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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macroeconomics_of_labour_markets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Macroeconomics of labour markets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macroeconomics_of_labour_markets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_microeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_microeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Neoclassical microeconomics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neoclassical_microeconomics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neoclassical microeconomics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_microeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Neoclassical supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_demand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_demand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Neoclassical demand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_demand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equilibrium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equilibrium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Equilibrium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equilibrium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monopsony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monopsony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Monopsony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monopsony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asymmetric_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asymmetric_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Asymmetric information</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asymmetric_information-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Asymmetric information subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Asymmetric_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Search_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Search_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Search models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Search_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personnel_economics:_hiring_and_incentives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel_economics:_hiring_and_incentives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Personnel economics: hiring and incentives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personnel_economics:_hiring_and_incentives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personnel economics: hiring and incentives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personnel_economics:_hiring_and_incentives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discrimination_and_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discrimination_and_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Discrimination and inequality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discrimination_and_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wage_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wage_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Wage slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wage_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Labour economics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84" title="اقتصاديات العمل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اقتصاديات العمل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE" title="শ্ৰম – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শ্ৰম" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_llaboral" title="Economía llaboral – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Economía llaboral" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fm%C9%99k_bazar%C4%B1" title="Əmək bazarı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əmək bazarı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="শ্রম অর্থশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শ্রম অর্থশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D2%99%D0%BC%D3%99%D1%82_%D0%B8%D2%A1%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Хеҙмәт иҡтисады – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хеҙмәт иҡтисады" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Эканоміка працы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эканоміка працы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Икономика на труда – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Икономика на труда" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_laboral" title="Economia laboral – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Economia laboral" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie_pr%C3%A1ce" title="Ekonomie práce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ekonomie práce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbejdsmarkeds%C3%B8konomi" title="Arbejdsmarkedsøkonomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arbejdsmarkedsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeitsmarkt%C3%B6konomik" title="Arbeitsmarktökonomik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arbeitsmarktökonomik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6%C3%B6turg" title="Tööturg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tööturg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Οικονομική της εργασίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικονομική της εργασίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_laboral" title="Economía laboral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía laboral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborekonomiko" title="Laborekonomiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Laborekonomiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan-ekonomia" title="Lan-ekonomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lan-ekonomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="اقتصاد کار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقتصاد کار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_du_travail" title="Économie du travail – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie du travail" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_do_traballo" title="Economía do traballo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Economía do traballo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%B8%EB%8F%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C%ED%95%99" title="노동경제학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="노동경제학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AA%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աշխատուժի տնտեսագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխատուժի տնտեսագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_buruh" title="Ekonomi buruh – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekonomi buruh" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_del_lavoro" title="Economia del lavoro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Economia del lavoro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darba_ekonomika" title="Darba ekonomika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Darba ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munkagazdas%C3%A1gtan" title="Munkagazdaságtan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Munkagazdaságtan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Трудова економија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Трудова економија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%A9%D0%B4%D3%A9%D0%BB%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Хөдөлмөрийн эдийн засаг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хөдөлмөрийн эдийн засаг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeidseconomie" title="Arbeidseconomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Arbeidseconomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E5%AD%A6" title="労働経済学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="労働経済学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeidsmarkeds%C3%B8konomi" title="Arbeidsmarkedsøkonomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arbeidsmarkedsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehnat_iqtisodiyoti" title="Mehnat iqtisodiyoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mehnat iqtisodiyoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika_pracy" title="Ekonomika pracy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekonomika pracy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_do_trabalho" title="Economia do trabalho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Economia do trabalho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Экономика труда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экономика труда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia_e_pun%C3%ABs" title="Ekonomia e punës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ekonomia e punës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ty%C3%B6n_taloustiede" title="Työn taloustiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Työn taloustiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbetsmarknadsekonomi" title="Arbetsmarknadsekonomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arbetsmarknadsekonomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika_ng_paggawa" title="Ekonomika ng paggawa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekonomika ng paggawa" 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Labour_Economics_(journal)" title="Labour Economics (journal)"><i>Labour Economics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Labour_economics" title="Talk:Labour economics">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Emergency_-_Your_help_is_Needed_to_Can_the_Crops%22_-_NARA_-_513835.