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id="toc-Regency_and_ascent_of_Macedon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exile_and_return" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exile_and_return"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Exile and return </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exile_and_return-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King_of_Macedon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King_of_Macedon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 King of Macedon </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-King_of_Macedon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle King of Macedon subsection </button> <ul id="toc-King_of_Macedon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Accession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Consolidation of power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Balkan campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkan_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destruction_of_Thebes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destruction_of_Thebes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Destruction of Thebes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destruction_of_Thebes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Achaemenid_Persian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Achaemenid_Persian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conquest_of_the_Achaemenid_Persian_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Achaemenid_Persian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Strategy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_Minor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_Minor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Asia Minor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_Minor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Levant_and_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Levant_and_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 The Levant and Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Levant_and_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assyria_and_Babylonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assyria_and_Babylonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Assyria and Babylonia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assyria_and_Babylonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Persia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Persian_Empire_and_the_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Persian_Empire_and_the_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Fall of the Persian Empire and the East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Persian_Empire_and_the_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_and_plots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_and_plots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Problems and plots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_and_plots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macedon_in_Alexander's_absence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macedon_in_Alexander's_absence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Macedon in Alexander's absence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macedon_in_Alexander's_absence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Coinage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Indian campaign </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_campaign-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Indian campaign subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forays_into_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forays_into_the_Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Forays into the Indian subcontinent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forays_into_the_Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Hellenic_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_of_the_Hellenic_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Revolt of the Hellenic army </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Hellenic_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_years_in_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_years_in_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Last years in Persia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_years_in_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Death and succession </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death_and_succession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Death and succession subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Death_and_succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-death_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-death_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Post-death events </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-death_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Division_of_the_Macedonian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division_of_the_Macedonian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Division of the Macedonian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division_of_the_Macedonian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Last plans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Character </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Character-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Character subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Character-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Generalship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generalship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Generalship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generalship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_appearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_appearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Physical appearance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_appearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Personality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Personal relationships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Sexuality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Battle record </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Hellenistic kingdoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Founding_of_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_of_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Founding of cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_of_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funding_of_temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_of_temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Funding of temples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding_of_temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Hellenization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hellenization_in_South_and_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenization_in_South_and_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4.1 Hellenization in South and Central Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenization_in_South_and_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Influence on Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 In legend </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_ancient_and_modern_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_ancient_and_modern_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.8 In ancient and modern culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_ancient_and_modern_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3.2 Secondary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Alexander the Great</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 209 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-209" aria-hidden="true" > 209 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Agung" title="Alexander Agung – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Alexander Agung" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%85%D1%83%D1%8D" title="Эскиндарышхуэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Эскиндарышхуэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_die_Grote" title="Alexander die Grote – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alexander die Grote" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_der_Grosse" title="Alexander der Grosse – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Alexander der Grosse" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B3%E1%88%8B%E1%89%81_%E1%8A%A5%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%AD" title="ታላቁ እስክንድር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ታላቁ እስክንድር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Styeres" title="Aleksander Styeres – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Aleksander Styeres" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सिकन्दर महान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सिकन्दर महान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_M%C3%A6cedonia_Cyning" title="Alexander Mæcedonia Cyning – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Alexander Mæcedonia Cyning" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D2%9B%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Алеқсандр Македонски – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Алеқсандр Македонски" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="الإسكندر الأكبر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإسكندر الأكبر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleixandre_lo_Gran" title="Aleixandre lo Gran – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Aleixandre lo Gran" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%90%DC%A0%DC%9F%DC%A3%DC%A2%DC%95%DC%AA%DC%98%DC%A3_%DC%AA%DC%92%DC%90" title="ܐܠܟܣܢܕܪܘܣ ܪܒܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܐܠܟܣܢܕܪܘܣ ܪܒܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D6%80" title="Մեծն Աղեքսանտր – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մեծն Աղեքսանտր" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandru_Machedon" title="Alexandru Machedon – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Alexandru Machedon" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandru_Magnu" title="Alexandru Magnu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alexandru Magnu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अलेक्जेन्डर महान – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर महान" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleh%C3%A1ndoro_pe_Tuich%C3%A1va" title="Alehándoro pe Tuicháva – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Alehándoro pe Tuicháva" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B2" title="Александр Македонияв – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Александр Македонияв" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedoniyal%C4%B1_%C4%B0sg%C9%99nd%C9%99r" title="Makedoniyalı İsgəndər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Makedoniyalı İsgəndər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="بؤیوک ایسکندر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیوک ایسکندر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C3%A9ksander_Agung" title="Aléksander Agung – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Aléksander Agung" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="মহান আলেকজান্ডার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহান আলেকজান্ডার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandros_T%C4%81i-%C3%B4ng" title="Alexandros Tāi-ông – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Alexandros Tāi-ông" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%97%D3%A9%D0%BB%D2%A1%D3%99%D1%80%D0%BD%D3%99%D0%B9" title="Искәндәр Зөлҡәрнәй – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Искәндәр Зөлҡәрнәй" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Аляксандр Македонскі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аляксандр Македонскі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Аляксандар Македонскі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аляксандар Македонскі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0" title="सिकंदर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सिकंदर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Magno" title="Alejandro Magno – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Alejandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80_III_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Александър III Македонски – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Александър III Македонски" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandar_Veliki" title="Aleksandar Veliki – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Aleksandar Veliki" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Veur" title="Aleksandr Veur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Aleksandr Veur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%85%D1%8D_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Ехэ Александр – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ехэ Александр" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_el_Gran" title="Alexandre el Gran – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alexandre el Gran" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%C4%95" title="Македони Александрĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Македони Александрĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_ang_Bantogan" title="Alejandro ang Bantogan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Alejandro ang Bantogan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandr_Velik%C3%BD" title="Alexandr Veliký – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alexandr Veliký" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Magno" title="Alejandro Magno – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Alejandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arekisondira_muKuru" title="Arekisondira muKuru – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Arekisondira muKuru" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisandru_Magnu" title="Lisandru Magnu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lisandru Magnu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alecsander_Fawr" title="Alecsander Fawr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Alecsander Fawr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_den_Store" title="Alexander den Store – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alexander den Store" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="أليكساندر لكبير – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="أليكساندر لكبير" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe" title="Alexander der Große – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alexander der Große" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Suur" title="Aleksander Suur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aleksander Suur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%9C%CE%AD%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Magno" title="Alejandro Magno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alejandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandro_la_Granda" title="Aleksandro la Granda – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aleksandro la Granda" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandru%27l_Grandi" title="Alexandru'l Grandi – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Alexandru'l Grandi" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandro_Handia" title="Alexandro Handia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alexandro Handia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="اسکندر مقدونی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسکندر مقدونی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Alexander the Great" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandur_Mikli" title="Aleksandur Mikli – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Aleksandur Mikli" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_le_Grand" title="Alexandre le Grand – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alexandre le Grand" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_de_Grutte" title="Aleksander de Grutte – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aleksander de Grutte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastar_M%C3%B3r" title="Alastar Mór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Alastar Mór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandri_Makidon" title="Aleksandri Makidon – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Aleksandri Makidon" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair_Uaibhreach" title="Alasdair Uaibhreach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Alasdair Uaibhreach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_o_Grande" title="Alexandre o Grande – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alexandre o Grande" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E6%AD%B7%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D" title="亞歷山大大帝 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="亞歷山大大帝" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%B0" title="સિકંદર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સિકંદર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%83_%E2%80%A2%F0%90%8C%B3%E2%80%A2_%F0%90%8C%BC%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌹𐌺𐍃𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌿𐍃 •𐌳• 𐌼𐌰𐌺𐌰𐌹𐌳𐍉𐌽𐌾𐍉𐍃 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌹𐌺𐍃𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌿𐍃 •𐌳• 𐌼𐌰𐌺𐌰𐌹𐌳𐍉𐌽𐌾𐍉𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%E1%BA%B9kzanda_De_Yin_Daho-gb%C3%B3" title="Alẹkzanda De Yin Daho-gbó – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Alẹkzanda De Yin Daho-gbó" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandros_Thai-ti" title="Alexandros Thai-ti – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Alexandros Thai-ti" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A0%89%EC%82%B0%EB%93%9C%EB%A1%9C%EC%8A%A4_%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95" title="알렉산드로스 대왕 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알렉산드로스 대왕" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alakszandira" title="Alakszandira – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Alakszandira" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D6%80_%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB" title="Ալեքսանդր Մակեդոնացի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալեքսանդր Մակեդոնացի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0" title="सिकंदर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सिकंदर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Wulki" title="Aleksander Wulki – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Aleksander Wulki" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandar_Veliki" title="Aleksandar Veliki – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Aleksandar Veliki" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandros_la_Granda" title="Alexandros la Granda – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Alexandros la Granda" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alehandro_ti_Natan-%C3%B3k" title="Alehandro ti Natan-ók – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Alehandro ti Natan-ók" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Agung" title="Aleksander Agung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aleksander Agung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandro_Magne" title="Alexandro Magne – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alexandro Magne" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandros_li_Grand" title="Alexandros li Grand – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Alexandros li Grand" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Александр Македойнаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Александр Македойнаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Makedon" title="Alexander Makedon – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Alexander Makedon" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_mikli" title="Alexander mikli – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alexander mikli" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Magno" title="Alessandro Magno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alessandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C" title="אלכסנדר הגדול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלכסנדר הגדול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Agung" title="Alexander Agung – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alexander Agung" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_S%C9%94s%C9%94" title="Alexandre Sɔsɔ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Alexandre Sɔsɔ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდრე მაკედონელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალექსანდრე მაკედონელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%97%D2%B1%D0%BB%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Ескендір Зұлқарнайын – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ескендір Зұлқарнайын" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Veur" title="Aleksander Veur – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Aleksander Veur" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Mashuhuri" title="Aleksander Mashuhuri – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Aleksander Mashuhuri" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_le_Grand" title="Alexandre le Grand – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Alexandre le Grand" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksann_Gran-an" title="Aleksann Gran-an – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Aleksann Gran-an" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Eskender%C3%AA_Mezin" title="Îskenderê Mezin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Îskenderê Mezin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Александр Македонский – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Александр Македонский" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_le_Gran" title="Alexander le Gran – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Alexander le Gran" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandro_Magno" title="Aleksandro Magno – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Aleksandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B5_%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B5%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B4%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%87%E0%BB%83%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%8D%E0%BB%88" title="ອາເລັກຊານເດີ ທີ່ຍິ່ງໃຫຍ່ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອາເລັກຊານເດີ ທີ່ຍິ່ງໃຫຍ່" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Magnus" title="Alexander Magnus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alexander Magnus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandrs_Lielais" title="Aleksandrs Lielais – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aleksandrs Lielais" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%B2" title="Искандер Македонжув – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Искандер Македонжув" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandras_Makedonietis" title="Aleksandras Makedonietis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aleksandras Makedonietis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusciandro_Magno" title="Lusciandro Magno – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lusciandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_de_Groete" title="Alexander de Groete – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Alexander de Groete" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandro_la_Grande" title="Alexandro la Grande – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Alexandro la Grande" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksanderi_Suuri" title="Aleksanderi Suuri – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Aleksanderi Suuri" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissander_III_de_Maced%C3%B2nia" title="Lissander III de Macedònia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lissander III de Macedònia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/III._Alexandrosz_maked%C3%B3n_kir%C3%A1ly" title="III. Alexandrosz makedón király – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="III. Alexandrosz makedón király" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अलेक्जेन्डर महान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर महान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_III_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Александар III Македонски – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Александар III Македонски" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandra_Lehibe" title="Aleksandra Lehibe – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Aleksandra Lehibe" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ചക്രവർത്തി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ചക്രവർത്തി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandru_Manju" title="Alessandru Manju – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Alessandru Manju" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अलेक्झांडर द ग्रेट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდრე მაკედონარი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ალექსანდრე მაკედონარი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="اسكندر الاكبر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اسكندر الاكبر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="سکندر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سکندر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Agung" title="Alexander Agung – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alexander Agung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_nan_Aguang" title="Aleksander nan Aguang – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Aleksander nan Aguang" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80-l%C4%ADk-s%C4%83ng-d%C3%A2i_D%C3%A2i-d%C3%A1%CC%A4" title="Ā-lĭk-săng-dâi Dâi-dá̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ā-lĭk-săng-dâi Dâi-dá̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alxandre,_l_Grande" title="Alxandre, l Grande – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Alxandre, l Grande" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ине Сандор – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Ине Сандор" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Македоны Александр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Македоны Александр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="မဟာအလက်ဇန္ဒား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဟာအလက်ဇန္ဒား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_de_Grote" title="Alexander de Grote – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alexander de Grote" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_den_Grouten" title="Aleksander den Grouten – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Aleksander den Grouten" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सिकन्दर महान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सिकन्दर महान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0" title="अलेक्जेन्दर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अलेक्जेन्दर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B93%E4%B8%96" title="アレクサンドロス3世 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アレクサンドロス3世" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Magno" title="Alessandro Magno – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Alessandro Magno" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Македонийн Искандар – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Македонийн Искандар" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_di_Grat" title="Alexander di Grat – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Alexander di Grat" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_den_store" title="Aleksander den store – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aleksander den store" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_den_store" title="Aleksander den store – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aleksander den store" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_lo_Grand" title="Alexandre lo Grand – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alexandre lo Grand" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%B0" title="ଆଲେକଜ୍ୟାଣ୍ଡର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଲେକଜ୍ୟାଣ୍ଡର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr" title="Aleksandr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aleksandr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸਿਕੰਦਰ ਮਹਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿਕੰਦਰ ਮਹਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="سکندر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سکندر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="مقدوني سکندر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مقدوني سکندر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aligzanda_di_Griet" title="Aligzanda di Griet – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aligzanda di Griet" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%A1%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%BA_%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B9_%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%8F" title="អេឡិចសាន់ដឺ ដឹ ហ្គារ៉ែត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អេឡិចសាន់ដឺ ដឹ ហ្គារ៉ែត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liss%C3%A0nder_III_%C3%ABd_Maced%C3%B2nia" title="Lissànder III ëd Macedònia – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lissànder III ëd Macedònia" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Makedon" title="Alexander Makedon – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Alexander Makedon" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_de_Grote" title="Alexander de Grote – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Alexander de Grote" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Macedo%C5%84ski" title="Aleksander Macedoński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aleksander Macedoński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre,_o_Grande" title="Alexandre, o Grande – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alexandre, o Grande" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskender_Zulqarnay%C4%B1n" title="Iskender Zulqarnayın – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Iskender Zulqarnayın" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskender_Z%C3%BClqarneyn" title="Eskender Zülqarneyn – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Eskender Zülqarneyn" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandru_cel_Mare" title="Alexandru cel Mare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alexandru cel Mare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandro_o_Baro" title="Aleksandro o Baro – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Aleksandro o Baro" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatun_kaq_Aliksanru" title="Hatun kaq Aliksanru – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hatun kaq Aliksanru" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Александер Великый – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Александер Великый" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Александр Македонский – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Александр Македонский" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Улуу Александр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Улуу Александр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya-li-san-ta-_hunti" title="Ya-li-san-ta- hunti – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ya-li-san-ta- hunti" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सिकन्दर महान – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सिकन्दर महान" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱢᱟᱦᱟᱸᱱ ᱟᱞᱮᱠᱡᱟᱱᱰᱟᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱦᱟᱸᱱ ᱟᱞᱮᱠᱡᱟᱱᱰᱟᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%90_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="سکندرِ اعظم – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سکندرِ اعظم" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisandru_Mannu" title="Lisandru Mannu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Lisandru Mannu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Alexander the Great" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_die_Groote" title="Alexander die Groote – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Alexander die Groote" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandri_i_Madh" title="Aleksandri i Madh – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Aleksandri i Madh" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissandru_lu_Granni" title="Lissandru lu Granni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lissandru lu Granni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%27_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%A2" title="මහා ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ' රජ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මහා ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ' රජ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alexander the Great" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="سڪندر اعظم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سڪندر اعظم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ve%C4%BEk%C3%BD" title="Alexander Veľký – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alexander Veľký" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Veliki" title="Aleksander Veliki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aleksander Veliki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%94%D1%AF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8A_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%94%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Алєѯандръ Макєдоньскъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Алєѯандръ Макєдоньскъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maced%C5%AF%C5%84ski_Aleksander" title="Macedůński Aleksander – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Macedůński Aleksander" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_ee_Samaroon_/_Halqooq_(majiidka)_ah" title="Aleksander ee Samaroon / Halqooq (majiidka) ah – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Aleksander ee Samaroon / Halqooq (majiidka) ah" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B2%D9%86" title="ئەسکەندەری مەزن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەسکەندەری مەزن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Александар Велики – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Александар Велики" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandar_Veliki" title="Aleksandar Veliki – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aleksandar Veliki" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksanteri_Suuri" title="Aleksanteri Suuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aleksanteri Suuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_den_store" title="Alexander den store – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alexander den store" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandrong_Dakila" title="Alejandrong Dakila – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Alejandrong Dakila" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="பேரரசர் அலெக்சாந்தர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பேரரசர் அலெக்சாந்தர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliksandr_Ameqqran" title="Aliksandr Ameqqran – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aliksandr Ameqqran" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%97%D3%A9%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D3%99%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Искәндәр Зөлкарнәйн – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Искәндәр Зөлкарнәйн" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a 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title="Искандари Мақдунӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Искандари Мақдунӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0skender" title="İskender – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İskender" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Gretik" title="Alexander Gretik – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Alexander Gretik" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandri_Suur" title="Aleksandri Suur – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Aleksandri Suur" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E6%AD%B7%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7" title="亞歷山大 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="亞歷山大" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a 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data-title="亚历山大大帝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alikisenda_Ogwu_Ilile" title="Alikisenda Ogwu Ilile – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Alikisenda Ogwu Ilile" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskandar_Agung" title="Iskandar Agung – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Iskandar Agung" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Agung" title="Alexander Agung – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Alexander Agung" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alexander the Great (disambiguation)">Alexander the Great (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Alexander the Great</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="803" data-file-height="1074" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Alexander in the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/King_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Macedon">King of Macedon</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">October 336 – June 323 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Hegemony#8th–1st_centuries_BC" title="Hegemony">Hegemon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">Hellenic League</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">336–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data">Philip II</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">332–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Alexander