=23.+Tranquility+as+the+Goal+in+Pyrrhonian+Skepticism&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.pages=285-294&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225751581%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781351168120-23&rft.isbn=978-1-351-16812-0&rft.aulast=Perin&rft.aufirst=Casey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9781351168120-23%2Ftranquility-goal-pyrrhonian-skepticism-casey-perin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinch2013" class="citation book cs1">Pinch, T. (2013). <i>Confronting Nature: T́he Sociology of Solar-Neutrino Detection</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-015-7729-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-015-7729-8"><bdi>978-94-015-7729-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+Nature%3A+T%CC%81he+Sociology+of+Solar-Neutrino+Detection&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-015-7729-8&rft.aulast=Pinch&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga2018" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (2018). "Scientism: Who Needs It?". In Ridder, Jeroen de; Peels, Rik; Woudenberg, Rene van (eds.). <i>Scientism: Prospects and Problems</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-046276-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-046276-5"><bdi>978-0-19-046276-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientism%3A+Who+Needs+It%3F&rft.btitle=Scientism%3A+Prospects+and+Problems&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-046276-5&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato2002" class="citation book cs1">Plato (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fivedialogueseut00plat/page/89"><i>Five Dialogues</i></a>. Hackett Pub. Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fivedialogueseut00plat/page/89">89–90, 97b–98a</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-633-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-633-5"><bdi>978-0-87220-633-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Five+Dialogues&rft.pages=89-90%2C+97b-98a&rft.pub=Hackett+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-633-5&rft.au=Plato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffivedialogueseut00plat%2Fpage%2F89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoston" class="citation web cs1">Poston, Ted. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/foundationalism-in-epistemology/">"Foundationalism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111103033308/http://www.iep.utm.edu/found-ep/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-059304-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-059304-4"><bdi>978-3-11-059304-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Value+of+Knowledge%3A+The+Economics+of+Enterprise+Knowledge+and+Intelligence&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-11-059304-4&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower1970" class="citation book cs1">Power, Edward J. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b201970&view=1up&seq=273"><i>Main Currents in the History of Education</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050581-0"><bdi>978-0-07-050581-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230503072835/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b201970&view=1up&seq=273">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88375-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88375-3"><bdi>978-1-317-88375-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Question+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-88375-3&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Richenda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchard2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pritchard, Duncan (2007). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-57367-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-57367-7"><bdi>978-1-134-57367-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+This+Thing+Called+Knowledge%3F&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-57367-7&rft.aulast=Pritchard&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022" class="citation web cs1">Pritchard, Duncan; Turri, John; Carter, J. Adam (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-value/">"The Value of Knowledge"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710164703/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-value/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6851-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6851-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-6851-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Advaita+Worldview%3A+God%2C+World%2C+and+Humanity&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6851-7&rft.aulast=Rambachan&rft.aufirst=Anantanand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReginster2017" class="citation book cs1">Reginster, Bernard (2017). "Self-knowledge as Freedom in Schopenhauer and Freud". In Renz, Ursula (ed.). <i>Self-knowledge: A History</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022642-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022642-8"><bdi>978-0-19-022642-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Self-knowledge+as+Freedom+in+Schopenhauer+and+Freud&rft.btitle=Self-knowledge%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022642-8&rft.aulast=Reginster&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReif2008" class="citation book cs1">Reif, Frederick (2008). <i>Applying Cognitive Science to Education: Thinking and Learning in Scientific and Other Complex Domains</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-18263-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-18263-8"><bdi>978-0-262-18263-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applying+Cognitive+Science+to+Education%3A+Thinking+and+Learning+in+Scientific+and+Other+Complex+Domains&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-262-18263-8&rft.aulast=Reif&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepko2008" class="citation book cs1">Repko, Allen F. (2008). <i>Interdisciplinary Research: Process and Theory</i>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5915-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5915-5"><bdi>978-1-4129-5915-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interdisciplinary+Research%3A+Process+and+Theory&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-5915-5&rft.aulast=Repko&rft.aufirst=Allen+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher1998" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/fallibilism/v-1">"Fallibilism"</a>. <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-P019-1">10.4324/9780415249126-P019-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25069-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallibilism&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-P019-1&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25069-6&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Ffallibilism%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2005" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2005). <i>Epistemic Logic: A Survey of the Logic of Knowledge</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7092-7"><bdi>978-0-8229-7092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemic+Logic%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Logic+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7092-7&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2009" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2009). <i>Unknowability: An Inquiry into the Limits of Knowledge</i>. Lexington books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3615-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3615-7"><bdi>978-0-7391-3615-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unknowability%3A+An+Inquiry+into+the+Limits+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=Lexington+books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-3615-7&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2005a" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2005a). "Knowledge, the Limits of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Knowledge%2C+the+Limits+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FHONTOC-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2009a" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2009a). <i>Ignorance: On the Wider Implications of Deficient Knowledge</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6014-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6014-0"><bdi>978-0-8229-6014-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ignorance%3A+On+the+Wider+Implications+of+Deficient+Knowledge&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-6014-0&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rodríguez, Ángel García (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22201%2Fiifs.18704905e.2018.02">"Fake Barns and Our Epistemological Theorizing"</a>. <i>Crítica: Revista Hispanoamericana de Filosofía</i>. <b>50</b> (148): 