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img 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hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;font-size:200%;"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/120px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/180px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/240px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches and <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Micro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_methodology" title="Economic methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">JEL classification codes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts, theory and techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_income_trap" title="Middle income trap">Middle income trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_complex" title="Industrial complex">Industrial complex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">By application</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Labour economics</b>, or <b>labor economics</b>, seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labour</a>. <a href="/wiki/Labour_(human_activity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (human activity)">Labour</a> is a commodity that is supplied by <a href="/wiki/Labourer" class="mw-redirect" title="Labourer">labourers</a>, usually in exchange for a <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wage</a> paid by demanding firms.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables.<sup id="cite_ref-tarling_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarling-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Labour markets</b> or <b>job markets</b> function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. Some theories focus on <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurship</a>, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macro_and_micro_analysis_of_labour_markets">Macro and micro analysis of labour markets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Macro and micro analysis of labour markets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomic</a> techniques to the labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macroeconomics_of_labour_markets">Macroeconomics of labour markets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Macroeconomics of labour markets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg/200px-Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg/300px-Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg/400px-Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Job advertisement board in <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>labour market in macroeconomic theory</b> shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">Labour force</a> (LF) is defined as the number of people of <a href="/wiki/Working_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Working age">working age</a>, who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed). The <b>labour force participation rate</b> (<b>LFPR</b>) is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult <a href="/wiki/Civilian_noninstitutional_population" title="Civilian noninstitutional population">civilian noninstitutional population</a> (or by the population of working age that is not <a href="/wiki/Institutionalisation" title="Institutionalisation">institutionalized</a>), LFPR = LF/Population.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>non-labour force</b> includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in the military. The <b><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> level</b> is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The <b>unemployment rate</b> is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The <b>employment rate</b> is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, self-employed people are counted as employed.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The labour market has the ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output. An efficient labour market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour. This presupposes that <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> is used as a method to attain cost efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called <b>stock variables</b> because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with <b>flow variables</b> which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and <a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retirements</a>. Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment). When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Natural Unemployment</i> </p> <ul><li><b>Frictional unemployment</b> – This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs that they feel are appropriate for them and their skill set.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment; for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment or <a href="/wiki/Personnel_selection" title="Personnel selection">personnel selection</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Structural_unemployment" title="Structural unemployment">Structural unemployment</a></b> – The number of jobs available in an industry are insufficient to provide jobs to all persons who are interested in working or qualified to work in that industry. This can be due to the changes in industries prevalent in a country or because wages for the industry are too high, causing people to want to supply their labour to that industry.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Natural rate of unemployment</b> (also known as <b>full employment</b>) – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment (e.g. recessions) and seasonal unemployment. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning – some associate it with "non-accelerating <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>". The estimated rate varies between countries and across time.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><i>Unnatural Unemployment</i> </p> <ul><li><b>Demand deficient unemployment</b> (also known as <b>cyclical unemployment</b>) – In <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aggregate_expenditure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aggregate expenditure (page does not exist)">aggregate expenditure</a> is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour).</li></ul> <p>Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, </p><p>according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), </p><p>increasing investment spending (I), </p><p>increasing government spending (G), </p><p>or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M), </p><p>since AE = C + I + G + (X−M). </p> <ul><li><b>Seasonal unemployment</b> – Unemployment due to seasonal fluctuations of demand for workers across industries, such as in the retail industry after holidays that involve a lot of shopping are over.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neoclassical_microeconomics">Neoclassical microeconomics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neoclassical microeconomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economists</a> view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> jointly determine the price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed). </p><p>However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the financial market) in several ways. In particular, the labour market may act as a <a href="/wiki/Market_clearing" title="Market clearing">non-clearing market</a>. While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent <a href="/wiki/Compensating_differential" title="Compensating differential">compensating differentials</a> among similar workers. </p><p>Models that assume <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a> in the labour market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn their <a href="/wiki/Marginal_product" title="Marginal product">marginal product</a> of labour.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassical_supply">Neoclassical supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neoclassical supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg/220px-Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg/330px-Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg/440px-Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON,_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT,_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg/220px-RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg/330px-RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg/440px-RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2035" /></a><figcaption>Railroad work</figcaption></figure> <p>Households are suppliers of labour. In microeconomic theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking to maximize their <a href="/wiki/Utility_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility function">utility function</a>. In the labour market model, their utility function expresses trade-offs in preference between leisure time and income from time used for labour. However, they are constrained by the hours available to them. </p><p>Let <i>w</i> denote the hourly wage, <i>k</i> denote total hours available for labour and leisure, <i>L</i> denote the chosen number of working hours, π denote income from non-labour sources, and <i>A</i> denote leisure hours chosen. The individual's problem is to maximise utility <i>U</i>, which depends on total income available for spending on consumption and also depends on the time spent in leisure, subject to a time constraint, with respect to the choices of labour time and leisure time: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{maximize}}\quad U(wL+\pi ,A)\quad {\text{subject to}}\quad L+A\leq k.