IV</li> <li>Philip III</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"> </th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsible-leftside-toggle mw-collapsed" style="width:100%;margin:0;border:0;padding:0;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; background:#decd87; color:inherit; line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; display:block;margin-bottom:0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Royal titulary</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:2px solid #decd87;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#e9deaf; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary#Horus_name" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Horus name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table width="100%"> <tbody><tr><td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>mk-kmt</li><li>Mekemet</li><li>Protector of Egypt</li></ul></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:4px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G5.png?bcb90" height="38" title="G5" alt="G5" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="48px" width="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="46" style="padding:0 5px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N37.png?33374" height="12" title="N37 [S]" alt="S" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N29.png?b816c" height="16" title="N29 [q]" alt="q" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="4" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_W24.png?55bf4" height="16" title="W24 [nw]" alt="nw" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D40.png?462ae" height="12" title="D40" alt="D40" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/50px-Srxtail2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/75px-Srxtail2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/100px-Srxtail2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Second Horus name:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ḥḳꜣ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜣswt</li><li>Heqaqeni tekenkhasut</li><li>The brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands</li></ul></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:4px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G5.png?bcb90" height="38" title="G5" alt="G5" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="48px" width="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="46" style="padding:0 5px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N29.png?b816c" height="12" title="N29 [q]" alt="q" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="3" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_W24.png?55bf4" height="12" title="W24 [nw]" alt="nw" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D40.png?462ae" height="8" title="D40" alt="D40" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="8" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V31.png?70ebb" height="8" title="V31 [k]" alt="k" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="3" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D54.png?75932" height="14" title="D54" alt="D54" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/50px-Srxtail2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/75px-Srxtail2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/100px-Srxtail2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Third Horus name:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ḥḳꜣ ḥḳꜣw nw tꜣ (r) ḏr-f</li><li>Heqa heqau nu ta (er) djeref</li><li>The ruler of the rulers of the entire land</li></ul></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:4px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G5.png?bcb90" height="38" title="G5" alt="G5" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="48px" width="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="46" style="padding:0 5px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N29.png?b816c" height="17" title="N29 [q]" alt="q" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N29.png?b816c" height="17" title="N29 [q]" alt="q" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N33.png?8ff55" height="18" title="N33" alt="N33" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_W24.png?55bf4" height="17" title="W24 [nw]" alt="nw" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N33.png?8ff55" height="18" title="N33" alt="N33" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N17.png?35167" height="6" title="N17" alt="N17" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N34.png?fbc4b" height="22" title="N34" alt="N34" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_I9.png?fe540" height="12" title="I9 [f]" alt="f" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/50px-Srxtail2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/75px-Srxtail2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/100px-Srxtail2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table>Fourth Horus name:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ṯmꜣ-ꜥ</li><li>Tjema'a</li><li>The sturdy-armed one</li></ul></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:4px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G5.png?bcb90" height="38" title="G5" alt="G5" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="48px" width="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="46" style="padding:0 5px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V13.png?2da65" height="8" title="V13 [T]" alt="T" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_U1.png?22fa9" height="31" title="U1 [mA]" alt="mA" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D36.png?9d512" height="12" title="D36 [a]" alt="a" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/50px-Srxtail2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/75px-Srxtail2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg/100px-Srxtail2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table></td></tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#e9deaf; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary#Nebty_("two_ladies")_name" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Nebty name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table width="100%"> <tbody><tr><td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>mꜣj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜣw ḫꜣswt</li><li>Mai werpehty itj dju tau khasut</li><li>The lion, great of might, who takes possession of mountains, lands, and deserts</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="center"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:4px 10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:6px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G16.png?dbf15" height="38" title="G16" alt="G16" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td height="45" style="padding:0;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_E23.png?e613a" height="15" title="E23" alt="E23" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G36.png?39a4f" height="25" title="G36 [wr]" alt="wr" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_F9.png?b7aa9" height="20" title="F9" alt="F9" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_F9.png?b7aa9" height="20" title="F9" alt="F9" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V15.png?60b51" height="25" title="V15" alt="V15" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N33.png?8ff55" height="13" title="N33" alt="N33" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N17.png?35167" height="6" title="N17" alt="N17" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N17.png?35167" height="6" title="N17" alt="N17" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N33.png?8ff55" height="18" title="N33" alt="N33" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="12" title="N25" alt="N25" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N33.png?8ff55" height="13" title="N33" alt="N33" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#e9deaf; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary#Horus_of_Gold" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Golden Horus</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table width="100%"> <tbody><tr><td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>kꜣ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜣḳ(t) ḥḳꜣ wꜣḏ(-wr) šnw n jtn</li><li>Ka (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en Aten</li><li>The (strong) bull who protects Egypt, the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="center"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:4px 10px;"> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:6px;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G8.png?a8843" height="38" title="G8" alt="G8" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> <td height="45" style="padding:0;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_E1.png?4dcff" height="30" title="E1" alt="E1" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17 [i]" alt="i" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G43.png?6eb40" height="38" title="G43 [w]" alt="w" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Aa1.png?3a810" height="18" title="Aa1 [x]" alt="x" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D40.png?462ae" height="12" title="D40" alt="D40" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N29.png?b816c" height="17" title="N29 [q]" alt="q" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D58.png?12f84" height="35" title="D58 [b]" alt="b" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D10.png?8da3f" height="30" title="D10" alt="D10" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S38.png?35ff7" height="38" title="S38 [HqA]" alt="HqA" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M14.png?93fb4" height="38" title="M14" alt="M14" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35A.png?7d084" height="38" title="N35A" alt="N35A" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V9.png?10e48" height="20" title="V9" alt="V9" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z1.png?4dc06" height="16" title="Z1" alt="Z1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17 [i]" alt="i" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="7" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="3" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_HASH.png?5ba11" height="27" title="HASH" alt="HASH" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#e9deaf; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary#Throne_name_(praenomen)" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Prenomen  (Praenomen)</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table width="100%"> <tbody><tr><td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>stp.n-rꜥ mrj-jmn</li><li>Setepenre meryamun</li><li>Chosen by Ra, beloved by Amun<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="{{{align}}}" style="padding:5px;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M23.png?e2674" height="38" title="M23" alt="M23" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_L2.png?ff0ae" height="38" title="L2" alt="L2" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:5px;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/17px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/26px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/34px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="17" data-file-height="50" /></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="45" style="padding:0;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert mw-mirrored" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_C2.png?77d36" height="38" title="C2" alt="C2" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_C12.png?7f171" height="38" title="C12" alt="C12" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_U21.png?9f20b" height="22" title="U21 [stp]" alt="stp" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N36.png?d5dbf" height="9" title="N36" alt="N36" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/21px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/32px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/42px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="21" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="{{{align}}}" style="padding:5px;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M23.png?e2674" height="38" title="M23" alt="M23" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_L2.png?ff0ae" height="38" title="L2" alt="L2" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:5px;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/17px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/26px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/34px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="17" data-file-height="50" /></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="45" style="padding:0;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert mw-mirrored" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_U6.png?4f117" height="37" title="U6 [mr]" alt="mr" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert mw-mirrored" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_C12.png?7f171" height="38" title="C12" alt="C12" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_C2.png?77d36" height="38" title="C2" alt="C2" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_U21.png?9f20b" height="22" title="U21 [stp]" alt="stp" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/21px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/32px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/42px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="21" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table></li></ul></div></td></tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#e9deaf; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Nomen</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table width="100%"> <tbody><tr><td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ꜣrwksjndrs</li><li>Aluksindres</li><li>Alexandros</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="center"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="{{{align}}}" style="padding:5px;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G39.png?eb053" height="38" title="G39" alt="G39" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N5.png?08eb7" height="18" title="N5" alt="N5" /> </td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;padding:5px;"></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/17px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/26px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg/34px-Hiero_Ca1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="17" data-file-height="50" /></td> <td> <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr><tr> <td height="45" style="padding:0;"> <table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G1.png?4d556" height="38" title="G1 [A]" alt="A" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_E23.png?e613a" height="15" title="E23 [rw]" alt="rw" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V31.png?70ebb" height="11" title="V31 [k]" alt="k" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O34.png?63e15" height="6" title="O34 [z]" alt="z" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17 [i]" alt="i" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35 [n]" alt="n" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D46.png?1dee4" height="12" title="D46 [d]" alt="d" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D21.png?9bfb9" height="11" title="D21 [r]" alt="r" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O34.png?63e15" height="6" title="O34 [z]" alt="z" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr> <td height="2px" style="background-color:black; color:inherit;"></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td></td> <td style="text-align:center;text-valign:middle;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/21px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/32px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg/42px-Hiero_Ca2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="21" data-file-height="50" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/King_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Persia">King of Persia</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">330–323 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data">Darius III</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Alexander IV</li> <li>Philip III</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">20 or 21 July 356 BC <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32) <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, Macedon</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roxana" title="Roxana">Roxana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Alexander_the_Great)" title="Stateira (wife of Alexander the Great)">Stateira</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II" title="Parysatis II">Parysatis</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3, including <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heracles_of_Macedon" title="Heracles of Macedon">Heracles</a><a href="#cnote_a">[a]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ἀλέξανδρος<a href="#cnote_b">[b]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Argead" class="mw-redirect" title="Argead">Argead</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Olympias" title="Olympias">Olympias of Epirus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Alexander III of Macedon (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%88%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος">Ἀλέξανδρος</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great,<a href="#cnote_c">[c]</a> was a king of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a>.<a href="#cnote_d">[d]</a> He succeeded his father <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">military campaign</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">Western Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>. By the age of 30, he had created one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empires</a> in history, stretching from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a> to northwestern <a href="/wiki/India_(Herodotus)" title="India (Herodotus)">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010159-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">campaigned in the Balkans</a> and reasserted control over <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a> before marching on the city of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">subsequently destroyed in battle</a>. Alexander then led the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a>, and used his authority to launch the <a href="/wiki/Greek_nationalism#History" title="Greek nationalism">pan-Hellenic project</a> envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> in their conquest of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Persia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeckelTritle200999-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> In 334 BC, he invaded the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persian Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a> and began <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Persia" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">a series of campaigns</a> that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaugamela" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a>; he subsequently overthrew <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.<a href="#cnote_e">[e]</a> After the fall of Persia, the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> held a vast swath of territory between the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">invaded India</a> in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over <a href="/wiki/Porus" title="Porus">Porus</a>, an ancient Indian king of present-day <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a>. Due to the mutiny of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the <a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas River</a> and later died in 323 BC in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Alexander's death</a> left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. In the years following his death, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">a series of civil wars</a> broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>. With his death marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, Alexander's legacy includes the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diffusion" title="Cultural diffusion">cultural diffusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> that his conquests engendered, such as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>. <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_Alexander_the_Great" title="List of cities founded by Alexander the Great">He founded more than twenty cities</a>, with the most prominent being the city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonists</a> and the resulting spread of <a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek culture</a> led to the overwhelming dominance of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a> and influence as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The Hellenistic period developed through the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> into modern <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the region and was the predominant language of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,<a href="#cnote_f">[f]</a> and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in <a href="/wiki/Military_academies" class="mw-redirect" title="Military academies">military academies</a> worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010viii-7">[7]</a> Legends of Alexander's exploits coalesced into the third-century <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a> which, in the premodern period, went through over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations and was translated into almost every European vernacular and every language of the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-auto-8">[8]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, it was the most popular form of European literature.<a href="#cite_note-:5-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lineage_and_childhood">Lineage and childhood</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg/260px-Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg/390px-Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg/520px-Archaeological_Site_of_Pella_by_Joy_of_Museums.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5999" data-file-height="2741" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological site of <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, Greece, Alexander's birthplace</figcaption></figure> Alexander III was born in <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Macedon">Kingdom of Macedon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> on the sixth day of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">ancient Greek month</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hekatombaion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hekatombaion">Hekatombaion</a>, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a>, and his fourth wife, <a href="/wiki/Olympias" title="Olympias">Olympias</a> (daughter of <a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_I_of_Epirus" title="Neoptolemus I of Epirus">Neoptolemus I</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a>).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cnote_g">[g]</a> Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010171-14">[14]</a><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG/155px-Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG" decoding="async" width="155" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG/233px-Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG/310px-Coin_olympias_mus_theski.JPG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Roman medallion depicting <a href="/wiki/Olympias" title="Olympias">Olympias</a>, Alexander's mother</figcaption></figure>Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-15">[15]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greek</a> biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seal</a> engraved with a lion's image.<a href="#cite_note-PA2-16">[16]</a> Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.<a href="#cite_note-PA2-16">[16]</a> On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> on the city of <a href="/wiki/Potidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Potidea">Potidea</a> on the peninsula of <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>. That same day, Philip received news that his general <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a> had defeated the combined <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paeonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paeonian">Paeonian</a> armies and that his horses had won at the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a>. It was also said that on this day, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Temple of Artemis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the World</a>, burnt down. This led <a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Magnesia" title="Hegesias of Magnesia">Hegesias of Magnesia</a> to say that it had burnt down because <a href="/wiki/Artemis" title="Artemis">Artemis</a> was away, attending the birth of Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-15">[15]</a> In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, <a href="/wiki/Lanike" title="Lanike">Lanike</a>, sister of Alexander's future general <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus the Black</a>. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_of_Epirus" title="Leonidas of Epirus">Leonidas</a>, a relative of his mother, and by <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus_of_Acarnania" title="Lysimachus of Acarnania">Lysimachus of Acarnania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200133–34-18">[18]</a> Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the <a href="/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyre</a>, ride, fight, and hunt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent" title="Attic talent">talents</a>. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-15">[15]</a> Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.<a href="#cite_note-PA6-20">[20]</a> Alexander named it <a href="/wiki/Bucephalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bucephalas">Bucephalas</a>, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age 30), Alexander named a city after him, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Bucephalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria Bucephalous">Bucephala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#66023C;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/75px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/113px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/150px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="5000" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#66023C;color: #ffffff;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander the Great</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle#Life" title="Aristotle">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_relationships_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Personal relationships of Alexander the Great">Personal relationships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Early rule</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Consolidation_of_power">Consolidation of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Balkan campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium" title="Siege of Pelium">Pelium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">Thebes</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Conquest of the Persian Empire</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Asia_Minor" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Asia Minor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Granicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Syria" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Tyre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Egypt" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Gaza</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Mesopotamia" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Mesopotamia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia (region)">Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Persian Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis#Destruction" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdian Rock">Sogdian Rock</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Expedition into India</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaigns</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign">Cophen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aornos" title="Aornos">Aornos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mallian_campaign" title="Mallian campaign">Mallian</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Death and legacy</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Tomb of Alexander the Great">Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_Alexander_the_Great" title="List of cities founded by Alexander the Great">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great">Cult</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Cultural impact</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_legend" title="Alexander the Great in legend">Legends</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Historiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Anabasis_of_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="The Anabasis of Alexander">Anabasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia" title="Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia">Chronology</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great">Cultural depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Alexander" title="Horns of Alexander">Horns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_Alexander_the_Great_in_the_Quran" title="Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran">Islamic world</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/40px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/60px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/80px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alexander_the_Great_series" title="Template:Alexander the Great series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alexander_the_Great_series" title="Template talk:Alexander the Great series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander_the_Great_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander the Great series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutor</a>, and considered such academics as <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a>, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a> to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a> as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of <a href="/wiki/Stageira" class="mw-redirect" title="Stageira">Stageira</a>, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hephaistion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephaistion">Hephaistion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a>. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, and in particular the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Alexander was able to quote <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> from memory.<a href="#cite_note-RLF-24">[24]</a> In his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-EDC-27">[27]</a> Among them were <a href="/wiki/Artabazos_II" title="Artabazos II">Artabazos II</a> and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Barsine" title="Barsine">Barsine</a>, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as <a href="/wiki/Amminapes" title="Amminapes">Amminapes</a>, future <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of Alexander, and a Persian nobleman named <a href="/wiki/Sisines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sisines">Sisines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-JM-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-EJ-30">[30]</a> This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.<a href="#cite_note-JM-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> writes that <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Lampsacus" title="Anaximenes of Lampsacus">Anaximenes of Lampsacus</a> was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heir_of_Philip_II">Heir of Philip II</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regency_and_ascent_of_Macedon">Regency and ascent of Macedon</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/170px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/255px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/340px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, Alexander's father</figcaption></figure> At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> to the north, which left Alexander in charge as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-15">[15]</a> During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of <a href="/wiki/Maedi" title="Maedi">Maedi</a> revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named <a href="/wiki/Alexandropolis_Maedica" title="Alexandropolis Maedica">Alexandropolis</a>, was founded.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. Campaigning against the Greek city of <a href="/wiki/Perinthus" title="Perinthus">Perinthus</a>, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of <a href="/wiki/Amphissa_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphissa (city)">Amphissa</a> began to work lands that were sacred to <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> near <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a>, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200147–49-33">[33]</a> Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae" title="Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of <a href="/wiki/Elatea" class="mw-redirect" title="Elatea">Elatea</a>, only a few days' march from both <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>. The Athenians, led by <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a>), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Chaeronea,_338_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png/220px-Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png/330px-Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png/440px-Battle_of_Chaeronea%2C_338_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Battle plan from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a></figcaption></figure> As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near <a href="/wiki/Chaeronea" title="Chaeronea">Chaeronea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a>. During the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a>, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian <a href="/wiki/Hoplites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoplites">hoplites</a> to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.<a href="#cite_note-DiodXVI-36">[36]</a> After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, devastating much of Laconia and ejecting the Spartans from various parts of it.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a>, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Hellenic_alliance" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">anti-Persian alliance</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named <a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">Hegemon</a> (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a>), and announced his plans to attack the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200154-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200426-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exile_and_return">Exile and return</h3></div> When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice" title="Cleopatra Eurydice">Cleopatra Eurydice</a> in 338 BC,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> the niece of his general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)" title="Attalus (general)">Attalus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179-41">[41]</a> The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200427-42">[42]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">wedding banquet</a>, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010179-41">[41]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor, at which Alexander reproachfully insulted him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.<a href="#cite_note-PA9-43">[43]</a></cite></div></blockquote> In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus" title="Alexander I of Epirus">Alexander I of Epirus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Molossians" title="Molossians">Molossians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> He continued to Illyria<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with <a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Taulantii" title="Glaucias of Taulantii">Glaucias</a>, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, <a href="/wiki/Demaratus_(hetairos)" title="Demaratus (hetairos)">Demaratus</a>, who mediated between the two parties.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In the following year, the Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> (governor) of <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pixodarus" title="Pixodarus">Pixodarus</a>, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Arrhidaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Arrhidaeus">Philip Arrhidaeus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> Alexander reacted by sending an actor, <a href="/wiki/Thessalus_(actor)" title="Thessalus (actor)">Thessalus</a> of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010180-44">[44]</a> Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, <a href="/wiki/Harpalus" title="Harpalus">Harpalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erigyius" title="Erigyius">Erigyius</a>, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="King_of_Macedon">King of Macedon</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accession">Accession</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/220px-Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/330px-Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/440px-Pausanius_assassinates_Philip_during_the_procession_into_the_theatre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1638" data-file-height="2670" /></a><figcaption>Pausanias assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre</figcaption></figure> In the 24th day of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_calendar" title="Ancient Macedonian calendar">Macedonian month</a> Dios, which probably corresponds to 25 October 336 BC,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> while at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Aegae</a> attending the wedding of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon" title="Cleopatra of Macedon">Cleopatra</a> to Olympias's brother, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus" title="Alexander I of Epirus">Alexander I of Epirus</a>, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his <a href="/wiki/Somatophylax" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatophylax">bodyguards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Orestis" title="Pausanias of Orestis">Pausanias</a>.