29–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22201%2Fiifs.18704905e.2018.02">10.22201/iifs.18704905e.2018.02</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-1503">0011-1503</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26767766">26767766</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171635198">171635198</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cr%C3%ADtica%3A+Revista+Hispanoamericana+de+Filosof%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=Fake+Barns+and+Our+Epistemological+Theorizing&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=148&rft.pages=29-54&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0011-1503&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171635198%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26767766%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22201%2Fiifs.18704905e.2018.02&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=%C3%81ngel+Garc%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.22201%252Fiifs.18704905e.2018.02&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1990" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, Ronald (1990). <i>The Idea Of Higher Education</i>. Open University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-335-09420-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-335-09420-2"><bdi>978-0-335-09420-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+Of+Higher+Education&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Open+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-335-09420-2&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothbergErickson2005" class="citation book cs1">Rothberg, Helen N.; Erickson, G. Scott (2005). <i>From Knowledge to Intelligence: Creating Competitive Advantage in the Next Economy</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-7762-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-7762-2"><bdi>978-0-7506-7762-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Knowledge+to+Intelligence%3A+Creating+Competitive+Advantage+in+the+Next+Economy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-7762-2&rft.aulast=Rothberg&rft.aufirst=Helen+N.&rft.au=Erickson%2C+G.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2020" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bruce (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/">"A Priori Justification and Knowledge"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812143105/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Justification+and+Knowledge&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutten2012" class="citation book cs1">Rutten, Emanuel (2012). <i>A Critical Assessment of Contemporary Cosmological Arguments: Towards a Renewed Case for Theism</i>. Vrije Universiteit. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-819608-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-819608-0-9"><bdi>978-90-819608-0-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Assessment+of+Contemporary+Cosmological+Arguments%3A+Towards+a+Renewed+Case+for+Theism&rft.pub=Vrije+Universiteit&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-819608-0-9&rft.aulast=Rutten&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayre-McCord2023" class="citation web cs1">Sayre-McCord, Geoff (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaethics/">"Metaethics"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230712062506/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaethics/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Metaethics&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Sayre-McCord&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmetaethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchelerStikkers2012" class="citation book cs1">Scheler, Max; Stikkers, Kenneth W. (2012). <i>Problems of a Sociology of Knowledge (Routledge Revivals)</i>. Routledge. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-62334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-62334-6"><bdi>978-0-415-62334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+of+a+Sociology+of+Knowledge+%28Routledge+Revivals%29&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-62334-6&rft.aulast=Scheler&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Stikkers%2C+Kenneth+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderMcGrew2022" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, W. Joel; McGrew, Kevin S. (2022). "The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities". In Flanagan, Dawn P.; McDonough, Erin M. (eds.). <i>Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues</i>. Guilford Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-5203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-5203-0"><bdi>978-1-4625-5203-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cattell-Horn-Carroll+Theory+of+Cognitive+Abilities&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Intellectual+Assessment%3A+Theories%2C+Tests%2C+and+Issues&rft.pub=Guilford+Publications&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4625-5203-0&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=W.+Joel&rft.au=McGrew%2C+Kevin+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoonenboomJohnson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Schoonenboom, Judith; Johnson, R. 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Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-7627-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-7627-3"><bdi>978-1-4462-7627-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qualitative+Research+through+Case+Studies&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-7627-3&rft.aulast=Travers&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefil2012" class="citation book cs1">Trefil, James (2012). "Islamic Science". <i>Science in World History</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-49929-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-49929-6"><bdi>978-1-136-49929-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+Science&rft.btitle=Science+in+World+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-49929-6&rft.aulast=Trefil&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruncellito2023" class="citation web cs1">Truncellito, David A. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030005/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue/#EpisValu">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Virtue+Epistemology%3A+6.+Epistemic+Value&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Turri&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Alfano%2C+Mark&rft.au=Greco%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fepistemology-virtue%2F%23EpisValu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nieuwenhove2020" class="citation book cs1">Van Nieuwenhove, Rik (2020). 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"Pedagogy: What do we Know?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/books/understanding-pedagogy-and-its-impact-on-learning/n1.xml"><i>Understanding Pedagogy and its Impact on Learning</i></a>. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201125124/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dreams-dreaming/#CartDreaSkep">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Dreams+and+Dreaming&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Windt&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdreams-dreaming%2F%23CartDreaSkep&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise2011" class="citation book cs1">Wise, C. (2011). <i>Chomsky and Deconstruction: The Politics of Unconscious Knowledge</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Plato+and+the+Norms+of+Thought&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=485&rft.pages=171-216&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2Ffzt012&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fmind%2Farticle%2F122%2F485%2F171%2F961176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolfolkMargetts2012" class="citation book cs1">Woolfolk, Anita; Margetts, Kay (2012). <i>Educational Psychology Australian Edition</i>. Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-5145-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-5145-9"><bdi>978-1-4425-5145-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Educational+Psychology+Australian+Edition&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Pearson+Higher+Education+AU&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4425-5145-9&rft.aulast=Woolfolk&rft.aufirst=Anita&rft.au=Margetts%2C+Kay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanofsky2013" class="citation book cs1">Yanofsky, Noson S. (2013). <i>The Outer Limits of Reason: What Science, Mathematics, and Logic Cannot Tell Us</i>. The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01935-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01935-4"><bdi>978-0-262-01935-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Outer+Limits+of+Reason%3A+What+Science%2C+Mathematics%2C+and+Logic+Cannot+Tell+Us&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01935-4&rft.aulast=Yanofsky&rft.aufirst=Noson+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagzebski1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Zagzebski" title="Linda Zagzebski">Zagzebski, Linda</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK">"What Is Knowledge?"