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>maximize</mtext> </mrow> <mspace width="1em" /> <mi>U</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>w</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>π</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>subject to</mtext> </mrow> <mspace width="1em" /> <mi>L</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{maximize}}\quad U(wL+\pi ,A)\quad {\text{subject to}}\quad L+A\leq k.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5c761e958b710b7962b941156281f9e0ae751e2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:51.329ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{maximize}}\quad U(wL+\pi ,A)\quad {\text{subject to}}\quad L+A\leq k.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>This is shown in the graph below, which illustrates the trade-off between allocating time to leisure activities and allocating it to income-generating activities. The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase. Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to <a href="/wiki/Leisure" title="Leisure">leisure</a> activities and how much to <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">working</a>. This allocation decision is informed by the <a href="/wiki/Indifference_curve" title="Indifference curve">indifference curve</a> labelled IC<sub>1</sub>. The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum for this supplier of labour services. </p><p>If consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects. This is because the absolute value of the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate. The point of optimisation (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_rate_of_substitution" title="Marginal rate of substitution">marginal rate of substitution</a><sup id="cite_ref-robertfrank_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robertfrank-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of leisure for income (the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve). Because the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income is also the ratio of the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">marginal utility</a> of leisure (MU<sup>L</sup>) to the marginal utility of income (MU<sup>Y</sup>), one can conclude: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {{MU^{L}} \over {MU^{Y}}}={{dY} \over {dL}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>M</mi> <msup> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>M</mi> <msup> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {{MU^{L}} \over {MU^{Y}}}={{dY} \over {dL}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3447c5f9f0f34de9ea5a0ecff90bd495ba569a29" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:14.176ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {{MU^{L}} \over {MU^{Y}}}={{dY} \over {dL}},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>Y</i> is total income and the right side is the wage rate. </p> <div style="float:center;text-align:center"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_wage_increase_small.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Effects of a wage increase"><img alt="Effects of a wage increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Labour_wage_increase_small.png" decoding="async" width="421" height="279" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="279" /></a></span><br /><i>Effects of a wage increase</i></div> <p>If the wage rate increases, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y<sub>1</sub> to X,Y<sub>2</sub>. He/she can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on IC<sub>1</sub> to point B on IC<sub>2</sub>. To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the <a href="/wiki/Income_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Income effect">income effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substitution_effect" title="Substitution effect">substitution effect</a>. </p><p>The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from Y<sub>A</sub> to Y<sub>C</sub> and – since the diagram assumes that leisure is a <a href="/wiki/Normal_good" title="Normal good">normal good</a> – leisure time increases from X<sub>A</sub> to X<sub>C</sub>. (Employment time decreases by the same amount as leisure increases.) </p> <div style="float:center;text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_supply_income_and_substitution_effects_small.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase"><img alt="The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Labour_supply_income_and_substitution_effects_small.png" decoding="async" width="531" height="350" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="350" /></a></span><br /><i>The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase</i></div> <p>But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the provision of labour—that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity cost</a>. This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases, such as the one shown, the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases, the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind this latter case is that the individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be "spent" by purchasing more leisure. </p> <div style="float:left;text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_supply_small.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Labour Supply curve"><img alt="The Labour Supply curve" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Labour_supply_small.png" decoding="async" width="391" height="285" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="285" /></a></span><br /><i>The Labour Supply curve</i></div> <p>If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the <b>labour supply curve</b> (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits a positive wage <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)" title="Elasticity (economics)">elasticity</a>). This positive relationship is increasing until point F, beyond which the income effect dominates the substitution effect and the individual starts to reduce the number of labour hours he supplies (point G) as wage increases; in other words, the wage elasticity is now negative. </p><p>The direction of the slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve is different for different individuals. </p><p>Other variables that affect the labour supply decision, and can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a <a href="/wiki/Signalling_(economics)" title="Signalling (economics)">signal</a> of ability or social contribution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassical_demand">Neoclassical demand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neoclassical demand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Labour_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour demand">Labour demand</a></div> <p>A firm's labour demand is based on its <a href="/wiki/Marginal_product_of_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal product of labour">marginal physical product of labour</a> (MPP<sub>L</sub>). This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimal increase in labour). (See also <a href="/wiki/Production_theory_basics" class="mw-redirect" title="Production theory basics">Production theory basics</a>.) </p><p>Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue and hence profits. The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_Revenue_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal Revenue Product">Marginal Revenue Product</a> (MRP) and the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">marginal cost</a> (MC) of the worker. With a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfectly competitive</a> goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying the <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">price</a> of the end product or service by the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_Physical_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal Physical Product">Marginal Physical Product</a> of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</a>. The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in neoclassical economic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-robertfrank_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robertfrank-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which the worker can work (e.g. machinery), often aggregated under the term "<a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>". It is typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else equal. <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> and training are counted as "<a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>". Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus <a href="/wiki/Wages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wages">wages</a> can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and the degree of capital mobility within and between countries.