<a href="#cnote_h">[h]</a> As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a>. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">army</a> at the age of 20.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox_1980_72-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consolidation_of_power">Consolidation of power</h3></div> Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_IV" title="Amyntas IV">Amyntas IV</a>, executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-53">[53]</a> He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of <a href="/wiki/Lyncestis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyncestis">Lyncestis</a> killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lyncestes" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Lyncestes">Alexander Lyncestes</a>. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-53">[53]</a> who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.<a href="#cite_note-Green_2007_5–6-54">[54]</a> Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to be left alive.<a href="#cite_note-Green_2007_5–6-54">[54]</a> Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200430–31-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox_1980_72-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between <a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ossa_(Greece)" title="Mount Ossa (Greece)">Mount Ossa</a>, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Alexander stopped at Thermopylae where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_and_Alexander" title="Diogenes and Alexander">encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic</a> occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman200421-57">[57]</a> This reply apparently delighted Alexander who is reported to have said, "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon2004187–88-58">[58]</a> At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkan_campaign">Balkan campaign</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Alexander's Balkan campaign</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg/220px-The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg/330px-The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg/440px-The_Macedonian_phalanx_counter-attacks_during_the_battle_of_the_carts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2309" data-file-height="1601" /></a><figcaption>The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC</figcaption></figure> Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians", and at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Haemus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Haemus">Mount Haemus</a>, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.<a href="#cite_note-I,_1-60">[60]</a> The Macedonians marched into the country of the <a href="/wiki/Triballi" title="Triballi">Triballi</a> and defeated their army near the <a href="/wiki/Lyginus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyginus">Lyginus</a> river<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> (a <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_the_Danube" title="List of tributaries of the Danube">tributary of the Danube</a>). Alexander then marched for three days to the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, encountering the <a href="/wiki/Getae" title="Getae">Getae</a> tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry <a href="/wiki/Skirmish" class="mw-redirect" title="Skirmish">skirmish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_(son_of_Bardylis)" title="Cleitus (son of Bardylis)">Cleitus</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Glaukias" class="mw-redirect" title="King Glaukias">King Glaukias</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Taulantii" title="Taulantii">Taulantii</a> were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destruction_of_Thebes">Destruction of Thebes</h3></div> While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-64">[64]</a> While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective and Alexander <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">razed the city</a> and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-64">[64]</a> Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> as regent.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conquest_of_the_Achaemenid_Persian_Empire">Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia" title="Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia">Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategy">Strategy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_of_Alexander_the_Great#Grand_strategy" title="Military tactics of Alexander the Great">Military tactics of Alexander the Great § Grand strategy</a></div> Alexander's invasion of Persia as a whole has been denoted as a supreme example of a "strategic line" of conducting war, a line formed by "the chain of logic that connects operations into a single whole." In his book Strategy, Soviet military officer and theorist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Svechin" title="Alexander Svechin">Alexander Svechin</a> delineates Alexander's strategic steps. After securing his Greek base and the Balkans by subjugating his political opponents, and securing his army's rear through the conquest of all the Afro-Asian coastline, where the Persian fleet was based and from which it was supplied, Alexander, moved to confront directly the Persians. He thus resolved the eternal problem of an army conducting operations deep into enemy territory, Svechin states, in an "exemplary manner."<a href="#cite_note-svechin-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_Minor">Asia Minor</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/350px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/525px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/700px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951" /></a><figcaption>Map of Alexander's empire and his route</figcaption></figure> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campaigns_ofAlexander_the_Great2308" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Template:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Template talk:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_ofAlexander_the_Great2308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Balkans</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign#Thrace" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Mount Haemus</a> (335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium" title="Siege of Pelium">Pelium</a> (335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">Thebes</a> (335 BC)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Persia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Granicus</a> (334 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Miletus</a> (334 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a> (334 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> (333 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Tyre</a> (332 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Gaza</a> (332 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a> (331 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Uxian_Defile" title="Battle of the Uxian Defile">Uxian Defile</a> (331 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Persian Gate</a> (330 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a> (329 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes" title="Battle of Jaxartes">Jaxartes</a> (329 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spitamenes" title="Spitamenes">Gabai</a> (328 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdian Rock">Sogdian Rock</a> (327 BC)</li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian subcontinent</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign">Cophen</a> (327 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aornos" title="Aornos">Aornos</a> (326 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a> (326 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mallian_campaign" title="Mallian campaign">Mallian campaign</a> (326 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; width: 352px;"><div class="thumbinner noresize" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; outline:0px; border:0px; padding:0px; height: 160px; width: 352px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container floatright" style="width: 352px; height: 160px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 116px; left: 290.5px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/52px-Mapscaleline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/78px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/104px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="18" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 115.875px; left: 336px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> 1200km 820miles</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 89.793962118532px; left: 149.18658521683px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 79.793962118532px; left: 165.68658521683px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Babylon</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 89.793962118532px; left: 155.68658521683px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">15</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 89.793962118532px; left: 149.18658521683px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great"><img alt="Death of Alexander the Great 10 or 11 June 323 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 307.38155844441px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 100.05545825594px; left: 305.88155844441px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Malavas</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 313.88155844441px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">14</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 307.38155844441px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Mallian_campaign" title="Mallian campaign"><img alt="Mallian campaign November 326 – February 325 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 87.838875080309px; left: 314.98490364258px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 85.838875080309px; left: 313.48490364258px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Hydaspes</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 87.838875080309px; left: 321.48490364258px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">13</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 87.838875080309px; left: 314.98490364258px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes"><img alt="Battle of the Hydaspes May 326 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 71.612932617751px; left: 308.40290332178px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 69.612932617751px; left: 306.90290332178px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Cophen</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 71.612932617751px; left: 314.90290332178px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">12</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 71.612932617751px; left: 308.40290332178px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign"><img alt="Cophen campaign May 327 BC – March 326 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 35.136535557589px; left: 292.23160943015px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 33.136535557589px; left: 290.73160943015px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Cyropolis</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 35.136535557589px; left: 298.73160943015px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">11</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 35.136535557589px; left: 292.23160943015px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis"><img alt="Siege of Cyropolis 329 BC Battle of Jaxartes October 329 BC Siege of the Sogdian Rock 327 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 101.98946514933px; left: 189.92689754732px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 112.98946514933px; left: 196.42689754732px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Persian Gate</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 101.98946514933px; left: 196.42689754732px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">10</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 101.98946514933px; left: 189.92689754732px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate"><img alt="Battle of the Persian Gate 20 January 330 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 92.145163187527px; left: 170.9185345519px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 82.145163187527px; left: 187.4185345519px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Uxians</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 92.145163187527px; left: 177.4185345519px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">9</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 92.145163187527px; left: 170.9185345519px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Uxian_Defile" title="Battle of the Uxian Defile"><img alt="Battle of the Uxian Defile December 331 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 62.088422623611px; left: 143.62592977339px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 57.088422623611px; left: 160.12592977339px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Gaugamela</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 62.088422623611px; left: 150.12592977339px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">8</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 62.088422623611px; left: 143.62592977339px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela"><img alt="Battle of Gaugamela 1 October 331 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 98.74735397718px; left: 66.911581206793px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 109.74735397718px; left: 73.411581206793px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Alexandria</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 98.74735397718px; left: 73.411581206793px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">7</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 98.74735397718px; left: 66.911581206793px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria"><img alt="Foundation of Alexandria 331 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 92.615427287171px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 109.11542728717px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Gaza</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 99.115427287171px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">6</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 92.615427287171px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)"><img alt="Siege of Gaza October 332 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 84.860293419279px; left: 96.87103094286px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 82.860293419279px; left: 95.37103094286px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Tyre</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 84.860293419279px; left: 103.37103094286px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">5</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 84.860293419279px; left: 96.87103094286px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)"><img alt="Siege of Tyre (332 BC) January–July 332 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 102.48842776838px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 98.98842776838px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Issus</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 108.98842776838px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">4</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 102.48842776838px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus"><img alt="Battle of Issus 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 55.192516082837px; left: 51.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 45.192516082837px; left: 68.431856338758px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Miletus</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 55.192516082837px; left: 58.431856338758px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">3</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 55.192516082837px; left: 51.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus"><img alt="Siege of Miletus 334 BC Siege of Halicarnassus 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 34.838941530532px; left: 51.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 24.838941530532px; left: 68.431856338758px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Granicus</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 34.838941530532px; left: 58.431856338758px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">2</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 34.838941530532px; left: 51.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus"><img alt="Battle of the Granicus May, 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 31.628593740613px; left: 24.922958470635px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 29.628593740613px; left: 41.422958470635px; width: fit-content; height: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) translateY(-100%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Pella</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 31.628593740613px; left: 31.422958470635px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">1</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute;top: 9px;left: 316px"><div style="color: white; opacity:100; font-size: 19px; font-weight:normal; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-kartographer-maplink no-icon" data-mw-kartographer="maplink" data-style="osm-intl" href="/wiki/Special:Map/4/35/48/en" data-zoom="4" data-lat="35" data-lon="48" data-overlays="["_1e25135e3112ca8daadd80532e015b939f0f3ea8"]"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style> </a></div></div></div></div></div> After his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">480</a> and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_(son_of_Andromenes)" title="Amyntas (son of Andromenes)">Amyntas</a>, Andromenes, Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> to make preparations for an invasion.<a href="#cite_note-PB-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-WH-68">[68]</a> The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_on_the_Meander" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesia on the Meander">Magnesia</a> by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes" title="Memnon of Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PB-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-WH-68">[68]</a> Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry, and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-64">[64]</a> drawn from Macedon and various Greek city states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paionia">Paionia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cnote_i">[i]</a> He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010192-64">[64]</a> After an initial victory against Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a>, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>; he then proceeded along the <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionian</a> coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a>, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes" title="Memnon of Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a> and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of Caria, <a href="/wiki/Orontobates" title="Orontobates">Orontobates</a>, to withdraw by sea.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria" title="Ada of Caria">Ada</a>, who adopted Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg/220px-Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg/330px-Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg/440px-Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1601" /></a><figcaption>Alexander Cuts the <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot" title="Gordian Knot">Gordian Knot</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Simon_Berth%C3%A9lemy" title="Jean-Simon Berthélemy">Jean-Simon Berthélemy</a> (1767)</figcaption></figure> From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylian</a> plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards, the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At <a href="/wiki/Termessos" title="Termessos">Termessos</a>, Alexander humbled and did not storm the <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidian</a> city.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> At the ancient Phrygian capital of <a href="/wiki/Gordium" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordium">Gordium</a>, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot" title="Gordian Knot">Gordian Knot</a>, a feat said to await the future "king of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia</a>".<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and hacked it apart with his sword.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Levant_and_Syria">The Levant and Syria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a></div> In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus</a> into <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at <a href="/wiki/Issus_(Cilicia)" title="Issus (Cilicia)">Issus</a>. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, and a fabulous treasure.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> He offered a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent" title="Attic talent">talents</a> for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Alexander proceeded to take possession of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Syria</a>, and most of the coast of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Arrian_1976_loc=I,_23-71">[71]</a> In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, which he captured after a long and difficult <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">siege</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg/220px-Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg/330px-Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg/440px-Name_of_Alexander_the_Great_in_Hieroglyphs_circa_330_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2965" data-file-height="1964" /></a><figcaption>Name of Alexander in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> (written from right to left), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 332 BC, Egypt. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword, and the women and children were sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner – nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but in early 331 BC he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC where he was regarded as a liberator.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libyan</a> desert,<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> at which he was pronounced the son of the deity <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198871–74-84">[84]</a> Henceforth, Alexander often referred to <a href="/wiki/Zeus-Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeus-Ammon">Zeus-Ammon</a> as his true father, and after his death, <a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Alexander" title="Horns of Alexander">currency depicted him adorned with horns</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Ammon" title="Horns of Ammon">Horns of Ammon</a> as a symbol of his divinity.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The Greeks interpreted this message – one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs – as a prophecy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> During his stay in Egypt, he founded <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, which would become the prosperous capital of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> after his death.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 BC) after the death of Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911616-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assyria_and_Babylonia">Assyria and Babylonia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/220px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/330px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/440px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4018" data-file-height="2661" /></a><figcaption>Entry of Alexander into Babylon by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Le_Brun" title="Charles Le Brun">Charles Le Brun</a> (1665)</figcaption></figure> Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a> (now northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) and defeated Darius again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a>. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Darius fled over the mountains to <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>) while Alexander captured <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AIII16-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a> say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persia">Persia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2persian_gate_wall.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/2persian_gate_wall.JPG/220px-2persian_gate_wall.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/2persian_gate_wall.JPG/330px-2persian_gate_wall.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/2persian_gate_wall.JPG/440px-2persian_gate_wall.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Site of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gates" title="Persian Gates">Persian Gate</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>; the road was built in the 1990s.</figcaption></figure> From Babylon, Alexander went to <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> capitals, and captured its treasury.<a href="#cite_note-AIII16-90">[90]</a> He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> via the Persian <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a>. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gates" title="Persian Gates">Persian Gates</a> (in the modern <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>) which had been blocked by a Persian army under <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_(satrap_of_Persis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariobarzanes (satrap of Persis)">Ariobarzanes</a> and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121-94">[94]</a> During his stay, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens" title="Acropolis of Athens">Acropolis of Athens</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Second Persian War</a> by Xerxes;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond198372–73-95">[95]</a> Plutarch and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> allege that Alexander's companion, the <a href="/wiki/Hetaera" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetaera">hetaera</a> <a href="/wiki/Tha%C3%AFs" title="Thaïs">Thaïs</a>, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-96">[96]</a> but the flames had already spread to most of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius</a> claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-96">[96]</a> Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Persian_Empire_and_the_East">Fall of the Persian Empire and the East</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_manuscript_Bactria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4150" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Administrative document from <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, <a href="/wiki/Khalili_Collection_of_Aramaic_Documents" title="Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents">Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></figcaption></figure> Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_19–20-101">[101]</a> The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrian</a> satrap and kinsman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21-102">[102]</a> As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> campaign against Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_21,_25-103">[103]</a> Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_22-104">[104]</a> He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel200481-105">[105]</a> The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the <a href="/wiki/Iranologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranologist">Iranologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Pierre Briant</a> "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the Achaemenids."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> in Afghanistan, and <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Eschate" title="Alexandria Eschate">Alexandria Eschate</a> ("The Furthest") in modern <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>. The campaign took Alexander through <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> (West Afghanistan), <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> (South and Central Afghanistan), <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> (North and Central Afghanistan), and <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_23–25,_27–30;_IV,_1–7-108">[108]</a> In 329 BC, <a href="/wiki/Spitamenes" title="Spitamenes">Spitamenes</a>, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a>, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976III,_30-109">[109]</a> However, at some point later when Alexander was on the <a href="/wiki/Jaxartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxartes">Jaxartes</a> dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes" title="Battle of Jaxartes">Battle of Jaxartes</a> and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1976IV,_5–6,_16–17-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_and_plots">Problems and plots</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899)_reduced.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg/220px-The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg/330px-The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg/440px-The_killing_of_Cleitus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29_reduced.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="2386" /></a><figcaption>The Killing of <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Castaigne" title="André Castaigne">André Castaigne</a> (1898–1899)</figcaption></figure> During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of <a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">proskynesis</a>, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.<a href="#cite_note-AVII11-111">[111]</a> This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of <a href="/wiki/Deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deities">deities</a> and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a> During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a> and to a major degree, <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a> noblemen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Pierre Briant</a> explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, <a href="/wiki/Philotas" title="Philotas">Philotas</a>, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a>, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus the Black</a>, during a violent drunken altercation at <a href="/wiki/Maracanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Maracanda">Maracanda</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and especially of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel200499-113">[113]</a> Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed. This one was instigated by his own royal <a href="/wiki/Page_(servant)" title="Page (servant)">pages</a>. His official historian, <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Olynthus" title="Olynthus">Olynthus</a>, was implicated in the plot, and in the <a href="/wiki/Anabasis_of_Alexander" title="Anabasis of Alexander">Anabasis of Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the <a href="/wiki/Rack_(torture)" title="Rack (torture)">rack</a> as punishment, and likely died soon after.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macedon_in_Alexander's_absence">Macedon in Alexander's absence</h3></div> When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a>, an experienced military and political leader, and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agis_III" title="Agis III">Agis III</a> in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megalopolis" title="Battle of Megalopolis">battle of Megalopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> (171–168 BC).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg/260px-KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg/390px-KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg/520px-KINGS_of_MACEDON_Alexander_III_the_Great_336-323_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>Silver <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> of Alexander the Great struck by <a href="/wiki/Balakros" title="Balakros">Balakros</a> or his successor <a href="/wiki/Menes_of_Pella" title="Menes of Pella">Menes</a>, both former <a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes" title="Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a> (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> in the lifetime of Alexander, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 333–327 BC. The obverse shows <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> Aëtophoros.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></figcaption></figure> The conquest by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pangaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangaeum">Pangaeum</a>, and then of the island of <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a> between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a>, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-122">[122]</a> Alexander minted gold <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">staters</a>, silver <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachims</a>, and various fractional <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">bronze coins</a>. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> on the obverse and a winged <a href="/wiki/Nike_(mythology)" title="Nike (mythology)">Nike</a> (<a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victory</a>) on the reverse.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The silver coinage had a beardless head of <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, <a href="/wiki/Dium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dium">Dium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-122">[122]</a> The lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god <a href="/wiki/Sandas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandas">Sandas</a>, worshipped at <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-122">[122]</a> The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god <a href="/wiki/Baaltars" title="Baaltars">Baaltars</a> (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap <a href="/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a> before Alexander's conquest.<a href="#cite_note-LE_RIDER_2003,_p153-214-122">[122]</a> Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapies</a> of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_campaign">Indian campaign</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forays_into_the_Indian_subcontinent">Forays into the Indian subcontinent</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/220px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/330px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg/440px-AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1117" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent</figcaption></figure> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Spitamenes" title="Spitamenes">Spitamenes</a> and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in <a href="/wiki/Old_Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Iranian">Old Iranian</a>) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. He invited the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chieftains</a> of the former satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>), to come to him and submit to his authority. <a href="/wiki/Omphis" class="mw-redirect" title="Omphis">Omphis</a> (Indian name <a href="/wiki/Ambhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambhi">Ambhi</a>), the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a>, whose kingdom extended from the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Hydaspes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a> (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the <a href="/wiki/Aspasioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspasioi">Aspasioi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assakenoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Assakenoi">Assakenoi</a> sections of the <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a> (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ambhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambhi">Ambhi</a> hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at <a href="/wiki/Hund,_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Hund</a>,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> supplied their troops with provisions, and he received Alexander and his whole army in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/220px-The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/330px-The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/440px-The_phalanx_attacking_the_centre_in_the_battle_of_the_Hydaspes_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="2244" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a> Attacking the Centre in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a> by André Castaigne (1898–1899)</figcaption></figure> On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a>. After that victory, he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Porus" title="Porus">Porus</a>, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; Taxiles contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes and was entrusted by Alexander with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of <a href="/wiki/Philip_(son_of_Machatas)" title="Philip (son of Machatas)">Philip</a>, son of Machatas, and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Triparadisus" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Triparadisus">Triparadisus</a>, 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of the <a href="/wiki/Kunar_Valley" title="Kunar Valley">Kunar Valley</a>, the Guraeans of the <a href="/wiki/Panjkora_River" title="Panjkora River">Guraeus Valley</a>, and the Assakenoi of the <a href="/wiki/Swat_District" title="Swat District">Swat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buner_District" title="Buner District">Buner Valleys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora, and <a href="/wiki/Aornos" title="Aornos">Aornos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-126">[126]</a> The fort of Massaga was reduced after days of bloody fighting in which Alexander was seriously wounded in the ankle. According to <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius</a>, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Aornos" title="Aornos">Aornos</a>. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999118–21-126">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/220px-Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/330px-Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/440px-Alexander_accepts_the_surrender_of_Porus_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2380" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Porus" title="Porus">Porus</a> surrenders to Alexander</figcaption></figure> After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and won an epic battle against King <a href="/wiki/Porus" title="Porus">Porus</a>, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the <a href="/wiki/Chenab_River" title="Chenab River">Acesines</a> (Chenab), in what is now the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999124–25-130">[130]</a> Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (<a href="/wiki/Beas" class="mw-redirect" title="Beas">Beas</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-132">[132]</a> Choosing a local helped him control these lands that were distant from Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999126–27-133">[133]</a> Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the <a href="/wiki/Hydaspes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a> river, naming one <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Bucephalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria Bucephalous">Bucephala</a>, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGergel2004120-134">[134]</a> The other was <a href="/wiki/Nicaea_(Punjab)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaea (Punjab)">Nicaea</a> (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mong,_Punjab" title="Mong, Punjab">Mong, Punjab</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philostratus_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Philostratus the Elder">Philostratus the Elder</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Life_of_Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Life of Apollonius of Tyana">Life of Apollonius of Tyana</a> writes that in the army of Porus, there was an elephant who fought bravely against Alexander's army, and Alexander dedicated it to the <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a> (Sun) and named it Ajax because he thought that such a great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolt_of_the_Hellenic_army">Revolt of the Hellenic army</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_323bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Asia_323bc.jpg/220px-Asia_323bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Asia_323bc.jpg/330px-Asia_323bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Asia_323bc.jpg/440px-Asia_323bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2040" data-file-height="1169" /></a><figcaption>Asia in 323 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gangaridai" title="Gangaridai">Gangaridai</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours</figcaption></figure> East of Porus's kingdom, near the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges River</a>, was the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a>, and further east, the <a href="/wiki/Gangaridai" title="Gangaridai">Gangaridai Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the <a href="/wiki/Hyphasis_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphasis River">Hyphasis River</a> (Beas), refusing to march farther east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKosmin201434-137">[137]</a> This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999129–30-138">[138]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of <a href="/wiki/Men-at-arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Men-at-arms">men-at-arms</a> and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PA62-139">[139]</a></blockquote> Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general <a href="/wiki/Coenus_(general)" title="Coenus (general)">Coenus</a> pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a>. Along the way his army conquered the <a href="/wiki/Malhi_(Jat_clan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malhi (Jat clan)">Malhi</a> (in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Multan" title="Multan">Multan</a>) and other Indian tribes; while besieging the Mallian citadel, Alexander suffered a near-fatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999137–38-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Alexander sent much of his army to <a href="/wiki/Kerman_province" title="Kerman province">Carmania</a> (modern southern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>) with general <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a>, and commissioned a fleet to explore the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> shore under his admiral <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the <a href="/wiki/Gedrosia" title="Gedrosia">Gedrosian Desert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathi1999141-142">[142]</a> Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Last_years_in_Persia">Last years in Persia</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stag_hunt_mosaic,_Pella.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/220px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/330px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/440px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="964" /></a><figcaption>Stag Hunt Mosaic, the figure on the right possibly being Alexander, and the figure to the left wields a double-headed axe, likely alluding to <a href="/wiki/Hephaistos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephaistos">Hephaistos</a>; possibly meaning his <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">general</a> <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a></figcaption></figure> Discovering that many of his <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satraps</a> and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AVI27-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-AVII4-145">[145]</a> As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of <a href="/wiki/Opis" title="Opis">Opis</a>. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.<a href="#cite_note-Worthington_2003_307-146">[146]</a> After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_194-147">[147]</a> In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander <a href="/wiki/Susa_weddings" title="Susa weddings">held a mass marriage</a> of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.<a href="#cite_note-AVII4-145">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Valenciennes,_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg/280px-Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg/420px-Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg/560px-Valenciennes%2C_Pierre-Henri_de_-_Alexander_at_the_Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great_-_1796.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Alexander at the Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Henri_de_Valenciennes" title="Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes">Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes</a> (1796)</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great" title="Tomb of Cyrus the Great">tomb of Cyrus the Great</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a> had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.<a href="#cite_note-AVI29-148">[148]</a> Alexander admired <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, from an early age reading <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cyropaedia" title="Cyropaedia">Cyropaedia</a>, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.<a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-149">[149]</a> During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Cassandreia" title="Aristobulus of Cassandreia">Aristobulus</a> to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.<a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-149">[149]</a> Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-AVII14-150">[150]</a> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive <a href="/wiki/Funeral_pyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral pyre">funeral pyre</a> in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.<a href="#cite_note-AVII14-150">[150]</a> Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-AVII19-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_succession">Death and succession</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Death of Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_(British_Museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/220px-Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/330px-Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg/440px-Babylonian_astronomical_diary_recording_the_death_of_Alexander_the_Great_%28British_Museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diary" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian astronomical diary">Babylonian astronomical diary</a> (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (<a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, London)</figcaption></figure> On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, in Babylon, at age 32.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Depuydt-153">[153]</a> There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a> and spent the night and next day drinking with <a href="/wiki/Medius_of_Larissa" title="Medius of Larissa">Medius of Larissa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-P75-154">[154]</a> Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood20012267–70-155">[155]</a> In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-156">[156]</a> Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.<a href="#cite_note-P75-154">[154]</a> Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination and Alexander's relatively young age,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen20071–2-157">[157]</a> foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a> all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,<a href="#cite_note-PA77-158">[158]</a> while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-AVII27-159">[159]</a> The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a>, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, replaced by Craterus, as the head of the alleged plot.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-161">[161]</a> and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII118-162">[162]</a> Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.<a href="#cite_note-AVII27-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII118-162">[162]</a> There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.<a href="#cite_note-AVII27-159">[159]</a> The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane_Fox2006chapter_32-163">[163]</a> However, in a 2003 <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (<a href="/wiki/Veratrum_album" title="Veratrum album">Veratrum album</a>), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004138-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> In a 2014 manuscript in the journal <a href="/wiki/Clinical_Toxicology" title="Clinical Toxicology">Clinical Toxicology</a>, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-schep-167">[167]</a> Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.<a href="#cite_note-schep-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mavroneri" title="Mavroneri">Mavroneri</a> in Arcadia, Greece) that contained <a href="/wiki/Calicheamicin" title="Calicheamicin">calicheamicin</a>, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural causes">natural causes</a> (diseases) have been suggested, including <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>. A 1998 article in the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="New England Journal of Medicine">New England Journal of Medicine</a> attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by <a href="/wiki/Bowel_perforation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel perforation">bowel perforation</a> and ascending <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AMD-170">[170]</a> A 2004 analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) <a href="/wiki/Spondylitis" title="Spondylitis">spondylitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ashrafian-171">[171]</a> Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including <a href="/wiki/Acute_pancreatitis" title="Acute pancreatitis">acute pancreatitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ref1-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guillain-Barr%C3%A9_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Guillain-Barré syndrome">Guillain-Barré syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.<a href="#cite_note-AMD-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-death_events">Post-death events</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Tomb of Alexander the Great">Tomb of Alexander the Great</a></div> Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.<a href="#cite_note-sarco1-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a>, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".<a href="#cite_note-Aelian-177">[177]</a> Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">royal prerogative</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200732-178">[178]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg/280px-Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg/420px-Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg/560px-Mid-nineteenth_century_reconstruction_of_Alexander%27s_catafalque_based_on_the_description_by_Diodorus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2977" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></figcaption></figure> While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.<a href="#cite_note-sarco1-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aelian-177">[177]</a> His successor, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a>, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a>, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.<a href="#cite_note-sarco2-179">[179]</a> The 2014 discovery of an <a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb" title="Kasta Tomb">enormous tomb</a> in northern Greece, at <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, dating from the time of Alexander the Great<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg/220px-Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg/330px-Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg/440px-Alexander_Sarcophagus_Battle_of_Issus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4911" data-file-height="2763" /></a><figcaption>Detail of Alexander on the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> all visited the tomb in Alexandria where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose of Alexander's mummified body off. <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.<a href="#cite_note-sarco2-179">[179]</a> The so-called "<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>", discovered near <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> and now in the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeology_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Istanbul Archaeology Museum">Istanbul Archaeology Museum</a>, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of <a href="/wiki/Abdalonymus" title="Abdalonymus">Abdalonymus</a> (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">battle of Issus</a> in 331.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> However, in 1969, it was suggested by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Schefold" title="Karl Schefold">Karl Schefold</a> that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Demades" title="Demades">Demades</a> likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded <a href="/wiki/Cyclops" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclops">Cyclops</a> due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> In addition, Leosthenes also likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division_of_the_Macedonian_Empire">Division of the Macedonian Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochi_EN.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Diadochi_EN.png/280px-Diadochi_EN.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Diadochi_EN.png/420px-Diadochi_EN.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Diadochi_EN.png/560px-Diadochi_EN.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>Kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> in 301 BC: the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> (dark blue), the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Kingdom of Lysimachus</a> (orange), and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Macedon">Kingdom of Macedon</a> (green). Also shown are the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (light blue), the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian Republic">Carthaginian Republic</a> (purple), and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Epirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Epirus">Kingdom of Epirus</a> (red).</figcaption></figure> Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">[190]</a> According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-156">[156]</a> Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-Shipley-191">[191]</a> Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this time, implying that this was an apocryphal story.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his <a href="/wiki/Seal_(device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (device)">signet ring</a> to <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a>, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII117-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">[190]</a> Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male, with himself, <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a>, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Meleager_(general)" title="Meleager (general)">Meleager</a>, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200726–29-193">[193]</a> Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (<a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into three stable power blocs: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Syria and East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid Macedonia</a>. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200729–34-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_plans">Last plans</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a> some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".<a href="#cite_note-DSXVIII4-195">[195]</a> Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.<a href="#cite_note-DSXVIII4-195">[195]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a> According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: <ul><li>Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the <a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules" title="Pillars of Hercules">Pillars of Hercules</a>, to be used for an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a> and the western Mediterranean;<a href="#cite_note-Bad-196">[196]</a></li> <li>Erection of great temples in <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dium">Dium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, all costing 1,500 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent" title="Attic talent">talents</a>, and a monumental temple to <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> at <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bad-196">[196]</a></li> <li>Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("<a href="/wiki/Synoecism" title="Synoecism">synoecisms</a>") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bad-196">[196]</a></li> <li>Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the <a href="/wiki/Pyramids_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramids of Egypt">pyramids of Egypt</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bad-196">[196]</a></li> <li>Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a><a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a></li> <li>Circumnavigation of Africa<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_199-65">[65]</a></li></ul> The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian" title="Ernst Badian">Ernst Badian</a> argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.<a href="#cite_note-Bad-196">[196]</a> Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character">Character</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generalship">Generalship</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Military tactics of Alexander the Great">Military tactics of Alexander the Great</a></div> Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlkYFVJ3U-BICpgPA192_192]-199">[199]</a> This was due to use of terrain, <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_193-200">[200]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a>, armed with the <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a>, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996110-201">[201]</a> Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121-94">[94]</a> in the manner of a Macedonian king.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_193-200">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_granicus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Battle_granicus.png/220px-Battle_granicus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Battle_granicus.png/330px-Battle_granicus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Battle_granicus.png/440px-Battle_granicus.png 2x" data-file-width="746" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a>, 334 BC</figcaption></figure> In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' <a href="/wiki/Scimitars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scimitars">scimitars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javelins" class="mw-redirect" title="Javelins">javelins</a>. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-203">[203]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_issus_decisive.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Battle_issus_decisive.png/220px-Battle_issus_decisive.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Battle_issus_decisive.png/330px-Battle_issus_decisive.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Battle_issus_decisive.png/440px-Battle_issus_decisive.png 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a>, 333 BC</figcaption></figure> At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-203">[203]</a> Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193-204">[204]</a> At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-203">[203]</a> When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193-204">[204]</a> In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_194-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_appearance">Physical appearance</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlexanderCameo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AlexanderCameo.JPG/200px-AlexanderCameo.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AlexanderCameo.JPG/300px-AlexanderCameo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AlexanderCameo.JPG/400px-AlexanderCameo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Alexander <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pyrgoteles" title="Pyrgoteles">Pyrgoteles</a></figcaption></figure> Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos" title="Lysippos">Lysippos</a>, paintings by <a href="/wiki/Apelles" title="Apelles">Apelles</a> and gem engravings by <a href="/wiki/Pyrgoteles" title="Pyrgoteles">Pyrgoteles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-206">[206]</a> Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-206">[206]</a> Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198819–20-209">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a>, a Roman historian from the first century AD, who wrote the <a href="/wiki/Histories_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Histories of Alexander the Great">Histories of Alexander the Great</a>, gives this account of Alexander sitting on the throne of <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, one of the royal pages placed a table under his feet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERolfe19465.2.13-210">[210]</a></blockquote> Both Curtius and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> report a story that when <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>'s mother, <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, first met Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg/170px-Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg/255px-Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg/340px-Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Roman copy of the Alexander portrait by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos" title="Lysippos">Lysippos</a></figcaption></figure> The Greek biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 45 – c. 120 AD) discusses the accuracy of his depictions: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999010243chapter4highlightlysippus_IV,_1]-212">[212]</a></blockquote> Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant fragrance attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-206">[206]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg/220px-Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg/330px-Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg/440px-Detail_of_fresco_depicting_Alexander_the_Great.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption>A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a>, the only known painting of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a> and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_the_Great-206">[206]</a> He is also described as having a slight upward tilt of his head to the left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault20131-213">[213]</a> The ancient historian <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 175 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 235 AD), in his Varia Historia (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "ξανθὴν" (xanthín), which at the time, could mean blond, brown, tawny (light brown) or auburn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999040057entrycanqos_ξανθός]-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> It is sometimes claimed that Alexander had <a href="/wiki/Heterochromia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterochromia">one blue and one brown eye</a>,<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> referring to the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a>, which is however a fictional account that also claims Alexander "had sharp teeth like fangs" and "did not look like Philip or Olympias". Reconstruction, based on remaining traces of paint of the original <a href="/wiki/Polychromy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychromy">polychromy</a> on his <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a>, indicates that he was depicted with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> While the acropolis museum suggests that trace amounts of red paint on a head statue of Alexander were most likely a base coat for golden hues to be painted over for his hair.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality">Personality</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/220px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/330px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/440px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Alexander (left), wearing a <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">kausia</a> and fighting an <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_lion" title="Asiatic lion">Asiatic lion</a> with his friend <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a> (detail); late 4th century BC <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a> Museum</figcaption></figure> Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010190-53">[53]</a> Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",<a href="#cite_note-PA5-222">[222]</a> he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> She instilled a sense of destiny in him,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen20074-223">[223]</a> and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".<a href="#cite_note-PA4-224">[224]</a> According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,<a href="#cite_note-AVII29-225">[225]</a> which could influence his decision making.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.<a href="#cite_note-PA7-226">[226]</a> He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.<a href="#cite_note-PA8-227">[227]</a> This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.<a href="#cite_note-AVII29-225">[225]</a> He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a> with alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-AVII28-228">[228]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/170px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/255px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/340px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="5000" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman copy</a> of an original 3rd century BC <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Greek bust</a> depicting Alexander the Great, <a href="/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a>, Copenhagen</figcaption></figure> Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.<a href="#cite_note-PA4-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-PA8-227">[227]</a> However, he had little interest in sports or the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> (unlike his father), seeking only the <a href="/wiki/Homeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric">Homeric</a> ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> He had great <a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">charisma</a> and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-AVII29-225">[225]</a> His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">[190]</a> During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megalomania" class="extiw" title="wikt:megalomania">megalomania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-161">[161]</a> His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200720–21-230">[230]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Delusions_of_grandeur" title="Delusions of grandeur">delusions of grandeur</a> are readily visible in his <a href="#Will">will</a> and in his desire to conquer the world,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-161">[161]</a> in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-161">[161]</a> Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,<a href="#cite_note-PA3-235">[235]</a> an idea apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-P27-236">[236]</a> He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.<a href="#cite_note-P27-236">[236]</a> Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably <a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">proskynesis</a>, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant1985827–830-107">[107]</a> however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it.<a href="#cite_note-AVII11-111">[111]</a> This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.<a href="#cite_note-PA45-237">[237]</a> Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in societies where the king was treated as divine.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_relationships">Personal relationships</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Personal_relationships_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Personal relationships of Alexander the Great">Personal relationships of Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite,_fresco,_ca._69_d._C.,_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim,_Pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg/220px-Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg/330px-Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg/440px-Marriage_of_Alexander_and_Statira_as_Ares_and_Aphrodite%2C_fresco%2C_ca._69_d._C.%2C_copy_after_Aetion._Antiquarim%2C_Pompeii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>A mural in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, depicting the marriage of Alexander to <a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Alexander_the_Great)" title="Stateira (wife of Alexander the Great)">Stateira</a> in 324 BC; the couple is apparently dressed as <a href="/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a>.</figcaption></figure> Alexander married three times: <a href="/wiki/Roxana" title="Roxana">Roxana</a>, daughter of the <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian</a> nobleman <a href="/wiki/Oxyartes" title="Oxyartes">Oxyartes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> out of love;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990102433Achapter3D47_LXVII,_1]-243">[243]</a> and the Persian princesses <a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Alexander_the_Great)" title="Stateira (wife of Alexander the Great)">Stateira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II" title="Parysatis II">Parysatis</a>, the former a daughter of <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> and the latter a daughter of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>, for political reasons.<a href="#cite_note-Carney-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchMoraliaFortuna_Alexandri2html_II,_6]-245">[245]</a> Alexander apparently had two children by Roxana: an unnamed first child, who was born in India and died in infancy in November 326 BC,<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a>, born after his father's death. Additionally <a href="/wiki/Heracles_of_Macedon" title="Heracles of Macedon">Heracles of Macedon</a> was claimed to be his illegitimate son born of mistress, <a href="/wiki/Barsine" title="Barsine">Barsine</a>. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, the son of a Macedonian noble.<a href="#cite_note-AVII14-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSXVII114-247">[247]</a> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-AVII14-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-P72-248">[248]</a> This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental state</a> during his final months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200723–24-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-AMD-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexuality">Sexuality</h3></div> Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009204-249">[249]</a> The Roman era writer <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> says, based on the scholar <a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a>, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> <a href="/wiki/Bagoas_(courtier)" title="Bagoas (courtier)">Bagoas</a> in public.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to <a href="/wiki/Achilles_and_Patroclus" title="Achilles and Patroclus">Achilles and Patroclus</a>, who are often interpreted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a> where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of <a href="/wiki/Patroclus" title="Patroclus">Patroclus</a>, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."<a href="#cite_note-AelXII7-251">[251]</a> Some modern historians (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox" title="Robin Lane Fox">Robin Lane Fox</a>) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but also that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESacks199516-253">[253]</a> though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg/220px-Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg/330px-Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg/440px-Alexander_and_Hephaestion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Alexander and his general <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Getty_Villa" title="Getty Villa">Getty Villa</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)" title="Peter Green (historian)">Peter Green</a> argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much sexual interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009208-255">[255]</a> Two of these pregnancies—Stateira's and Barsine's—are of dubious legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",<a href="#cite_note-DSXVII77-257">[257]</a> showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".