</a>. In Greco, John; Sosa, Ernest (eds.). <i>The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology</i>. Blackwell. pp. 92–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405164863.ch3">10.1002/9781405164863.ch3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20290-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20290-5"><bdi>978-0-631-20290-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39269507">39269507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158886670">158886670</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215147/https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Knowledge%3F&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Guide+to+Epistemology&rft.pages=92-116&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39269507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158886670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405164863.ch3&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20290-5&rft.aulast=Zagzebski&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FZAGWIK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/knowledge">Knowledge</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/epistemic-value">"Epistemic Value"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epistemic+Value&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fepistemic-value&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2390">Knowledge</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/12px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/25px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Knowledge</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Knowledge" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Knowledge">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Knowledge" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Knowledge">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Knowledge" class="extiw" title="q:Knowledge">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9081" class="extiw" title="d:Q9081">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_intelligence_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template talk:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_intelligence_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abilities">Abilities</a>, traits,<br />and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Knowledge_management" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Knowledge_management" title="Template:Knowledge management"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Knowledge_management" title="Template talk:Knowledge management"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Knowledge_management" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Knowledge management"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Knowledge_management" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">Intellectual capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_intensive_services" title="Knowledge intensive services">Knowledge intensive services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_intensive_business_services" title="Knowledge intensive business services">Knowledge intensive business services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_organization_(management)" title="Knowledge organization (management)">Knowledge organization (management)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_enterprise" title="Knowledge enterprise">Knowledge-intensive company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">Knowledge sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management_software" title="Knowledge management software">Knowledge management software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_content_management" title="Enterprise content management">Enterprise content management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiki_software" title="Wiki software">Wiki software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">Tacit knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">Personal knowledge management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_rationale" title="Design rationale">Design rationale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_knowledge_officer" title="Chief knowledge officer">Chief knowledge officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_team" title="Virtual team">Virtual team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communities_of_innovation" title="Communities of innovation">Communities of innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">Community of interest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Journal of Knowledge Management">Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_Management_Research_%26_Practice" title="Knowledge Management Research & Practice">Knowledge Management Research & Practice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9081#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4066559-8">Germany</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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6.06% 179.496 33 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.44% 161.261 16 Template:Efn"," 4.83% 143.295 1 Template:Sfn"," 4.32% 127.955 7 Template:Lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.071","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21977613,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAHD_Staff2022d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHD_Staff2022e\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHD_staff2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHD_staff2022b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHD_staff2022c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAPA_staff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkerkarSajja2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexander2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllwood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlterNagasawa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmesYajunHershock2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAppelrouthEdles2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAqilBabekriNadmi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAttie-Picker2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAudi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAwadGhaziri2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaehr2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBagginiSouthwell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBairdMaskill2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarth2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartlett2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartlettBurton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeins2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergström1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertelsonGelder2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackburn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackÁlvarez2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlayney1769\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloor2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBosančić2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowenGelpiAnweiler2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowker2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukoye2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurton2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCD_staff\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaiLiuChenWang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarsonCerrito2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastilhoLopes2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCelenza2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChappell2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhary2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhary2017a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoo2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopherPrasathVanga2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClegg2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColander2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoser2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCosmanJones2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoxRaja2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanesi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDasSalow2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaston2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDePoe2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDegenhardt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelahuntyDignen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesouzaAwazu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDika2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoddZambettiDeneve2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDokicÉgré2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoren1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDougherty2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreyer2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuránFormanek2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmaliana2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvansFoster2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaberMarusterJorna2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaganDurrani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrest2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriesen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFumerton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFumerton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabriel2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarcía-Arnaldos2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardiner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGascoigneThornton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGertler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGertler2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGertler2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhose1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilliot2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldman1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuttingOksala2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannon2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasanFumerton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasanFumerton2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasanFumerton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatfield1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaymesÖzdalga2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHepburnAndersen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetherington\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetherington2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetherington2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeydornJesudason2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschberger2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoad1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHookway2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonStearns2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesRyan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJorna2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandel1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemmisEdwards-Groves2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKern2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKernis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhatoon2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchener1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlausen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlenke2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraft2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKreeftTacelli2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhn1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuruk2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLackey2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLammenranta2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandau2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeggHookway2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegge2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehrer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemos1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLengnick-HallLengnick-Hall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonard2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeondes2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLilleyLightfootAmaral2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLycan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMW_Staff2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMageePopper1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahadevan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkie1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkieFolescu2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCain2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCainStaplefordSteup2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCormick\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDermid2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGeer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNabb2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeirmansButlinCharmantierEngelstädter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMertler2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiah2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaelianSutton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisak2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishra2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorinRacy2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrison2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoser1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoser2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoser2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulsow2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiiniluoto2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Grady\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaden2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaden2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParikhRenero2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavese2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeels2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenelhum1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerin2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinch2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlantinga2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlato2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoston\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPower1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPower2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchard2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchardTurriCarter2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRambachan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReginster2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReif2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRepko2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2009a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguez2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRothbergErickson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutten2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchelerStikkers2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneiderMcGrew2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoonenboomJohnson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwitzgebel2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShortenSmith2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSonneveldLoening1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpaulding2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanleyWilllamson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStehrAdolf2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinberg1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteupNeta2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoltz2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStroll2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSudduth2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwartley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweller2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwellerAyresKalyuga2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThakchoe2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorntonLanzer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTravers2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefil2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruncellito2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTufari2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurriAlfanoGreco2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Nieuwenhove2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVempala2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatkinsMortimore1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisberg2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWindt2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWise2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolfolkMargetts2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanofsky2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZagzebski1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Situated_knowledge\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 5,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite IEP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 166,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 33,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 60,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 16,\n [\"Epistemology\"] = 1,\n [\"Epistemology sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 483,\n [\"Human intelligence topics\"] = 1,\n [\"InPho\"] = 1,\n [\"Knowledge management\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 160,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"PhilPapers\"] = 1,\n [\"Positivism\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","16.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","8.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","8.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","140","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","120","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","5.4"],["citation0 \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:2614\u003E","80","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","2.7"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","60","2.7"],["[others]","800","36.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-59b954b7fb-pkn46","timestamp":"20241208121710","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Knowledge","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9081","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9081","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-06-10T10:45:34Z","dateModified":"2024-10-26T21:01:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/5c\/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg","headline":"mental possession of information or skills, often contributing to understanding"}</script> </body> </html>