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining (law of diminishing returns). That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline. </p><p>Additionally, although the MRP is a good way of expressing an employer's demand, other factors such as social group formation can the demand, as well as the labour supply. This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-tarling_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarling-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equilibrium">Equilibrium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Equilibrium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="float:right;text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_demand_in_the_short_run_small.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A Firm's Labour Demand in the Short Run"><img alt="A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Labour_demand_in_the_short_run_small.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="264" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="264" /></a></span><br /><i>A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S)</i></div> <p>The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In <a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">competitive markets</a>, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = S<sub>L</sub> = MFC<sub>L</sub>). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because MFC<sub>L</sub> would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum resource allocation requires that <a href="/wiki/Marginal_factor_cost" title="Marginal factor cost">marginal factor costs</a> equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram. </p><p>The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour. These <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels. </p><p>Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For example, the wages of a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">doctor</a> and a port cleaner, both employed by the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service_(England)" title="National Health Service (England)">NHS</a>, differ greatly. There are various factors concerning this phenomenon. This includes the MRP of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less training. The supply of doctors is therefore significantly less elastic than that of port cleaners. Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monopsony">Monopsony</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Monopsony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></div> <p>Some labour markets have a single employer and thus do not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above. The model of a monopsonistic labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive model. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asymmetric_information">Asymmetric information</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Asymmetric information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG/220px-Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG/330px-Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG/440px-Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in <a href="/wiki/Jalan_Petaling" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalan Petaling">Jalan Petaling</a>, Kuala Lumpur</figcaption></figure> <p>In many real-life situations, the assumption of perfect information is unrealistic. An employer does not necessarily know how hard workers are working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for workers to <a href="/wiki/Laziness" title="Laziness">shirk</a> from providing their full effort, called <a href="/wiki/Moral_hazard" title="Moral hazard">moral hazard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since it is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall, leading to the hiring of more workers and a lower unemployment rate. </p><p>One solution that is used to avoid a moral hazard is <a href="/wiki/Employee_stock_options" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee stock options">stock options</a> that grant employees the chance to benefit directly from a firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">temporary workers</a> in Japan and the <a href="/wiki/Haken-giri" class="mw-redirect" title="Haken-giri">firing of many of these workers</a> in response to the financial crisis of 2008, is more flexible job- contracts and -terms that encourage employees to work less than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of the employer trying to determine how much work is needed to complete a given task and overestimating.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage under compensates high-ability workers which may drive them away from the labour market as well as at the same time attracting low-ability workers. Such a phenomenon, called <a href="/wiki/Adverse_selection" title="Adverse selection">adverse selection</a>, can sometimes lead to market collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One way to combat adverse selection, firms will try to use <a href="/wiki/Signalling_(economics)" title="Signalling (economics)">signalling</a>, pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Spence" title="Michael Spence">Michael Spence</a>, whereby employers could use various characteristics of applicants differentiate between high-ability or low-ability workers. One common signal used is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages. However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labour, without this necessarily being true. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Search_models">Search models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Search models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Search_theory" title="Search theory">Search theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matching_theory_(macroeconomics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matching theory (macroeconomics)">Matching theory (macroeconomics)</a></div> <p>One of the major research achievements of the 1990–2010 period was the development of a framework with dynamic <a href="/wiki/Search_theory" title="Search theory">search</a>, matching, and bargaining.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel_economics:_hiring_and_incentives">Personnel economics: hiring and incentives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Personnel economics: hiring and incentives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreliable_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-unreliable_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">Some of this article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">listed sources</a> <b>may not be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased attention in recent decades is analysis of <a href="/wiki/Internal_labor_market" title="Internal labor market">internal labour markets</a>, that is, <i>within</i> firms (or other organisations), studied in <a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">personnel economics</a> from the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Personnel_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Personnel management">personnel management</a>. By contrast, external labour markets "imply that workers move somewhat fluidly between firms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where firms do not have significant discretion over wage setting."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (January 2014)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> The focus is on "how firms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and on how firms provide incentives to employees," including models and empirical work on incentive systems and as constrained by <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a> and risk/incentive tradeoffs relating to personnel compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrimination_and_inequality">Discrimination and inequality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Discrimination and inequality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Inequality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> in the workplace can have many effects on workers. </p><p>In the context of labour economics, inequality is usually referring to the unequal distribution of earning between households.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a>. This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions. The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region. Over time, inequality has, on average, been increasing. This is due to numerous factors including labour supply and demand shifts as well as institutional changes in the labour market. On the shifts in labour supply and demand, factors include demand for <a href="/wiki/Skilled_worker" title="Skilled worker">skilled workers</a> going up more than the supply of skilled workers and relative to unskilled workers as well as technological changes that increase productivity; all of these things cause wages to go up for skilled labour while unskilled worker wages stay the same or decline. As for the institutional changes, a decrease in union power and a declining real minimum wage, which both reduce unskilled workers wages, and tax cuts for the wealthy all increase the inequality gap between groups of earners. </p><p>As for discrimination, it is the difference in pay that can be attributed to the demographic differences between people, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc, even though these factors do not affect the productivity of the worker.