<a href="#cite_note-AVII28-228">[228]</a> Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria" title="Ada of Caria">Ada of Caria</a>, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200715–16-221">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Battle_record">Battle record</h2></div> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; font-size:90%; margin:1em auto 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th width="65">Outcome </th> <th style="width:140px;">Date </th> <th style="width:110px;">War </th> <th style="width:auto;">Action </th> <th style="width:170px;">Opponent/s </th> <th width="45">Type </th> <th style="width:120px;">Country (present day) </th> <th width="50">Rank </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">338-08-02 2 August 338 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF"><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">Philip II's submission of Greece</a> </td> <td>Chaeronea <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Thebans" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebans">Thebans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athenians" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenians">Athenians</a> and other Greek cities </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prince" title="Prince">Prince</a> ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">335 335 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF"><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Balkan Campaign</a> </td> <td>Mount Haemus Battle of Mount Haemus </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Getae" title="Getae">Getae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King" title="King">King</a> ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">335-12 December 335 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Balkan Campaign </td> <td>Pelium <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium" title="Siege of Pelium">Siege of Pelium</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">335-12 December 335 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Balkan Campaign </td> <td>Pelium <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">Battle of Thebes</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Thebans" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebans">Thebans</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td>Greece </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">334-05 May 334 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Granicus <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">334 334 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Miletus <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milesians_(Greek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesians (Greek)">Milesians</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td>Turkey </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">334 334 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Halicarnassus <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td>Turkey </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">333-11-05 5 November 333 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Issus <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td>Turkey </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">332 January–July 332 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Tyre <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrians">Tyrians</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">332-10 October 332 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Tyre <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">331-10-01 1 October 331 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Gaugamela <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">331-12 December 331 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Uxian Defile <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Uxian_Defile" title="Battle of the Uxian Defile">Battle of the Uxian Defile</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Uxians" class="mw-redirect" title="Uxians">Uxians</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">330-01-20 20 January 330 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Persian Gate <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td>Iran </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">329 329 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Cyropolis <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis">Siege of Cyropolis</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Sogdians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdians">Sogdians</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">329-10 October 329 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Jaxartes <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes" title="Battle of Jaxartes">Battle of Jaxartes</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">327 327 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Persian Campaign </td> <td>Sogdian Rock <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Sogdian_Rock" title="Siege of the Sogdian Rock">Siege of the Sogdian Rock</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Sogdians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdians">Sogdians</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td>Uzbekistan </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">327 May 327 – March 326 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF"><a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian Campaign</a> </td> <td>Cophen <a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign">Cophen campaign</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Aspasians" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspasians">Aspasians</a> </td> <td>Expedition </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">326-04 April 326 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Indian Campaign </td> <td>Aornos <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aornos" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Aornos">Siege of Aornos</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvaka" title="Aśvaka">Aśvaka</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td>Pakistan </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">326-05 May 326 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Indian Campaign </td> <td>Hydaspes <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Porus" title="Porus">Porus</a> </td> <td>Battle </td> <td>Pakistan </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" class="table-yes2">Victory </td> <th scope="row">325 November 326 – February 325 BC </th> <td style="background:#ACBECF">Indian Campaign </td> <td>Aornos <a href="/wiki/Mallian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Mallian Campaign">Siege of Multan</a> </td> <td>.<a href="/wiki/Malhi_(Jat_clan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malhi (Jat clan)">Malli</a> </td> <td>Siege </td> <td>Pakistan </td> <td>King ⁂ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a>, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to <a href="/wiki/Greek_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek civilization">Greek civilization</a> and influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_kingdoms">Hellenistic kingdoms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg/220px-Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg/330px-Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg/440px-Mappa_di_Eratostene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5085" data-file-height="3096" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> world view: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_world_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient world map">world map</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (276–194 BC), using information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a></figcaption></figure> Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),<a href="#cite_note-uconn-261">[261]</a> and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">successor states</a> that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix-262">[262]</a> The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">[190]</a> However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay200182–85-263">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_of_cities">Founding of cities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_Alexander_the_Great" title="List of cities founded by Alexander the Great">List of cities founded by Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg/220px-Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg/330px-Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg/440px-Plan_of_Alexandria_c_30_BC_Otto_Puchstein_1890s_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>Plan of Alexandria <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 30 BC</figcaption></figure> Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_Alexander_the_Great" title="List of cities founded by Alexander the Great">many cities that bore his name</a>, most of them east of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-livius-264">[264]</a> The first, and greatest, was <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a> The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a> Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-livius-264">[264]</a> However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996111-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding_of_temples">Funding of temples</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg/220px-Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg/330px-Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg/440px-Dedication_of_Alexander_the_Great_to_Athena_Polias_at_Priene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Dedication of Alexander the Great to <a href="/wiki/Athena_Polias" class="mw-redirect" title="Athena Polias">Athena Polias</a> at <a href="/wiki/Priene" title="Priene">Priene</a>, now housed in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a><a href="#cite_note-Burn-265">[265]</a></figcaption></figure> In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of <a href="/wiki/Athena_Polias" class="mw-redirect" title="Athena Polias">Athena Polias</a> in <a href="/wiki/Priene" title="Priene">Priene</a>, in modern-day western Turkey.<a href="#cite_note-BritishMuseum-266">[266]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Priene_inscription_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Priene inscription of Alexander the Great">inscription from the temple</a>, now housed in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."<a href="#cite_note-Burn-265">[265]</a> This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.<a href="#cite_note-Burn-265">[265]</a> The temple was designed by <a href="/wiki/Pythius_of_Priene" title="Pythius of Priene">Pytheos</a>, one of the architects of the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Burn-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-BritishMuseum-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> <a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a> wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> was built.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> wrote that Alexander built a big temple to <a href="/wiki/Sarapis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarapis">Sarapis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> In 2023, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> experts have suggested the possibility that a Greek temple at <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, was founded by Alexander. According to the researchers, recent discoveries suggest that "this site honours Zeus and two divine sons. The sons are Heracles and Alexander."<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenization">Hellenization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg/220px-Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg/330px-Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg/440px-Alexander-Empire_323bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2321" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.</figcaption></figure> Hellenization was coined by the German historian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a> to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix-262">[262]</a> This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59-272">[272]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> (south of modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>).<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into <a href="/wiki/Persian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian culture">Persian culture</a> and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200721,_56–59-274">[274]</a> The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially <a href="/wiki/Athenian" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian">Athenian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a>-based "<a href="/wiki/Koine" class="mw-redirect" title="Koine">koine</a>", or "common" Greek dialect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151-276">[276]</a> Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">modern Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison197151-276">[276]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Town_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Town planning">town planning</a>, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> was written in the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59-272">[272]</a> Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenization_in_South_and_Central_Asia">Hellenization in South and Central Asia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_art" title="Indo-Greek art">Indo-Greek art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg/170px-Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg/255px-Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg/340px-Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="2894" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist style</a>, 1st to 2nd century AD, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>, northern Pakistan. <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_National_Museum" title="Tokyo National Museum">Tokyo National Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> (250–125 BC) (in modern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–109-278">[278]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a>, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> The resulting <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> influenced the development of Buddhism<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> and created a culture of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a>. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (<a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_monasticism" title="Greco-Buddhist monasticism">Greco-Buddhist monasticism</a>). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a> appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> in the Greco-Buddhist style.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09-281">[281]</a> Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">ancient Greek religion</a>: the concept of <a href="/wiki/Boddhisatvas" class="mw-redirect" title="Boddhisatvas">Boddhisatvas</a> is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Offering (Buddhism)">ceremonial practices</a> (burning <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a>, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist literature">Buddhist literature</a> as 'Milinda'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001101–09-281">[281]</a> The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.<a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-283">[283]</a> For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian">Greco-Bactrian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ai_Khanoum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ai Khanoum">Ai Khanoum</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> while the Greek concept of a <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical Earth</a> surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.<a href="#cite_note-Pingree_(1978),_533,_554f.-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi08Aryabhata-286">[286]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yavanajataka" title="Yavanajataka">Yavanajataka</a> (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and <a href="/wiki/Paulisa_Siddhanta" title="Paulisa Siddhanta">Paulisa Siddhanta</a> texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_influence_on_Indian_art" title="Hellenistic influence on Indian art">Hellenistic influence on Indian art</a> was far-reaching. In <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, a few examples of the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic order</a> can be found as far as <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Jandial_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Jandial temple">Jandial temple</a> near <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a>. Several examples of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(architecture)" title="Capital (architecture)">capitals</a> displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as <a href="/wiki/Patna" title="Patna">Patna</a>, especially with the <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra_capital" title="Pataliputra capital">Pataliputra capital</a>, dated to the 3rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian order</a> is also heavily represented in the <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Gandhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Gandhara">art of Gandhara</a>, especially through <a href="/wiki/Indo-Corinthian_capital" title="Indo-Corinthian capital">Indo-Corinthian capitals</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_on_Rome">Influence on Rome</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg/220px-Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg/330px-Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg/440px-Roman_-_Medallion_with_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_591_-_Obverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1711" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>This medallion was produced in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Rome">Imperial Rome</a>, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. <a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>.</figcaption></figure> Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-288">[288]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> began his <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Polybius)" title="Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a> by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompey the Great</a> adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-288">[288]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> dedicated a <a href="/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus">Lysippean</a> <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue" title="Equestrian statue">equestrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> statue, but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a <a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">sphinx</a> to Alexander's profile.<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-288">[288]</a> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> also admired Alexander, as did <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham-288">[288]</a> The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery or embroidered into their clothes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt20033-289">[289]</a> On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how <a href="/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> tendencies can be kept in check by the values of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham2-290">[290]</a> Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicitia (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).<a href="#cite_note-Asirvatham2-290">[290]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Julian">Emperor Julian</a> in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Itinerarium_Alexandri" title="Itinerarium Alexandri">Itinerarium Alexandri</a> is a 4th-century Latin description of Alexander the Great's campaigns. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-:02-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-:92-296">[296]</a> He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanxes</a>, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.<a href="#cite_note-:02-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-:92-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-:292-297">[297]</a> The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikes</a>, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.<a href="#cite_note-:292-297">[297]</a> As a consequence, the Phalangarii of <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Parthica" title="Legio II Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a> may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly <a href="/wiki/Triarii" title="Triarii">Triarii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:292-297">[297]</a> Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> school based on a legend that <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-:92-296">[296]</a> In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">floating bridge</a> to be built using ships as <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontoon (boat)">pontoons</a>, stretching for over two miles from the resort of <a href="/wiki/Baiae" title="Baiae">Baiae</a> to the neighbouring port of <a href="/wiki/Puteoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Puteoli">Puteoli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-299">[299]</a> It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Xerxes%27_pontoon_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes' pontoon bridge">Xerxes' pontoon bridge</a> crossing of the Hellespont.<a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-299">[299]</a> Caligula, who could not swim,<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> then proceeded to ride his favourite horse <a href="/wiki/Incitatus" title="Incitatus">Incitatus</a> across, wearing the breastplate of <a href="#After_death">Alexander the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-299">[299]</a> This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer <a href="/wiki/Thrasyllus_of_Mendes" title="Thrasyllus of Mendes">Thrasyllus of Mendes</a> that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".<a href="#cite_note-seutonius-calig-19-299">[299]</a> The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">later Roman expansion</a> into these territories and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">entire basis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington" title="Robert Malcolm Errington">Errington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letters">Letters</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Letters_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Letters of Alexander the Great">Letters of Alexander the Great</a></div> Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no <a href="/wiki/Autograph_manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Autograph manuscript">originals</a> survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition.<a href="#cite_note-LICP-302">[302]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_legend">In legend</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_legend" title="Alexander the Great in legend">Alexander the Great in legend</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_(Venice,_San_Lazzaro,_424)_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg/170px-Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg/255px-Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg/340px-Alexander_romance._Armenian_illuminated_manuscript_of_XIV_century_%28Venice%2C_San_Lazzaro%2C_424%29_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>Alexander in a 14th-century Armenian manuscript</figcaption></figure> Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187-303">[303]</a> His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, <a href="/wiki/Onesicritus" title="Onesicritus">Onesicritus</a> invented a tryst between Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Thalestris" title="Thalestris">Thalestris</a>, queen of the mythical <a href="/wiki/Amazons" title="Amazons">Amazons</a>. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."<a href="#cite_note-PA46-304">[304]</a> In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a>, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations throughout the Islamic and European worlds in premodern times,<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> containing many dubious stories,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010187-303">[303]</a> and was translated into twenty-five languages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117-306">[306]</a> for example <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_ancient_and_modern_culture">In ancient and modern culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great">Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Islamic_tradition" title="Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition">Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_the_Quran" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander the Great in the Quran">Alexander the Great in the Quran</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG/220px-Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG/440px-Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="884" /></a><figcaption>Alexander in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript</figcaption></figure> Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has featured in both high and popular culture, beginning from his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European, to modern Greek.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010117-306">[306]</a> Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more than any other ancient figure.<a href="#cite_note-Fermor-308">[308]</a> The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the <a href="/wiki/Karagiozis" title="Karagiozis">Karagiozis</a> shadow play.<a href="#cite_note-Fermor-308">[308]</a> One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary <a href="/wiki/Mermaid" title="Mermaid">mermaid</a> who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain, "Is King Alexander alive?" The answer should be "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging <a href="/wiki/Gorgon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorgon">Gorgon</a> who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.<a href="#cite_note-Fermor-308">[308]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_mss-0771_CROP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="1411" /></a><figcaption>Folio from the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> showing Alexander praying at the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, mid-16th century</figcaption></figure> In pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a>) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> Persia, under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: اسکندرنامه <a href="/wiki/Iskandarnameh" title="Iskandarnameh">Iskandarnameh</a>), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-310">[310]</a> <a href="/wiki/Firdausi" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdausi">Firdausi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> ("The Book of Kings") <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_the_Shahnameh" title="Alexander the Great in the Shahnameh">includes Alexander</a> in a line of legitimate Persian <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">shahs</a>, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the <a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Youth" title="Fountain of Youth">Fountain of Youth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> to pray at the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> Alexander was depicted as performing a <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and Aristotle, in search of immortality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-310">[310]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submerge2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submerge2.JPG/220px-Submerge2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submerge2.JPG/330px-Submerge2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submerge2.JPG/440px-Submerge2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1950" data-file-height="1438" /></a><figcaption>Detail of a 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic painting</a> depicting Alexander being lowered in a glass <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a></figcaption></figure> The figure of <a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>: ذو القرنين; lit. "The Two-Horned One") is believed by the majority of modern researchers of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> as well as Islamic commentators to be a reference to Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-:1-314">[314]</a> The figure is also believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-310">[310]</a> In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who <a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Alexander" title="Gates of Alexander">built a wall</a> to defend against the nations of <a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[315]</a> He also travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[315]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-310">[310]</a> In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> before the Persian conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010122-315">[315]</a> His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010120-310">[310]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, Alexander was shown the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a> when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg/220px-Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg/330px-Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg/440px-Alexander_the_Great_conquering_the_air.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption>Alexander conquering the air. <a href="/wiki/Jean_Wauquelin" title="Jean Wauquelin">Jean Wauquelin</a>, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, the name "<a href="/wiki/Iskandar_(name)" title="Iskandar (name)">Sikandar</a>", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji" title="Alauddin Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a> stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval India</a>, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romances" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Romances">Alexander Romances</a>) written by Indo-Persian poets such as <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusrau" title="Amir Khusrau">Amir Khusrau</a> and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a>, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Worthies" title="Nine Worthies">Nine Worthies</a>; a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> During the first <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars">Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars</a>, in a question from <a href="/wiki/Bourrienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourrienne">Bourrienne</a>, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Anthology" title="Greek Anthology">Greek Anthology</a>, there are poems referring to Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Historiography of Alexander the Great</a></div> Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes, Alexander's generals; Ptolemy and <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Cassandreia" title="Aristobulus of Cassandreia">Aristobulus</a>, a junior officer on the campaigns, and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">original sources</a> have survived. The earliest of these is <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/32px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/48px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/64px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/48px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/64px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/48px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/64px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_Islamic_tradition" title="Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition">Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucephalus" title="Bucephalus">Bucephalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Alexander" title="Horns of Alexander">Horns of Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_known_as_The_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people known as The Great">List of people known as The Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Alexander" title="Gates of Alexander">Gates of Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Military tactics of Alexander the Great">Military tactics of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great">Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_Alexander_the_Great_in_the_Quran" title="Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran">Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <div style=""><ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;"> <li id="cnote_a"><a href="#ref_a_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> Heracles was Alexander's alleged illegitimate son.</div></li> <li id="cnote_b"><a href="#ref_b_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation"><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a></abbr> 'ward off, avert, defend')<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29le2Fcw_IV,_57]-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-324">[324]</a> and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'man'),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29nh2Fr_IV,_57]-325">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-324">[324]</a> and means "protector of men".<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> </div></li> <li id="cnote_c"><a href="#ref_c_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">The first known person to call Alexander "the Great" was a Roman playwright named <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> (254–184 BC) in his play <a href="/wiki/Mostellaria" title="Mostellaria">Mostellaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></div></li> <li id="cnote_d"><a href="#ref_d_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity; the Macedonians were a Greek tribe.<a href="#cite_note-Macedonians-328">[328]</a></div></li> <li id="cnote_e"><a href="#ref_e_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persian Empire">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a>, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the '<a href="/wiki/Ecumene#Ancient_world" title="Ecumene">Ecumene</a>').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanforth199738,_49,_167-329">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20042-330">[330]</a> An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Miletus" title="Hecataeus of Miletus">Hecataeus of Miletus</a>'s map; see <a href="/wiki/File:Hecataeus_world_map-en.svg" title="File:Hecataeus world map-en.svg">Hecataeus world map</a>. </div></li> <li id="cnote_f"><a href="#ref_f_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003327–28-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;<a href="#cite_note-Plutarch,_Caesar,_11-332">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji" title="Alauddin Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a> consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2003176–83-333">[333]</a> the young <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199745-334">[334]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>'s hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent Alejandro he adopted as his nom de guerre.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> Among <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman sultans">Ottoman sultans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a>'s heroes were Alexander and <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> In a letter to his rival, <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>, while equating himself with Alexander, compares <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> as "Darius of our days".<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Giovio" title="Paolo Giovio">Paolo Giovio</a>, in a work written for <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, says that Selim holds Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in the highest esteem above all the generals of old.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a></div></li> <li id="cnote_g"><a href="#ref_g_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">In ancient historiography, the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> was traditionally regarded as having originated from <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>. The Argeads themselves claimed Argive Greek descent from the hero <a href="/wiki/Temenus" title="Temenus">Temenus</a>. Through his parents' genealogy, ancient authors traced Alexander's descent back to heroes and other legendary figures from <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a></div></li> <li id="cnote_h"><a href="#ref_h_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane_Fox198072–73-346">[346]</a> </div></li> <li id="cnote_i"><a href="#ref_i_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"> However, <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, who used <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which <a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a>, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.</div></li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009), The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Golden, Peter B. Central Asia in World History (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia, and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria," near modern Khojent in Tajikistan)." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010159-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010159_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-3"><a href="#cite_ref-:8_3-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrant2011" class="citation book cs1">Grant, R.G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epdf.pub_commanders-rg-grant-dk/page/n19">Commanders: History's Greatest Military Leaders</a>. DK Publishing. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4053-3696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4053-3696-3"><bdi>978-1-4053-3696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commanders%3A+History%27s+Greatest+Military+Leaders&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=DK+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4053-3696-3&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=R.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepdf.pub_commanders-rg-grant-dk%2Fpage%2Fn19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaton2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Beaton" title="Roderick Beaton">Beaton, Roderick</a> (2021). The Greeks: A Global History (1st ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781541618299" title="Special:BookSources/9781541618299"><bdi>9781541618299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=163&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781541618299&rft.aulast=Beaton&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeckelTritle200999-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeckelTritle200999_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeckelTritle2009">Heckel & Tritle 2009</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurger2008" class="citation book cs1">Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of Toronto Press. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-432-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-432-3"><bdi>978-1-55111-432-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shaping+of+Western+Civilization%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Enlightenment&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-55111-432-3&rft.aulast=Burger&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010viii-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010viii_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoufikar-Aerts2020" class="citation book cs1">Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2020). "The Arabic Alexander Romance: Mirror of a Bold, Clever, and Devout Prince". In Seigneurie, Ken (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0072">A Companion to World Literature</a>. Wiley. pp. 1–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118635193.ctwl0072">10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0072</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-99318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-99318-7"><bdi>978-1-118-99318-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Arabic+Alexander+Romance%3A+Mirror+of+a+Bold%2C+Clever%2C+and+Devout+Prince&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+World+Literature&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118635193.ctwl0072&rft.isbn=978-1-118-99318-7&rft.aulast=Doufikar-Aerts&rft.aufirst=Faustina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781118635193.ctwl0072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-9"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMínguez_CornellesRodríguez_Moya2024" class="citation book cs1">Mínguez Cornelles, Víctor; Rodríguez Moya, Inmaculada (2024). The visual legacy of Alexander the Great from the Renaissance to the age of revolution. Routledge research in art history. New York London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-032-54990-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-032-54990-3"><bdi>978-1-032-54990-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+visual+legacy+of+Alexander+the+Great+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+age+of+revolution&rft.place=New+York+London&rft.series=Routledge+research+in+art+history&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-032-54990-3&rft.aulast=M%C3%ADnguez+Cornelles&rft.aufirst=V%C3%ADctor&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Moya%2C+Inmaculada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1970" class="citation book cs1">Green, Peter (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6Wl4AKGQkIC&pg=PA559">Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography</a>. Hellenistic culture and society (illustrated, revised reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. xxxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07165-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07165-0"><bdi>978-0-520-07165-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015. <q>356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+of+Macedon%2C+356%E2%80%93323+B.C.%3A+a+historical+biography&rft.series=Hellenistic+culture+and+society&rft.pages=xxxiii&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+revised+reprint&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07165-0&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg6Wl4AKGQkIC%26pg%3DPA559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Plutarch, Life of Alexander 3.5: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320180439/https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html">"The birth of Alexander the Great"</a>. Livius. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7">the original</a> on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2011. <q>Alexander was born the sixth of <a href="/wiki/Hekatombaion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hekatombaion">Hekatombaion</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius&rft.atitle=The+birth+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Faj-al%2Falexander%2Falexander_t32.html%237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_George_Hogarth1897" class="citation book cs1">David George Hogarth (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924028251217/page/n321/mode/2up?view=theater">Philip and Alexander of Macedon : two essays in biography</a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 286–287. Retrieved 9 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+and+Alexander+of+Macedon+%3A+two+essays+in+biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E286-%3C%2Fspan%3E287&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1897&rft.au=David+George+Hogarth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924028251217%2Fpage%2Fn321%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 10, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 28, <a href="#CITEREFDurant1966">Durant 1966</a>, p. 538 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010171-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010171_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010188_15-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-PA2-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PA2_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PA2_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D2">III, 2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 28, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200133–34-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200133–34_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010186_19-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-PA6-20"><a href="#cite_ref-PA6_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D6%3Asection%3D5">VI, 5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurant1966">Durant 1966</a>, p. 538, <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 64, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 65–66, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 44, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 65–66, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 45–47, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-RLF-24"><a href="#cite_ref-RLF_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane_Fox1986" class="citation book cs1">Lane Fox, Robin (1986). Alexander the Great. Penguin Group. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008878-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008878-6"><bdi>978-0-14-008878-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-14-008878-6&rft.aulast=Lane+Fox&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECawthorne2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoxyz0v9T74sCpgPA42_42–43]_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCawthorne2004">Cawthorne 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oxyz0v9T74sC&pg=PA42">42–43</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoweBrice2015" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170">Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean</a>. Brill. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28473-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28473-9"><bdi>978-90-04-28473-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Insurgency+and+Terrorism+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28473-9&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Brice%2C+Lee+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D248DCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EDC-27"><a href="#cite_ref-EDC_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2000" class="citation book cs1">Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&pg=PA101">Women and Monarchy in Macedonia</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-3212-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Monarchy+in+Macedonia&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Donnelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZbI2hZBy_EkC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JM-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JM_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JM_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2016" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Janett (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49JVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA271">Greek Perspectives on the Achaemenid Empire: Persia Through the Looking Glass</a>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 271–272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4724-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4724-8"><bdi>978-0-7486-4724-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Perspectives+on+the+Achaemenid+Empire%3A+Persia+Through+the+Looking+Glass&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E272&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4724-8&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Janett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D49JVDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriant2012" class="citation book cs1">Briant, Pierre (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WAW6kmL30RUC&pg=PA114">Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15445-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15445-9"><bdi>978-0-691-15445-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+His+Empire%3A+A+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15445-9&rft.aulast=Briant&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWAW6kmL30RUC%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EJ-30"><a href="#cite_ref-EJ_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2018" class="citation book cs1">Jensen, Erik (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QCRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92">Barbarians in the Greek and Roman World</a>. Hackett Publishing. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-714-5"><bdi>978-1-62466-714-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians+in+the+Greek+and+Roman+World&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-62466-714-5&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQCRtDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989">"SOL Search"</a>. cs.uky.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809025936/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 24 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cs.uky.edu&rft.atitle=SOL+Search&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.uky.edu%2F~raphael%2Fsol%2Fsol-entries%2Falpha%2F1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 68, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 47, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200147–49-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200147–49_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 47–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 50–51, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, pp. 44–45, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 51, <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 47, <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 24 </li> <li id="cite_note-DiodXVI-36"><a href="#cite_ref-DiodXVI_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+16.86">XVI, 86</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul (2002). Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History, 1300-362 B.C. (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26276-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26276-3"><bdi>0-415-26276-3</bdi></a>. <q>Philip laid Lakonia waste as far south as Gytheion and formally deprived Sparta of Dentheliatis (and apparently the territory on the Messenian Gulf as far as the Little Pamisos river), Belminatis, the territory of Karyai and the east Parnon foreland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sparta+and+Lakonia%3A+A+Regional+History%2C+1300-362+B.C.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=273&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-26276-3&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault200154-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault200154_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200426-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty200426_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1991" class="citation journal cs1">Green, Peter (1991). 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By N. G. L. Hammond, F. W. Walbank </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBose2003">Bose 2003</a>, p. 75, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty2004">McCarty 2004</a>, p. 27, <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, p. 59, <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1992" class="citation journal cs1">Hammond, N. G. L. (21 December 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/view/3531">"The Regnal Years of Philip and Alexander"</a>. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 33 (4): 355–373. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2159-3159">2159-3159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greek%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Regnal+Years+of+Philip+and+Alexander&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E355-%3C%2Fspan%3E373&rft.date=1992-12-21&rft.issn=2159-3159&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=N.+G.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrbs.library.duke.edu%2Findex.php%2Fgrbs%2Farticle%2Fview%2F3531&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParise2002" class="citation book cs1">Parise, Frank (2002) [1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookofcalendars0000unse_y2i4/page/10/mode/2up">The book of calendars</a>. 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New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 96–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4351-4654-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4351-4654-9"><bdi>978-1-4351-4654-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.pub=Sterling+Publishing+Co.%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4351-4654-9&rft.aulast=Strudwick&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRingSalkinBerneySchellinger1994">Ring et al. 1994</a>, pp. 49, 320 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth198871–74-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth198871–74_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBosworth1988">Bosworth 1988</a>, pp. 71–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDahmen2007">Dahmen 2007</a>, pp. 10–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911616-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911616_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 616. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III 7–15; also in a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html">contemporary Babylonian account of the battle of Gaugamela</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170224083355/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html">Archived</a> 24 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C">Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIII16-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AIII16_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AIII16_90-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3b.asp">III, 16</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/">"a contemporary account of the battle of Gaugamela"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812155458/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=a+contemporary+account+of+the+battle+of+Gaugamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fsources%2Fcontent%2Foriental-varia%2Fa-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArrian1976">Arrian 1976</a>, III, 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFForeman2004">Foreman 2004</a>, p. 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996121_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond198372–73-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond198372–73_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammond1983">Hammond 1983</a>, pp. 72–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_96-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkngnd0GlUc4CpgPA99_99]_96-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA99">99</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2011" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Philip (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v550aeZcGowC&pg=PA213">Alexander the Great</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. p. 213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9328-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9328-0"><bdi>978-1-4391-9328-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Paperbacks&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-9328-0&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv550aeZcGowC%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriant2010" class="citation book cs1">Briant, Pierre (2010) [1974]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6wl0xMQCW40C&pg=PA109">Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15445-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15445-9"><bdi>978-0-691-15445-9</bdi></a>. 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Khalili Collections. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190815095632/https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2019. 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Second Series. 12 (2): 183–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0017383500015345">10.1017/s0017383500015345</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163858858">163858858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=The+Portraits+of+Alexander&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0017383500015345&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163858858%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bieber&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSismondo_Ridgway1969" class="citation journal cs1">Sismondo Ridgway, Brunilde (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=arch_pubs">"Review: Der Alexander-Sarkophag by Karl Schefold"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a>. 73: 482. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F504019">10.2307/504019</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/504019">504019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Der+Alexander-Sarkophag+by+Karl+Schefold&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=482&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F504019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F504019%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sismondo+Ridgway&rft.aufirst=Brunilde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.brynmawr.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1006%26context%3Darch_pubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0045:chapter=1:section=4">"Plutarch, Galba, chapter 1, section 4"</a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227032246/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0045%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plutarch%2C+Galba%2C+chapter+1%2C+section+4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0045%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0116:chapter=1:section=4">"Plutarch, Galba, chapter 1, section 4"</a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224185759/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0116%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plutarch%2C+Galba%2C+chapter+1%2C+section+4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0116%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0191:chapter=27">"Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, Ἀλέξανδρος"</a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224161752/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0191%3Achapter%3D27">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plutarch%2C+Regum+et+imperatorum+apophthegmata%2C+%E1%BC%88%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0191%3Achapter%3D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg087.perseus-grc1:2.4">"Plutarch, De Alexandri magni fortuna aut virtute, chapter 2, section 4"</a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224150622/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg087.perseus-grc1:2.4">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plutarch%2C+De+Alexandri+magni+fortuna+aut+virtute%2C+chapter+2%2C+section+4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3Durn%3Acts%3AgreekLit%3Atlg0007.tlg087.perseus-grc1%3A2.4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26_190-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26_190-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26_190-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200724–26_190-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shipley-191"><a href="#cite_ref-Shipley_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham_Shipley2014" class="citation book cs1">Graham Shipley (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sAoiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC</a>. Routledge. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-06531-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-06531-8"><bdi>978-1-134-06531-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+World+After+Alexander+323%E2%80%9330+BC&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-06531-8&rft.au=Graham+Shipley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsAoiAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200726–29-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200726–29_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 26–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200729–34-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200729–34_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 29–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-DSXVIII4-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DSXVIII4_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DSXVIII4_195-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+18.4.1">XVIII, 4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bad-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bad_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bad_196-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bad_196-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bad_196-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bad_196-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadian1968" class="citation journal cs1">Badian, Erns (1968). "A King's Notebooks". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 72: 183–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F311079">10.2307/311079</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/311079">311079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Studies+in+Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=A+King%27s+Notebooks&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F311079&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F311079%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Badian&rft.aufirst=Erns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcKechnie1989">McKechnie 1989</a>, p. 54 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarn1948" class="citation book cs1">Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge [England]: University Press. p. 378. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22584-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22584-7"><bdi>978-0-521-22584-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606613">606613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=Cambridge+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pages=378&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F606613&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22584-7&rft.aulast=Tarn&rft.aufirst=William+Woodthorpe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlkYFVJ3U-BICpgPA192_192]-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlkYFVJ3U-BICpgPA192_192]_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA192">192</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roisman_2010_193-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_193_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_193_200-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 193, <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996110-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996110_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarn1948" class="citation book cs1">Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1948). 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Cambridge [England]: University Press. pp. 361–362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22584-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22584-7"><bdi>978-0-521-22584-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606613">606613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=Cambridge+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E361-%3C%2Fspan%3E362&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F606613&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22584-7&rft.aulast=Tarn&rft.aufirst=William+Woodthorpe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122_203-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorkot1996122_203-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorkot1996">Morkot 1996</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2010193_204-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010">Roisman & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1993" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Andrew (1993). 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H. Oldfather. Vol. 4–8</a>. Harvard University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709192544/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0084:book%3D17:chapter%3D37">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diodorus+of+Sicily+in+Twelve+Volumes+with+an+English+Translation+by+C.+H.+Oldfather.+Vol.+4%E2%80%938.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Siculus&rft.aufirst=Diodorus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0084%253Abook%253D17%253Achapter%253D37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999010243chapter4highlightlysippus_IV,_1]-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999010243chapter4highlightlysippus_IV,_1]_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter=4&highlight=lysippus">IV, 1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenault20131-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenault20131_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRenault2013">Renault 2013</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999040057entrycanqos_ξανθός]-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseustext1999040057entrycanqos_ξανθός]_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=canqo/s">ξανθός</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhouse1910" class="citation book cs1">Woodhouse, Sidney Chawner (1910). 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Orion Publishing Co. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=Orion+Publishing+Co&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkmannWunsche2007" class="citation book cs1">Brinkmann, Vinzenz; Wunsche, Raimund (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pictures.abebooks.com/inventory/31048007537_3.jpg">Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity</a>. Arthur M. Sackler / Harvard University Art Museum. p. 159. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043302/https://pictures.abebooks.com/inventory/31048007537_3.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2022. 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Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907200-02-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907200-02-1">978-1-907200-02-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Livius.org. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/">Roxane</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414100829/https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved on 30 August 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990102433Achapter3D47_LXVII,_1]-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990102433Achapter3D47_LXVII,_1]_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D47">LXVII, 1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Carney-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Carney_244-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2000" class="citation book cs1">Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-3212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Monarchy+in+Macedonia&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Donnelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchMoraliaFortuna_Alexandri2html_II,_6]-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchMoraliaFortuna_Alexandri2html_II,_6]_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1936">Plutarch 1936</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/2.html">II, 6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Metz Epitome 70 </li> <li id="cite_note-DSXVII114-247"><a href="#cite_ref-DSXVII114_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.114.1">XVII, 114</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-P72-248"><a href="#cite_ref-P72_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D72">LXXII, 1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009204-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden2009204_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden 2009</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_K._Hubbard2003" class="citation book cs1">Thomas K. Hubbard, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb">Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents</a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb/page/n97">79</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23430-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23430-7"><bdi>978-0-520-23430-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Homosexuality+in+Greece+and+Rome%3A+A+Sourcebook+of+Basic+Documents&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23430-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhomosexualitygre00hubb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AelXII7-251"><a href="#cite_ref-AelXII7_251-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAelian" class="citation cs2">Aelian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/aelian/varhist12.xhtml#chap7">"7"</a>, Varia Historia, vol. XII</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7&rft.btitle=Varia+Historia&rft.au=Aelian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2Faelian%2Fvarhist12.xhtml%23chap7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarilyn_Skinner2013" class="citation book cs1">Marilyn Skinner (2013). Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture (Ancient Cultures) (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4986-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4986-3"><bdi>978-1-4443-4986-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexuality+in+Greek+and+Roman+Culture+%28Ancient+Cultures%29&rft.pages=190&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-4986-3&rft.au=Marilyn+Skinner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESacks199516-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESacks199516_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSacks1995">Sacks 1995</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Hubbard2014" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Hubbard (2014). "Chapter 8: Peer Homosexuality". In Hubbard, Thomas (ed.). A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9572-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-9572-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Peer+Homosexuality&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+and+Roman+Sexualities&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9572-0&rft.au=Thomas+Hubbard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2009208-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden2009208_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden 2009</a>, p. 208... three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his father. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Renault1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Renault" title="Mary Renault">Mary Renault</a> (1979). <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_Alexander" title="The Nature of Alexander">The Nature of Alexander</a>. Pantheon. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-73825-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-73825-3"><bdi>978-0-394-73825-3</bdi></a>. <q>No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Alexander&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-394-73825-3&rft.au=Mary+Renault&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DSXVII77-257"><a href="#cite_ref-DSXVII77_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989">Diodorus Siculus 1989</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.77.1">XVII, 77</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Plutarch (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/2.html">"Moralia"</a>. University of Chicago. I, 11. Retrieved 19 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Moralia&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1936&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FMoralia%2FFortuna_Alexandri%2A%2F2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">"Alexander the Great's Achievements"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702234248/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alexander+the+Great%27s+Achievements&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fsummary%2FAlexander-the-Greats-Achievements&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19981205015304/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html">"World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.)"</a>. henry-davis.com. Henry Davis Consulting. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html">the original</a> on 5 December 1998. Retrieved 16 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=henry-davis.com&rft.atitle=World+map+according+to+Eratosthenes+%28194+B.C.%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.henry-davis.com%2FMAPS%2FAncient%2520Web%2520Pages%2F112.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-uconn-261"><a href="#cite_ref-uconn_261-0">^</a> Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf">East-West Orientation of Historical Empires</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf">Archived</a> 22 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–29 (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2007xii–xix_262-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. xii–xix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay200182–85-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay200182–85_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeay2001">Keay 2001</a>, pp. 82–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-livius-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-livius_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_264-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503150242/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html">"Alexander the Great: his towns"</a>. livius.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html">the original</a> on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+his+towns&rft.pub=livius.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Faj-al%2Falexander%2Falexander_z2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burn-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_265-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_265-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burn_265-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurn2004" class="citation book cs1">Burn, Lucilla (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhjC_AdoNsC&pg=PA10">Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus</a>. London: The British Museum Press. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-776-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-776-4"><bdi>978-0-89236-776-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Art%3A+From+Alexander+the+Great+to+Augustus&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=The+British+Museum+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-89236-776-4&rft.aulast=Burn&rft.aufirst=Lucilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTmhjC_AdoNsC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritishMuseum-266">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritishMuseum_266-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritishMuseum_266-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437260&partId=1&searchText=athena+polias&people=72426&page=1">"Collection online"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221426/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437260&partId=1&searchText=athena+polias&people=72426&page=1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collection+online&rft.pub=British+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D437260%26partId%3D1%26searchText%3Dathena%2Bpolias%26people%3D72426%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed on two sides. The inscription on the front records the gift of funds from Alexander the Great to complete the temple." </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&assetid=457544001&objectid=437260">"Priene Inscription"</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221617/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&assetid=457544001&objectid=437260">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Priene+Inscription&rft.pub=British+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details%2Fcollection_image_gallery.aspx%3Fpartid%3D1%26assetid%3D457544001%26objectid%3D437260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed. Part of the marble wall of the temple of Athena at Priene. Above: "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias." </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88">"Capitains Nemo"</a>. cts.perseids.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815194836/http://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cts.perseids.org&rft.atitle=Capitains+Nemo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcts.perseids.org%2Fread%2FgreekLit%2Ftlg2200%2Ftlg00411%2Fopp-grc1%2F88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowney2015" class="citation book cs1">Downey, Glanville (2015). "II The City of Seleucus the Conqueror". Ancient Antioch. Princeton University Press. pp. 27–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7671-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7671-6"><bdi>978-1-4008-7671-6</bdi></a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1708741">chapter 1708741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II+The+City+of+Seleucus+the+Conqueror&rft.btitle=Ancient+Antioch&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7671-6&rft.aulast=Downey&rft.aufirst=Glanville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117">"Suda, sigma, 117"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211014070448/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Suda%2C+sigma%2C+117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.uky.edu%2F~raphael%2Fsol%2Fsol-entries%2Fsigma%2F117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2023" class="citation news cs1">Simpson, Craig (18 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/11/18/ancient-iraqi-civilisation-worshipped-alexander-the-great/">"Ancient Iraqis may have worshipped Alexander the Great, says British Museum"</a>. The Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231121225300/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/11/18/ancient-iraqi-civilisation-worshipped-alexander-the-great/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Ancient+Iraqis+may+have+worshipped+Alexander+the+Great%2C+says+British+Museum&rft.date=2023-11-18&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fworld-news%2F2023%2F11%2F18%2Fancient-iraqi-civilisation-worshipped-alexander-the-great%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen200756–59_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreen2007">Green 2007</a>, pp. 56–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatermanMcDowellHopkins1998" class="citation web cs1">Waterman, Leroy; McDowell, Robert H.; Hopkins, Clark (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104113121/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Excavation/Seleucia.html">"Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq"</a>. umich.edu. 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In Stock, Markus (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2nqMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258">Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives</a>. Translated by Boettcher, Susan. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-4466-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-4466-3"><bdi>978-1-4426-4466-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Visual+Image+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Transcultural+Perspectives&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-4466-3&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2nqMCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, pp 158 </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://topostext.org/work/534#9.699">"ToposText"</a>. topostext.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201022239/https://topostext.org/work/534#9.699">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=topostext.org&rft.atitle=ToposText&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftopostext.org%2Fwork%2F534%239.699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://topostext.org/work/748#122">"ToposText"</a>. topostext.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201022206/https://topostext.org/work/748#122">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=topostext.org&rft.atitle=ToposText&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftopostext.org%2Fwork%2F748%23122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29le2Fcw_IV,_57]-323"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29le2Fcw_IV,_57]_323-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29le%2Fcw">IV, 57</a>: 'ἀλέξω'. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddellScott1940_324-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29nh2Fr_IV,_57]-325"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1919[httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdocPerseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3Da29nh2Fr_IV,_57]_325-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29nh%2Fr">IV, 57</a>: 'ἀνήρ'. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Alexander&searchmode=none">"Alexander"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090920175420/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Alexander&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alexander&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3DAlexander%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Spencer2019" class="citation book cs1">Diana Spencer (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048">"Alexander the Great, reception of"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.8048">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8048</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110030827/https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021. <q>Alexander enjoys the epithet the Great for the first time in Plautus's Roman comedy Mostellaria (775–777).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alexander+the+Great%2C+reception+of&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.series=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedias&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.8048&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.au=Diana+Spencer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-8048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macedonians-328"><a href="#cite_ref-Macedonians_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2008">Hornblower 2008</a>, pp. 55–58; <a href="#CITEREFJoint_Association_of_Classical_Teachers1984">Joint Association of Classical Teachers 1984</a>, pp. 50–51; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, pp. 607–08; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFJones2001">Jones 2001</a>, p. 21; <a href="#CITEREFOsborne2004">Osborne 2004</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFHammond1989">Hammond 1989</a>, pp. 12–13; <a href="#CITEREFHammond1993">Hammond 1993</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFStarr1991">Starr 1991</a>, pp. 260, 367; <a href="#CITEREFToynbee1981">Toynbee 1981</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 8, 219; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 22; <a href="#CITEREFPerlman1973">Perlman 1973</a>, p. 78; <a href="#CITEREFHamilton1974">Hamilton 1974</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFBryant1996">Bryant 1996</a>, p. 306; <a href="#CITEREFO'Brien1994">O'Brien 1994</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanforth199738,_49,_167-329"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanforth199738,_49,_167_329-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanforth1997">Danforth 1997</a>, pp. 38, 49, 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman20042-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman20042_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2004">Stoneman 2004</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003327–28-331"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003327–28_331-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy 2003</a>, pp. 327–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-Plutarch,_Caesar,_11-332"><a href="#cite_ref-Plutarch,_Caesar,_11_332-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0244:chapter=11&highlight=alexander">XI, 2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2003176–83-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2003176–83_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolland2003">Holland 2003</a>, pp. 176–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199745-334"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett199745_334-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnett1997">Barnett 1997</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> Ronald H. Fritze, Egyptomania: A History of Fascination, Obsession and Fantasy, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16426-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16426-8">978-0-300-16426-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46 </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> Leycester Coltman, The Real Fidel Castro, p 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> Nicolle, David (2000). Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-091-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-091-9">978-1-84176-091-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_M._Kern2011" class="citation book cs1">Karen M. Kern (2011). Imperial Citizen: Marriage and Citizenship in the Ottoman Frontier Provinces of Iraq. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Citizen%3A+Marriage+and+Citizenship+in+the+Ottoman+Frontier+Provinces+of+Iraq&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Karen+M.+Kern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Presgrave_Little1976" class="citation book cs1">Donald Presgrave Little (1976). Essays on Islamic civilization presented to Niyazi Berkes. p. 227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Islamic+civilization+presented+to+Niyazi+Berkes&rft.pages=227&rft.date=1976&rft.au=Donald+Presgrave+Little&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> Diodorus, <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Historica" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliotheca Historica">Bibliotheca Historica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17+1.5&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084">17.1.5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084">17.4</a>; Plutarch, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch#Life_of_Alexander" title="Plutarch">Life of Alexander</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plut.+Alex.+2.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243">2.1</a>; Pausanias, <a href="/wiki/Description_of_Greece" title="Description of Greece">Description of Greece</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.9.8&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160">1.9.8</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D11%3Asection%3D1">1.11.1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.8.9&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160">7.8.9</a>; Arrian, <a href="/wiki/Anabasis_of_Alexander" title="Anabasis of Alexander">Anabasis of Alexander</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/L236ArrianIAnabasisOfAlexander14/page/148/mode/2up?view=theater">2.7.4</a>; Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.22.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">5.22.1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D5%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D2">5.22.2</a>; Isocrates, To Philip <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0010,020:32">32</a>; Thucydides, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D99%3Asection%3D3">2.99,3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2008">Hornblower 2008</a>, pp. 55–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELane_Fox198072–73-346"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELane_Fox198072–73_346-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane_Fox1980">Lane Fox 1980</a>, pp. 72–73. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArrian1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> (1976). <a href="/wiki/Aubrey_de_S%C3%A9lincourt" title="Aubrey de Sélincourt">de Sélincourt, Aubrey</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Anabasis_Alexandri" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabasis Alexandri">Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander)</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044253-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044253-3"><bdi>978-0-14-044253-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anabasis+Alexandri+%28The+Campaigns+of+Alexander%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044253-3&rft.au=Arrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolfe1946" class="citation book cs1">Rolfe, John, ed. (1946). "<a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html">History of Alexander</a>. <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923180024/http://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Quintus+Curtius+Rufus&rft.btitle=History+of+Alexander&rft.pub=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1946&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.attalus.org%2Finfo%2Fcurtius.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Siculus, Diodorus</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4">"Library of History"</a>. CH Oldfather, translator. <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924214821/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2015. 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Perseus Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111021034907/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0243">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plutarch%2C+Alexander&rft.pub=Perseus+Project&rft.date=1919&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1936" class="citation book cs1">Plutarch (1936). Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/">On the Fortune of Alexander</a>. Vol. IV. <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>. pp. 379–487. Retrieved 26 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Fortune+of+Alexander&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E379-%3C%2Fspan%3E487&rft.pub=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1936&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FMoralia%2FFortuna_Alexandri%2A%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrogus1853" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Trogus, Pompeius (1853). Justin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131108235820/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/">"Epitome of the Philippic History"</a>. Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum. Rev. John Selby Watson, translator. Archived from the original on 8 November 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corpus+Scriptorum+Latinorum&rft.atitle=Epitome+of+the+Philippic+History&rft.date=1853&rft.aulast=Trogus&rft.aufirst=Pompeius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forumromanum.org%2Fliterature%2Fjustin%2Fenglish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1997" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, C. (1997). Bonaparte. Wordsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-678-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-678-2"><bdi>978-1-85326-678-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bonaparte&rft.pub=Wordsworth&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85326-678-2&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaynes2007" class="citation book cs1">Baynes, Norman G (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HdHiVlZ3ErIC">"Byzantine art"</a>. Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Baynes. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5659-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5659-3"><bdi>978-1-4067-5659-3</bdi></a>. 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Trafford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4120-5600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4120-5600-7"><bdi>978-1-4120-5600-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moses+in+the+Hieroglyphs&rft.pub=Trafford&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4120-5600-7&rft.aulast=Berkley&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN7mj2NhCGNYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBose2003" class="citation book cs1">Bose, Partha (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74114-113-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74114-113-9"><bdi>978-1-74114-113-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%27s+Art+of+Strategy&rft.place=Crows+Nest%2C+NSW&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-74114-113-9&rft.aulast=Bose&rft.aufirst=Partha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1988" class="citation book cs1">Bosworth, A. B. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conquestempire00abbo">Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great</a>. 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London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 827–830. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-097-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-097-3"><bdi>978-0-71009-097-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ALEXANDER+THE+GREAT&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E827-%3C%2Fspan%3E830&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-71009-097-3&rft.aulast=Briant&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Falexander-the-great-356-23-bc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant1996" class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC">Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics</a>. Albany, NY: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3042-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-3042-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109042906/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2020. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06319-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06319-8"><bdi>978-0-520-06319-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Macedonia&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06319-8&rft.aulast=Errington&rft.aufirst=Robert+Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine1983" class="citation book cs1">Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john">The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03314-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Greeks%3A+A+Critical+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03314-6&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=John+Van+Antwerp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientgreeks00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFermor2006" class="citation book cs1">Fermor, Patrick Leigh (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8V5QBkD7IIYC">Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Book_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Book Review">New York Book Review</a>. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-188-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-188-2"><bdi>978-1-59017-188-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mani%3A+Travels+in+the+Southern+Peloponnese&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=New+York+Book+Review&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-188-2&rft.aulast=Fermor&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Leigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8V5QBkD7IIYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer2004" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, M. M. J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KibBH6cI8BgC">Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry</a>. Duke University Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3298-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3298-5"><bdi>978-0-8223-3298-5</bdi></a>. 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New York: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-058558-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-058558-7"><bdi>978-0-06-058558-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleopatra+the+Great%3A+The+Woman+Behind+the+Legend&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-058558-7&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Joann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcleopatragreatwo00flet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForeman2004" class="citation book cs1">Foreman, Laura (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rVEa4nzLkT4C">Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king</a>. <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a>. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81293-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81293-4"><bdi>978-0-306-81293-4</bdi></a>. 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Greenwood. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97809-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97809-9"><bdi>978-0-275-97809-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+army+of+Byzantium&rft.btitle=The+Great+Armies+of+Antiquity&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97809-9&rft.aulast=Gabriel&rft.aufirst=Richard+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy1ngxn_xTOIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGergel2004" class="citation book cs1">Gergel, Tania, ed. 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New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96930-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96930-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2003" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, A. (2003). The Fall of Carthage. Cassel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36642-2"><bdi>978-0-304-36642-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Carthage&rft.pub=Cassel&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-304-36642-2&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrafton2010" class="citation book cs1">Grafton, Anthony (2010). Most, Glenn W; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. 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London: Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2413-9"><bdi>978-0-7538-2413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunther2007" class="citation book cs1">Gunther, John (2007). Alexander the Great. 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Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+concerning+Epirus+and+Macedonia+before+Alexander&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Hakkert&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-256-1050-0&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTWwiAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondWalbank2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière</a>; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">Walbank, Frank William</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC">A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C.</a> Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). 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Wm B Eerdmans. p. 508. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4786-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4786-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-4786-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133402/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh7b4o6JQpIC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. 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Vol. 15. pp. 533–633.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Mathematical+Astronomy+in+India&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E533-%3C%2Fspan%3E633&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1996" class="citation book cs1">Pratt, James Bissett (1996). The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. Laurier Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1196-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1196-2"><bdi>978-81-206-1196-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pilgrimage+of+Buddhism+and+a+Buddhist+Pilgrimage&rft.pub=Laurier+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-206-1196-2&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=James+Bissett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRebuffat1996" class="citation book cs1">Rebuffat, Françoise (1996). La monnaie dans l'Antiquité. Picard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+monnaie+dans+l%27Antiquit%C3%A9&rft.pub=Picard&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Rebuffat&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenault2001" class="citation book cs1">Renault, Mary (2001). The Nature of Alexander the Great. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139076-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139076-5"><bdi>978-0-14-139076-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-14-139076-5&rft.aulast=Renault&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenault2013" class="citation book cs1">Renault, Mary (2013). The Nature of Alexander. 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Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-04-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+dictionary+of+historic+places&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn%2C+1994%E2%80%931996&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-04-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC">A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Worthington%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlkYFVJ3U-BIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007" class="citation book cs1">Sabin, P; van Wees, H; Whitby, M (2007). The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome. 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Constable & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-475270-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-475270-2"><bdi>978-0-09-475270-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ancient+Greek+World&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Co&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-09-475270-2&rft.aulast=Sacks&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarr1991" class="citation book cs1">Starr, Chester G. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA3kgtZU1iMC">A History of the Ancient World</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506628-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506628-9"><bdi>978-0-19-506628-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506628-9&rft.aulast=Starr&rft.aufirst=Chester+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbA3kgtZU1iMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoneman2004" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000ston">Alexander the Great</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31932-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31932-4"><bdi>978-0-415-31932-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-31932-4&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreat0000ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoneman1996" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (1996). "The Metamorphoses of Alexander Romance". In Schmeling, Gareth L (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm">The Novel in the Ancient World</a>. Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm/page/n602">601</a>–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09630-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09630-1"><bdi>978-90-04-09630-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Metamorphoses+of+Alexander+Romance&rft.btitle=The+Novel+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=601-12&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09630-1&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnovelancientworl00schm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudniczka1894" class="citation book cs1">Studniczka, Franz (1894). Achäologische Jahrbook 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ach%C3%A4ologische+Jahrbook+9&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Studniczka&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripathi1999" class="citation book cs1">Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC">History of Ancient India</a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0018-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0018-2"><bdi>978-81-208-0018-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0018-2&rft.aulast=Tripathi&rft.aufirst=Rama+Shankar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWbrcVcT-GbUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1981" class="citation book cs1">Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn">The Greeks and Their Heritages</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5"><bdi>978-0-19-215256-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks+and+Their+Heritages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-215256-5&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekstheirheri00toyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2001" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Michael (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5wDWn1dL6HMC">In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23192-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23192-4"><bdi>978-0-520-23192-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Footsteps+of+Alexander+the+Great%3A+A+Journey+from+Greece+to+Asia&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23192-4&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5wDWn1dL6HMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2003" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OiM51I7_A1gC">Alexander the Great: A Reader</a>. Routledge. p. 332. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29187-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29187-3"><bdi>978-0-415-29187-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+A+Reader&rft.pages=332&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-29187-3&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOiM51I7_A1gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2008" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CZsTAQAAIAAJ">Philip II of Macedonia</a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0"><bdi>978-0-300-12079-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+II+of+Macedonia&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12079-0&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCZsTAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYenne2010" class="citation book cs1">Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General. Palgrave MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61915-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61915-9"><bdi>978-0-230-61915-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+Lessons+From+History%27s+Undefeated+General&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61915-9&rft.aulast=Yenne&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadian1958" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian" title="Ernst Badian">Badian, Ernst</a> (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Unity+of+Mankind&rft.volume=7&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Badian&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeazleyAshmole1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._D._Beazley" class="mw-redirect" title="J. D. Beazley">Beazley, JD</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Ashmole" title="Bernard Ashmole">Ashmole, B</a> (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04131-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04131-7"><bdi>978-0-521-04131-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Sculpture+and+Painting&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.isbn=978-0-521-04131-7&rft.aulast=Beazley&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Ashmole%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowra1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bowra" title="Maurice Bowra">Bowra, Maurice</a> (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85799-122-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85799-122-2"><bdi>978-1-85799-122-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Experience&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85799-122-2&rft.aulast=Bowra&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardman2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a> (2019). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18175-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18175-2"><bdi>978-0-691-18175-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+From+His+Death+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18175-2&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurn1951" class="citation book cs1">Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2nd ed.). London: English Universities Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Hellenistic+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=English+Universities+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Burn&rft.aufirst=AR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRufus" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rufus, Quintus Curtius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html">"Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great"</a> (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quintus+Curtius+Rufus%2C+History+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=U+Chicago&rft.aulast=Rufus&rft.aufirst=Quintus+Curtius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCurtius%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatth00cart">Alexander the Great</a>. Overlook. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58567-565-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58567-565-4"><bdi>978-1-58567-565-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Overlook&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58567-565-4&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreatth00cart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoherty2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Doherty" title="Paul C. Doherty">Doherty, Paul</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780786713400">The Death of Alexander the Great</a>. Carroll & Graf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1340-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1340-0"><bdi>978-0-7867-1340-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1340-0&rft.aulast=Doherty&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780786713400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngels1978" class="citation book cs1">Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Logistics+of+the+Macedonian+Army&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=Donald+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFawcett2006" class="citation book cs1">Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howtolosebattlef0000unse">How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders</a>. Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-076024-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-076024-3"><bdi>978-0-06-076024-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+To+Lose+A+Battle%3A+Foolish+Plans+and+Great+Military+Blunders&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-06-076024-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowtolosebattlef0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">Fuller, JFC</a> (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q3M0NE2RJgYC">The Generalship of Alexander the Great</a>. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80371-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80371-0"><bdi>978-0-306-80371-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalship+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Eyre+%26+Spottiswoode&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80371-0&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=JFC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq3M0NE2RJgYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian</a> (2020). <a href="/wiki/Philip_and_Alexander:_Kings_and_Conquerors" title="Philip and Alexander: Kings and Conquerors">Philip and Alexander: Kings and Conquerors</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Head_of_Zeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of Zeus">Head of Zeus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78497-869-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78497-869-3"><bdi>978-1-78497-869-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+and+Alexander%3A+Kings+and+Conquerors&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Head+of+Zeus&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-78497-869-3&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)" title="Peter Green (historian)">Green, Peter</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree">Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07166-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07166-7"><bdi>978-0-520-07166-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+of+Macedon%3A+356%E2%80%93323+BC.