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many regions and countries have enacted government policies to combat discrimination, including discrimination in the workplace. Discrimination can be modelled and measured in numerous ways. The <a href="/wiki/Blinder%E2%80%93Oaxaca_decomposition" title="Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition">Oaxaca decomposition</a> is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people. This decomposition aims to calculate the difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A way of modelling discrimination in the workplace when dealing with wages are <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>'s taste models. Using taste models, employer discrimination can be thought of as the employer not hiring the minority worker because of their perceived cost of hiring that worker is higher than that of the cost of hiring a non-minority worker, which causes less hiring of the minority. Another taste model is for employee discrimination, which does not cause a decline in the hiring of minorities, but instead causes a more segregated <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a> because the prejudiced worker feels that they should be paid more to work next to the worker they are prejudiced against or that they are not paid an equal amount as the worker they are prejudiced against. One more taste model involves customer discrimination, whereby the employers themselves are not prejudiced but believe that their customers might be, so therefore the employer is less likely to hire the minority worker if they are going to interact with customers that are prejudiced. There are many other taste models other than these that Gary Becker has made to explain discrimination that causes differences in hiring in wages in the labour market.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many sociologists, political economists, and <a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">heterodox economists</a> claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable <a href="/wiki/Emotional_baggage" title="Emotional baggage">emotional baggage</a> and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process, such as social benefits of a high income or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specific economic goals. </p><p>From the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a>, neoclassical models are not meant to serve as a full description of the psychological and subjective factors that go into a given individual's employment relations, but as a useful approximation of human behaviour in the aggregate, which can be fleshed out further by the use of concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Information_asymmetry" title="Information asymmetry">information asymmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">contract theory</a> etc. </p><p>Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics#Unpaid_work" title="Feminist economics">unpaid labour</a> such as unpaid internships where workers with little or no experience are allowed to work a job without pay so that they can gain experience in a particular <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>. Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society if not abused by employers. The most dramatic example is child raising. However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the <a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">economics of the family</a>, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child-raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wage_slavery">Wage slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Wage slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economic_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic exploitation">Economic exploitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery">Contemporary slavery</a></div> <p>The labour market, as institutionalised under today's market economic systems, has been criticised,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially by both mainstream <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">anarcho-syndicalists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-English_Working_Class_p._599_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._599-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-English_Working_Class_p._912_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._912-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who utilise the term <a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage slavery</a><sup id="cite_ref-merriam-webster.com_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-webster.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labour</a>. Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> is also known to have suggested such parallels.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> era. In his 1791 book <i>On the Limits of State Action</i>, classical <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> thinker <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a> explained how "whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness" and so when the labourer works under external control, "we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the <a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanford_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford experiment">Stanford experiments</a> have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> posited that until "<a href="/wiki/Neo-feudalism" title="Neo-feudalism">industrial feudalism</a>" is replaced by "industrial <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ferguson_(academic)" title="Thomas Ferguson (academic)">Thomas Ferguson</a> has postulated in his <a href="/wiki/Investment_theory_of_party_competition" title="Investment theory of party competition">investment theory of party competition</a> that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As per anthropologist <a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a>, the earliest wage labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with which to maintain his or her living expenses.) Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. C. L. R. James argued that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were first developed on slave plantations.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxists</a> posit that labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provides an absolutely fundamental point of attack against <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "It can be persuasively argued", noted one concerned philosopher, "that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row 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class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/19px-Syndicalism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/29px-Syndicalism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/38px-Syndicalism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="530" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Organized labour">Organized labour</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/19px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Portal:Business">Business</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col 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employees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">Manual labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Affective labour">Affective labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore outsourcing">Offshore outsourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homemaking" title="Homemaking">Housework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_resources" title="Human resources">Human resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Resource_Management_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Resource Management Systems">Human Resource Management Systems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price" title="Cost the limit of price">Cost the limit of price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_curve" title="Beveridge curve">Beveridge curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer theory">Consumer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_factor_demands" title="Conditional factor demands">Conditional factor demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisch_elasticity_of_labor_supply" title="Frisch elasticity of labor supply">Frisch elasticity of labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_power" title="Labour power">Labour power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">Economic rent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_relations" title="Industrial relations">Industrial relations</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:04-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite 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(14 January 2015). <i>Labor economics</i> (Seventh ed.). New York, NY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802188-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802188-6"><bdi>978-0-07-802188-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/889577338">889577338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labor+economics&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=Seventh&rft.date=2015-01-14&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F889577338&rft.isbn=978-0-07-802188-6&rft.au=Borjas%2C+George+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/labor">"Definition of LABOR"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+LABOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Flabor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tarling-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tarling_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tarling_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarling1987" class="citation book cs1">Tarling, R. (1987). "Labour Markets". In <a href="/wiki/John_Eatwell" class="mw-redirect" title="John Eatwell">Eatwell, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Murray_Milgate" title="Murray Milgate">Milgate, Murray</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kenneth_Newman" title="Peter Kenneth Newman">Newman, Peter</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</a></i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1">10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5"><bdi>978-1-349-95121-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Labour+Markets&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-4&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1&rft.isbn=978-1-349-95121-5&rft.aulast=Tarling&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrahamAnwar2019" class="citation journal cs1">Graham, Mark; Anwar, Mohammad Amir (2019-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/9913">"The global gig economy: Towards a planetary labour market?"</a>. <i>First Monday</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v24i4.9913">10.5210/fm.v24i4.9913</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466">1396-0466</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108292032">108292032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=First+Monday&rft.atitle=The+global+gig+economy%3A+Towards+a+planetary+labour+market%3F&rft.date=2019-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A108292032%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1396-0466&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5210%2Ffm.v24i4.9913&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Anwar%2C+Mohammad+Amir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffirstmonday.org%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Ffm%2Farticle%2Fview%2F9913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenton2022" class="citation web cs1">Kenton, Will (March 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/labor-market.asp">"Labor Market Explained: Theories and Who Is Included"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Investopedia" title="Investopedia">Investopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Frank">Frank, Robert H.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://students.aiu.edu/submissions/profiles/resources/onlineBook/P3w4i7_Frank-Microeconomics-and-Behavior.pdf"><i>Microeconomics and Behavior</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Seventh ed.). <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education" title="McGraw Hill Education">McGraw Hill</a>/Irwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337573-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337573-1"><bdi>978-0-07-337573-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microeconomics+and+Behavior&rft.edition=Seventh&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill%2FIrwin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-07-337573-1&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstudents.aiu.edu%2Fsubmissions%2Fprofiles%2Fresources%2FonlineBook%2FP3w4i7_Frank-Microeconomics-and-Behavior.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHacker2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hacker, R. Scott (2000). "The Impact of International Capital Mobility on the Volatility of Labour Income". <i>Annals of Regional Science</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 157–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs001689900005">10.1007/s001689900005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154020468">154020468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Regional+Science&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+International+Capital+Mobility+on+the+Volatility+of+Labour+Income&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-172&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs001689900005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154020468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hacker&rft.aufirst=R.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFroebMcCannShorWard2016" class="citation book cs1">Froeb, Luke M.; McCann, Brian T.; Shor, Mikhael; Ward, Michael R. 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Boston, MA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-25933-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-25933-1"><bdi>978-1-305-25933-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/900237955">900237955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managerial+economics+%3A+a+problem+solving+approach&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F900237955&rft.isbn=978-1-305-25933-1&rft.aulast=Froeb&rft.aufirst=Luke+M.&rft.au=McCann%2C+Brian+T.&rft.au=Shor%2C+Mikhael&rft.au=Ward%2C+Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/press-12.pdf">"The Prize in Economic Sciences 2010"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NobelPrize.org</i> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty-gsb.stanford.edu/oyer/wp/ports.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 1, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-04115-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-04115-8"><bdi>0-226-04115-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173468">173468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+economics+of+discrimination&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2d&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173468&rft.isbn=0-226-04115-8&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsofdiscr0000beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeixeira2007" class="citation book cs1">Teixeira, Pedro N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Affairs&rft.atitle=Putting+the+family+in+economics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funiversityaffairs.ca%2Ffeatures%2Ffeature-article%2Fputting-the-family-in-economics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllerman1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Ellerman" title="David Ellerman">Ellerman, David P.</a> (1992). <i>Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1557863091" title="Special:BookSources/1557863091"><bdi>1557863091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property+and+Contract+in+Economics%3A+The+Case+for+Economic+Democracy&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1557863091&rft.aulast=Ellerman&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._599-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-English_Working_Class_p._599_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1966">Thompson 1966</a>, p. 599.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._912-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-English_Working_Class_p._912_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1966">Thompson 1966</a>, p. 912.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstergaard1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Ostergaard" title="Geoffrey Ostergaard">Ostergaard, Geoffrey</a> (1997). <i>The Tradition of Workers' Control</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Press" title="Freedom Press">Freedom Press</a>. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900384-91-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-900384-91-2"><bdi>978-0-900384-91-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tradition+of+Workers%27+Control&rft.place=London&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Freedom+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-900384-91-2&rft.aulast=Ostergaard&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazonick1990" class="citation book cs1">Lazonick, William (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674154162"><i>Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674154162" title="Special:BookSources/9780674154162"><bdi>9780674154162</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Competitive+Advantage+on+the+Shop+Floor&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780674154162&rft.aulast=Lazonick&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D9780674154162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-merriam-webster.com-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-merriam-webster.com_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wage%20slave">"wage slave"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam_Webster" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriam Webster">merriam-webster.com</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=wage+slave&rft.btitle=merriam-webster.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fwage%2520slave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wage%20slave">"wage slave"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">dictionary.com</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=wage+slave&rft.btitle=dictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fwage%2520slave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery.<i>" – <a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.constitution.org/rom/de_officiis.htm">[1]</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rosariodawson101.com/books/chomsky/Noam%20Chomsky%20-%205%20books.pdf"><i>Year 501: The Conquest Continues</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Black Rose Books. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781895431629" title="Special:BookSources/9781895431629"><bdi>9781895431629</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Year+501%3A+The+Conquest+Continues&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Black+Rose+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9781895431629&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rosariodawson101.com%2Fbooks%2Fchomsky%2FNoam%2520Chomsky%2520-%25205%2520books.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawlerThye2006" class="citation book cs1">Lawler, Edward J.; Thye, Shane R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/handle/1813/76104">"Social Exchange Theory of Emotions"</a>. In Stets, Jan E.; Turner, Jonathan H. (eds.). <i>Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions</i>. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. 295–320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-30715-2_14">10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F76104">1813/76104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30713-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30713-8"><bdi>978-0-387-30713-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Exchange+Theory+of+Emotions&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Sociology+of+Emotions&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Handbooks+of+Sociology+and+Social+Research&rft.pages=295-320&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1813%2F76104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-30715-2_14&rft.isbn=978-0-387-30713-8&rft.aulast=Lawler&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft.au=Thye%2C+Shane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2Fhandle%2F1813%2F76104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewey1931" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (March 18, 1931). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/104638/the-need-new-party">"The Need for a New Party"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>. <q>As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Need+for+a+New+Party&rft.date=1931-03-18&rft.aulast=Dewey&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F104638%2Fthe-need-new-party&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ferguson_(academic)" title="Thomas Ferguson (academic)">Ferguson, Thomas</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goldenruleinvest00ferg"><i>Golden Rule : The Investment Theory of Party Competition and the Logic of Money-Driven Political Systems</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226243176" title="Special:BookSources/0226243176"><bdi>0226243176</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Golden+Rule+%3A+The+Investment+Theory+of+Party+Competition+and+the+Logic+of+Money-Driven+Political+Systems&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0226243176&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoldenruleinvest00ferg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraeber2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber, David</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eleuthera.it/files/materiali/David_Graeber_Fragments_%20Anarchist_Anthropology.pdf"><i>Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prickly_Paradigm_Press" title="Prickly Paradigm Press">Prickly Paradigm Press</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9728196-4-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9728196-4-9"><bdi>0-9728196-4-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004090746">2004090746</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fragments+of+an+Anarchist+Anthropology&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Prickly+Paradigm+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004090746&rft.isbn=0-9728196-4-9&rft.aulast=Graeber&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eleuthera.it%2Ffiles%2Fmateriali%2FDavid_Graeber_Fragments_%2520Anarchist_Anthropology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.surplusvalue.org.au/Marxism/Capital%20-%20Vol.%201%20Penguin.pdf"><i>Capital: A Critique of Political Economy</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 1006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 26,</span> 2023</span>. <q>[L]abour-power, a commodity sold by the worker himself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capital%3A+A+Critique+of+Political+Economy&rft.pages=1006&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.surplusvalue.org.au%2FMarxism%2FCapital%2520-%2520Vol.%25201%2520Penguin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Another one, of course, being the capitalists' alleged theft from workers via <a href="/wiki/Surplus-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Surplus-value">surplus-value</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson1995" class="citation journal cs1">Nelson, John O. (April 1995). "That a Worker's Labour Cannot Be a Commodity". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_(journal)" title="Philosophy (journal)">Philosophy</a></i>. <b>40</b> (272). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 157–165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819100065359">10.1017/S0031819100065359</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751199">3751199</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171054136">171054136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=That+a+Worker%27s+Labour+Cannot+Be+a+Commodity&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=272&rft.pages=157-165&rft.date=1995-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171054136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3751199%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0031819100065359&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=John+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">Thompson, E. P.</a> (1966). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_English_Working_Class" title="The Making of the English Working Class"><i>The Making of the English Working Class</i></a> (reprinted ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394703220" title="Special:BookSources/9780394703220"><bdi>9780394703220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+English+Working+Class&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.edition=reprinted&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=9780394703220&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=E.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labour_economics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Blundell" title="Richard Blundell">Richard Blundell</a> and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008. "labour supply," <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a></i>, 2nd Edition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman" title="Richard B. Freeman">Freeman, R.B.</a>, 1987. "Labour economics," <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</a></i>, v. 3, pp. 72–76.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John R. Hicks</a>, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Wages" title="The Theory of Wages">The Theory of Wages</a></i>. London, Macmillan.</li> <li><i>Handbook of Labor Economics</i>. Elsevier. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Links to one-page chapter previews for each volume:</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Orley_Ashenfelter" title="Orley Ashenfelter">Orley C. Ashenfelter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Layard" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Layard">Richard Layard</a>, ed., 1986, v. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/1">1</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/2">2</a>;</dd> <dd>Orley Ashenfelter and <a href="/wiki/David_Card" title="David Card">David Card</a>, ed., 1999, v. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PA">3A</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PB">3B</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PC">3C</a></dd> <dd>Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011, v. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/4/part/PA">4A</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/4/part/PB">4B</a>.</dd></dl> <ul><li>Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. <i>Labour Supply</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Mincer" title="Jacob Mincer">Jacob Mincer</a>, 1974. <i>Schooling, Experience, and Earnings</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. <i>Schooling, Experience, and Earnings</i>. New York, Singapore National University: Columbia University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcocellaDi_BartolomeoHibbs2008" class="citation journal cs1">Acocella, Nicola; Di Bartolomeo, Giovanni; Hibbs, Douglas A. (2008). "Labor market regimes and the effects of monetary policy". <i>Journal of Macroeconomics</i>. <b>30</b>: 134–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmacro.2006.08.006">10.1016/j.jmacro.2006.08.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2077%2F25796">2077/25796</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5758901">5758901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Macroeconomics&rft.atitle=Labor+market+regimes+and+the+effects+of+monetary+policy&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=134-156&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2077%2F25796&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5758901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jmacro.2006.08.006&rft.aulast=Acocella&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft.au=Di+Bartolomeo%2C+Giovanni&rft.au=Hibbs%2C+Douglas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCain1976" class="citation journal cs1">Cain, Glen G. (1976). "The Challenge of Segmented Labor Market Theories to Orthodox Theory: A Survey". <i>Journal of Economic Literature</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 1215–1257. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2722547">2722547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Literature&rft.atitle=The+Challenge+of+Segmented+Labor+Market+Theories+to+Orthodox+Theory%3A+A+Survey&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1215-1257&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2722547%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cain&rft.aufirst=Glen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbeckSnower1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Assar_Lindbeck" title="Assar Lindbeck">Lindbeck, Assar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dennis_J._Snower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis J. Snower">Snower, Dennis J.</a> (1986). "Wage Setting, Unemployment, and Insider-Outsider Relations". <i>American Economic Review</i>. <b>76</b> (2): 235–239. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818771">1818771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Wage+Setting%2C+Unemployment%2C+and+Insider-Outsider+Relations&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-239&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1818771%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lindbeck&rft.aufirst=Assar&rft.au=Snower%2C+Dennis+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGaughey2014" class="citation journal cs1">McGaughey, Ewan (2014-06-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685">"Behavioural Economics and Labour Law"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">SSRN Electronic Journal</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2460685">10.2139/ssrn.2460685</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151022170">151022170</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685">2460685</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104030552/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-11-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&rft.atitle=Behavioural+Economics+and+Labour+Law&rft.date=2014-06-30&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151022170%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2460685%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2460685&rft.aulast=McGaughey&rft.aufirst=Ewan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2460685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHead2005" class="citation book cs1">Head, Simon (2005-02-11). <i>The New Ruthless Economy: Work and Power in the Digital Age</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195179835" title="Special:BookSources/9780195179835"><bdi>9780195179835</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Ruthless+Economy%3A+Work+and+Power+in+the+Digital+Age&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005-02-11&rft.isbn=9780195179835&rft.aulast=Head&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabour+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Khan, Ali (2006-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890">"The Dignity of Manual Labor"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">SSRN Electronic Journal</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890">936890</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191112211539/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-11-12.</cite><span 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics#Empirical_research" title="Economics">Empirical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li>Labour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>)<br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a><br /></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Syndicalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Syndicalism" title="Template:Syndicalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Syndicalism" title="Template talk:Syndicalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syndicalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syndicalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Syndicalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">Guild socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li></ul></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""The Hand That Will Rule The World—One Big Union""><img alt=""The Hand That Will Rule The World—One Big Union"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg/100px-The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg/150px-The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg/200px-The_hand_that_will_rule_the_world.jpg 2x" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Leonism" title="De Leonism">De Leonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_syndicalism" title="Fascist syndicalism">Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_syndicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Green syndicalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_syndicalism" title="National syndicalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorelianism" title="Sorelianism">Sorelianism</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-operative_economics" title="Co-operative economics">Co-operative economics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Labour economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labour rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Labour unionisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions" title="List of trade unions">Organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association" title="International Workingmen's Association">International Workingmen's Association</a> (1864–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IWA%E2%80%93AIT" title="IWA–AIT">IWA–AIT</a> and affiliates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Regional_Workers%27_Federation" title="Argentine Regional Workers' Federation">Argentine Regional Workers' Federation</a> (FORA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Workers_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Workers Confederation">Brazilian Workers Confederation</a> (COB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo" title="Confederación Nacional del Trabajo">Confederación Nacional del Trabajo</a> (CNT–AIT, Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_Revolutionary_Anarcho-Syndicalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederation of Revolutionary Anarcho-Syndicalists">Confederation of Revolutionary Anarcho-Syndicalists</a> (CRAS, Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Workers%27_Union" title="Free Workers' Union">Free Workers' Union</a> (FAU, Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsk_Syndikalistisk_Forbund" title="Norsk Syndikalistisk Forbund">Norsk Syndikalistisk Forbund</a> (NSF–IAA, Norway)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_Federation" title="Solidarity Federation">Solidarity Federation</a> (SF–IWA, Britain)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Confederation_of_Labour_(Spain)" title="General Confederation of Labour (Spain)">General Confederation of Labour</a> (CGT, Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a> (IWW) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_(Chile)" title="Industrial Workers of the World (Chile)">IWW-Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_(South_Africa)" title="Industrial Workers of the World (South Africa)">IWW-South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Transport_and_General_Workers%27_Union" title="Irish Transport and General Workers' Union">Irish Transport and General Workers' Union</a> (ITGWU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagoppositionens_Sammenslutning" title="Fagoppositionens Sammenslutning">Fagoppositionens Sammenslutning</a> (FS, Denmark)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Workers%27_Union_(Portugal)" title="National Workers' Union (Portugal)">National Workers' Union</a> (UON, Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAC_Syndikalisterna" title="SAC Syndikalisterna">Sveriges Arbetares Centralorganisation</a> (SAC, Sweden) </li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Thompson_Bain" title="James Thompson Bain">Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Berth" title="Édouard Berth">Berth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alceste_De_Ambris" title="Alceste De Ambris">De Ambris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon" title="Daniel De Leon">De Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Delesalle" title="Paul Delesalle">Delesalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Fitzgerald_(trade_unionist)" title="Mary Fitzgerald (trade unionist)">Fitzgerald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Griffuelhes" title="Victor Griffuelhes">Griffuelhes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Haywood" title="Bill Haywood">Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Janvion" title="Émile Janvion">Janvion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Jouhaux" title="Léon Jouhaux">Jouhaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Lagardelle" title="Hubert Lagardelle">Lagardelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Larkin" title="James Larkin">Larkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Monatte" title="Pierre Monatte">Monatte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Garc%C3%ADa_Oliver" title="Juan García Oliver">García</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergio_Panunzio" title="Sergio Panunzio">Panunzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pelloutier" title="Fernand Pelloutier">Pelloutier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a 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