+A+Historical+Biography&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07166-7&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexanderofmaced0000gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(American_author)" title="Robert Greene (American author)">Greene, Robert</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468">The 48 Laws of Power</a>. Penguin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468/page/351">351</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-028019-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-028019-7"><bdi>978-0-14-028019-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+48+Laws+of+Power&rft.pages=351&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-14-028019-7&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780670881468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, NGL</a> (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814883-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814883-8"><bdi>978-0-19-814883-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Macedonian+State%3A+Origins%2C+Institutions%2C+and+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814883-8&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=NGL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1994" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3rd ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+King%2C+Commander%2C+and+Statesman&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bristol+Classical+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=NGL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1997" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, NGL (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh">The Genius of Alexander the Great</a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=NGL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusofalexande00nglh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane_Fox1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox" title="Robin Lane Fox">Lane Fox, Robin</a> (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008878-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008878-6"><bdi>978-0-14-008878-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-14-008878-6&rft.aulast=Lane+Fox&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988">, also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMercer1962" class="citation book cs1">Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great. Boston: American Heritage Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=American+Heritage+Inc.&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Mercer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrindle1893" class="citation book cs1">McCrindle, J. W. (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YNAAAAIAAJ">The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin</a>. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invasion+of+India+by+Alexander+the+Great+as+Described+by+Arrian%2C+Q+Curtius%2C+Diodorus%2C+Plutarch%2C+and+Justin&rft.place=Westminster&rft.pub=Archibald+Constable+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=McCrindle&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA9YNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonti2023" class="citation book cs1">Monti, Giustina (2023). Alexander the Great: letters: a selection. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781800348622" title="Special:BookSources/9781800348622"><bdi>9781800348622</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+letters%3A+a+selection&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781800348622&rft.aulast=Monti&rft.aufirst=Giustina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyKatulaHillOchs2003" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880393-35-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-880393-35-2"><bdi>978-1-880393-35-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Synoptic+History+of+Classical+Rhetoric&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-880393-35-2&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=James+Jerome&rft.au=Katula%2C+Richard+A&rft.au=Hill%2C+Forbes+I&rft.au=Ochs%2C+Donovan+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNandanBhavan2003" class="citation book cs1">Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7276-301-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7276-301-5"><bdi>978-81-7276-301-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Death+March+Under+Asiatic+Impulse%3A+Epic+of+Anglo-Indian+Tragedy+in+Afghanistan&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-81-7276-301-5&rft.aulast=Nandan&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Bhavan%2C+BV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien1992" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+The+Invisible+Enemy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=John+Maxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPomeroyBursteinDolanRoberts1998" class="citation book cs1">Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecepol00sara">Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509742-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509742-9"><bdi>978-0-19-509742-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greece%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Cultural+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509742-9&rft.aulast=Pomeroy&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Burstein%2C+S&rft.au=Dolan%2C+W&rft.au=Roberts%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientgreecepol00sara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrevas2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Prevas" title="John Prevas">Prevas, John</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/envyofgodsalexan00prev">Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia</a> (3rd ed.). Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81268-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81268-2"><bdi>978-0-306-81268-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Envy+of+the+Gods%3A+Alexander+the+Great%27s+Ill-Fated+Journey+Across+Asia&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-306-81268-2&rft.aulast=Prevas&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenvyofgodsalexan00prev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoisman1995" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+Ancient+and+Modern+Perspectives&rft.place=Lexington%2C+MA&rft.series=Problems+in+European+Civilization&rft.pub=DC+Heath&rft.date=1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowson2022" class="citation book cs1">Rowson, Alex (2022). The Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great (Hardcover). London: William Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-828439-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-828439-8"><bdi>978-0-00-828439-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Young+Alexander%3A+The+Making+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Collins&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-00-828439-8&rft.aulast=Rowson&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavill1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">Savill, Agnes</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreathi0000savi_n3m7">Alexander the Great and His Time</a> (3rd ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+His+Time&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Barrie+%26+Rockliff&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Savill&rft.aufirst=Agnes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreathi0000savi_n3m7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1993" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faces+of+Power%3A+Alexander%27s+Image+and+Hellenistic+Politics&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Hellenistic+Culture+and+Society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoneman2008" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatli00ston">Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11203-0"><bdi>978-0-300-11203-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+A+Life+in+Legend&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-11203-0&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreatli00ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarn1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Woodthorpe_Tarn" title="William Woodthorpe Tarn">Tarn, WW</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499219">Alexander the Great</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Tarn&rft.aufirst=WW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.499219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1900" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Ide_Wheeler" title="Benjamin Ide Wheeler">Wheeler, Benjamin Ide</a> (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173405">Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history</a>. New York: GP Putnam's sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3B+the+merging+of+East+and+West+in+universal+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=GP+Putnam%27s+sons&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Ide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.173405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcken1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Wilcken" title="Ulrich Wilcken">Wilcken, Ulrich</a> (1997) [1932]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc">Alexander the Great</a>. New York: WW Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00381-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=WW+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00381-9&rft.aulast=Wilcken&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreat00wilc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2004" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-0162-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-0162-1"><bdi>978-1-4058-0162-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+Man+And+God&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-0162-1&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Alexander the Great at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Alexander_the_Great" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Alexander the Great">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" class="extiw" title="c:Alexander the Great">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" class="extiw" title="q:Alexander the Great">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Alexander III of Macedon">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Alexander_the_Great" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Alexander the Great">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Life_of_Alexander" class="extiw" title="v:Life of Alexander">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/On_the_trail_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="extiw" title="voy:On the trail of Alexander the Great">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Alexander the Great <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Alexander+the+Great&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Alexander+the+Great">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Alexander+the+Great&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelamarche1833" class="citation map cs1"><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Delamarche" title="Félix Delamarche">Delamarche, Félix</a> (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11738/">The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great</a> (Map).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Empire+and+Expeditions+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.date=1833&rft.aulast=Delamarche&rft.aufirst=F%C3%A9lix&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F11738%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRommCartledge" class="citation news cs1">Romm, James; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a>. "Two Great Historians on Alexander the Great". Forbes (conversations).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Two+Great+Historians+on+Alexander+the+Great&rft.aulast=Romm&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Cartledge%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+the+Great" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/12/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-one/">Part 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/17/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-two/">Part 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/20/two-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-3/">Part 3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2011/01/03/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-4/">Part 4</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/10/how-great-a-general-was-alexander/">Part 5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/28/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-6/">Part 6</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161204170928/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html">Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources</a>. Livius. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html">the original</a> on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2020.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06d9bkx">In Our Time: "Alexander the Great"</a> – BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Alexander the Great </div><div><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></div>Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Macedon">King of Macedon</a> 336–323 BC </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="4">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="2">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia#Macedonian_rulers,_330-129_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> 330–323 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs#Argead_Dynasty" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> 332–323 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New creation </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Lord of Asia 331–323 BC </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kings_of_Macedon207" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Template:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Template talk:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kings_of_Macedon207" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedon</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legendary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caranus_of_Macedon" title="Caranus of Macedon">Caranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenus_of_Macedon" title="Coenus of Macedon">Coenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrimmas_of_Macedon" title="Tyrimmas of Macedon">Tyrimmas</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vergina Sun"><img alt="Vergina Sun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/75px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/113px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/150px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>Vergina Sun</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas I of Macedon">Perdiccas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argaeus_I_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus I of Macedon">Argaeus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_Macedon" title="Philip I of Macedon">Philip I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeropus_I_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus I of Macedon">Aeropus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_of_Macedon" title="Alcetas of Macedon">Alcetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas I of Macedon">Amyntas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon" title="Orestes of Macedon">Orestes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus II of Macedon">Aeropus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_II_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas II of Macedon">Amyntas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Macedon" title="Pausanias of Macedon">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus II of Macedon">Argaeus II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Macedon" title="Alexander II of Macedon">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Aloros" title="Ptolemy of Aloros">Ptolemy of Aloros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_IV_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas IV of Macedon">Amyntas IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander III (the Great)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon" title="Philip IV of Macedon">Philip IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_I_of_Macedon" title="Antipater I of Macedon">Antipater I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon" title="Alexander V of Macedon">Alexander V</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynastic conflict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Ceraunus" title="Ptolemy Ceraunus">Ptolemy Ceraunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meleager_(king)" title="Meleager (king)">Meleager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_Etesias" title="Antipater Etesias">Antipater II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon" title="Sosthenes of Macedon">Sosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Conquest Rebel Kings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Alexander" title="Pseudo-Alexander">Pseudo-Alexander</a></li> <li>Pseudo-Philip/Pseudo-Perseus</li> <li>Euephenes</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hellenistic_rulers792" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Template:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Template talk:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hellenistic_rulers792" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> rulers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argeads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander III the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon" title="Philip IV of Macedon">Philip IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon" title="Alexander V of Macedon">Alexander V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_II_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipater II of Macedon">Antipater II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_Etesias" title="Antipater Etesias">Antipater Etesias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon" title="Sosthenes of Macedon">Sosthenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I Poliorcetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Philip VI</a> (pretender)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI" title="Cleopatra VI">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV" title="Berenice IV">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Cyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Cyrene">Monarchs of Cyrene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magas_of_Cyrene" title="Magas of Cyrene">Magas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_the_Fair" title="Demetrius the Fair">Demetrius the Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Apion" title="Ptolemy Apion">Ptolemy Apion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_II" title="Cleopatra Selene II">Cleopatra Selene II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II Theos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II Callinicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III Ceraunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V Eupator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander I Balas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II Nicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Thea" title="Cleopatra Thea">Cleopatra Thea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_of_Syria" title="Cleopatra Selene of Syria">Cleopatra Selene I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Epigonos" title="Ptolemy Epigonos">Ptolemy Epigonos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philetaerus" title="Philetaerus">Philetaerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_I" title="Eumenes I">Eumenes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_II_Philadelphus" title="Attalus II Philadelphus">Attalus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_I" title="Diodotus I">Diodotus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_II" title="Diodotus II">Diodotus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_I" title="Euthydemus I">Euthydemus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria" title="Demetrius I of Bactria">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_II" title="Euthydemus II">Euthydemus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_I" title="Antimachus I">Antimachus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantaleon" title="Pantaleon">Pantaleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_India" title="Demetrius II of India">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucratides_I" title="Eucratides I">Eucratides I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato_of_Bactria" title="Plato of Bactria">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucratides_II" title="Eucratides II">Eucratides II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocles_I" title="Heliocles I">Heliocles I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria" title="Demetrius I of Bactria">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_I" title="Antimachus I">Antimachus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantaleon" title="Pantaleon">Pantaleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollodotus_I" title="Apollodotus I">Apollodotus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_India" title="Demetrius II of India">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_II" title="Antimachus II">Antimachus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoilos_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoilos I">Zoilos I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathokleia" class="mw-redirect" title="Agathokleia">Agathokleia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias_Anicetus" title="Lysias Anicetus">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_I" title="Strato I">Strato I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antialcidas" title="Antialcidas">Antialcidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliokles_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliokles II">Heliokles II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyxenos_Epiphanes_Soter" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter">Polyxenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Aniketos" title="Demetrius III Aniketos">Demetrius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philoxenus_Anicetus" title="Philoxenus Anicetus">Philoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diomedes_Soter" title="Diomedes Soter">Diomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_Nikator" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas Nikator">Amyntas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epander" title="Epander">Epander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theophilos (king)">Theophilos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peukolaos" class="mw-redirect" title="Peukolaos">Peukolaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraso" title="Thraso">Thraso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicias_(Indo-Greek_king)" title="Nicias (Indo-Greek king)">Nicias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_II" title="Menander II">Menander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemidoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Artemidoros">Artemidoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaeus" title="Hermaeus">Hermaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archebius" title="Archebius">Archebius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephos_Euergetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephos Euergetes">Telephos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollodotus_II" title="Apollodotus II">Apollodotus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippostratos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippostratos">Hippostratos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysios_Soter" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysios Soter">Dionysios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoilos_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoilos II">Zoilos II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollophanes" title="Apollophanes">Apollophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_II" title="Strato II">Strato II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_III" title="Strato III">Strato III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bithynia" title="List of rulers of Bithynia">Monarchs of Bithynia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boteiras_of_Bithynia" title="Boteiras of Bithynia">Boteiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_of_Bithynia" title="Bas of Bithynia">Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipoetes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Zipoetes I of Bithynia">Zipoetes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes I of Bithynia">Nicomedes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipoetes_II_of_Bithynia" title="Zipoetes II of Bithynia">Zipoetes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etazeta_of_Bithynia" title="Etazeta of Bithynia">Etazeta</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziaelas_of_Bithynia" title="Ziaelas of Bithynia">Ziaelas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prusias_I_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias I of Bithynia">Prusias I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias II of Bithynia">Prusias II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_II_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes II of Bithynia">Nicomedes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes IV of Bithynia">Nicomedes IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates_Chrestus" title="Socrates Chrestus">Socrates Chrestus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Monarchs of Pontus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates I Ctistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_of_Pontus" title="Ariobarzanes of Pontus">Ariobarzanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates II of Pontus">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates III of Pontus">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces I of Pontus">Pharnaces I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates IV of Pontus">Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos</a> with <a href="/wiki/Laodice_(sister-wife_of_Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus)" title="Laodice (sister-wife of Mithridates IV of Pontus)">Laodice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates V of Pontus">Mithridates V Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator" title="Mithridates VI Eupator">Mithridates VI Eupator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_of_Pontus" title="Darius of Pontus">Darius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsaces_of_Pontus" title="Arsaces of Pontus">Arsaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythodorida of Pontus">Pythodorida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus" title="Polemon II of Pontus">Polemon II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Monarchs of Commagene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaeus_of_Commagene" title="Ptolemaeus of Commagene">Ptolemaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sames_II_Theosebes_Dikaios" title="Sames II Theosebes Dikaios">Sames II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_Callinicus" title="Mithridates I Callinicus">Mithridates I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Theos_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I Theos of Commagene">Antiochus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Commagene" title="Mithridates II of Commagene">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus II of Commagene">Antiochus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Commagene" title="Mithridates III of Commagene">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus III of Commagene">Antiochus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus IV of Commagene">Antiochus IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Cappadocia">Monarchs of Cappadocia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes I of Cappadocia">Ariarathes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_II_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes II of Cappadocia">Ariarathes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariamnes_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariamnes of Cappadocia">Ariamnes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes III of Cappadocia">Ariarathes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IV_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_V_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes V of Cappadocia">Ariarathes V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orophernes_of_Cappadocia" title="Orophernes of Cappadocia">Orophernes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VIII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IX_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_II_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_X_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes X of Cappadocia">Ariarathes X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Monarchs of the Cimmerian Bosporus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_I" title="Paerisades I">Paerisades I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyros_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyros II">Satyros II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prytanis_of_Bosporus" title="Prytanis of Bosporus">Prytanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumelos_of_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumelos of Bosporus">Eumelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartokos_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartokos III">Spartokos III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiainon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygiainon">Hygiainon</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_II" title="Paerisades II">Paerisades II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartokos_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartokos IV">Spartokos IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukon_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukon II">Leukon II</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spartokos_V&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spartokos V (page does not exist)">Spartokos V</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_V" class="extiw" title="ru:Спарток V">ru</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasarye_Philoteknos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasarye Philoteknos">Kamasarye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_III" title="Paerisades III">Paerisades III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_IV_Philometor" title="Paerisades IV Philometor">Paerisades IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_V" title="Paerisades V">Paerisades V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander_(Bosporan_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asander (Bosporan king)">Asander</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_the_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates I of the Bosporus">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander_(Bosporan_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asander (Bosporan king)">Asander</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribonius_(Bosporan_usurper)" title="Scribonius (Bosporan usurper)">Scribonius</a>'s attempted rule with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Aspurgus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiberius Julius Aspurgus">Aspurgus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepaepyris" title="Gepaepyris">Gepaepyris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Mithridates" title="Tiberius Julius Mithridates">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_I" title="Tiberius Julius Cotys I">Cotys I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_kings_of_Epirus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of the kings of Epirus">Monarchs of Epirus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admetus_of_Epirus" title="Admetus of Epirus">Admetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharrhypas" title="Tharrhypas">Tharrhypas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_I_of_Epirus" title="Alcetas I of Epirus">Alcetas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_I_of_Epirus" title="Neoptolemus I of Epirus">Neoptolemus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arybbas" class="mw-redirect" title="Arybbas">Arybbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus" title="Alexander I of Epirus">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeacides_of_Epirus" title="Aeacides of Epirus">Aeacides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_II_of_Epirus" title="Neoptolemus II of Epirus">Neoptolemus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_II_of_Epirus" title="Alcetas II of Epirus">Alcetas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Epirus" title="Alexander II of Epirus">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_II_of_Epirus" title="Olympias II of Epirus">Olympias II</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_II_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus II of Epirus">Pyrrhus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Epirus" title="Ptolemy of Epirus">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_III_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus III of Epirus">Pyrrhus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deidamia_II_of_Epirus" title="Deidamia II of Epirus">Deidamia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Hellenistic rulers were preceded by <a href="/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_satraps" title="Template:Hellenistic satraps">Hellenistic satraps</a> in most of their territories.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharaohs32" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharaohs" title="Template:Pharaohs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharaohs" title="Template talk:Pharaohs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharaohs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharaohs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharaohs32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Protodynastic_to_First_Intermediate_Period_(32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a> to <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a>  (<3150–2040 BC)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pharaohs <ul><li>male</li> <li>female♀</li></ul></li> <li>uncertain</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a> (pre-3150 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni-Neith" title="Ni-Neith">Ni-Neith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hat-Hor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hat-Hor">Hat-Hor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu (pharaoh)">Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_(pharaoh)" title="A (pharaoh)">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork_(pharaoh)" title="Stork (pharaoh)">Stork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bull_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull (pharaoh)">Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Crocodile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic</a> (3150–2686 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> (2686–2181 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">III</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedjes" title="Sedjes">Sedjes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">V</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">VI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferka" title="Neferka">Neferka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefer#Pharaoh" title="Nefer">Nefer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1st Intermediate</a> (2181–2040 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">VII</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">VIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare III Neby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare IV Khendu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare V Tereru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare VI Pepiseneb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Iby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadjkare" title="Wadjkare">Wadjkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuiqer" title="Khuiqer">Khuiqer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khui" title="Khui">Khui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iytjenu" title="Iytjenu">Iytjenu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">IX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imhotep_(pharaoh)" title="Imhotep (pharaoh)">Imhotep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">X</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Middle_Kingdom_and_Second_Intermediate_Period_(2040–1550_BC)32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a>  (2040–1550 BC)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pharaohs <ul><li>male</li> <li>female♀</li></ul></li> <li>uncertain</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> (2040–1802 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">XI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em">Nubia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Segerseni" title="Segerseni">Segerseni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ini" title="Qakare Ini">Qakare Ini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iyibkhentre" title="Iyibkhentre">Iyibkhentre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">XII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seankhibtawy_Seankhibra" title="Seankhibtawy Seankhibra">Seankhibtawy Seankhibra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2nd Intermediate</a> (1802–1550 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemre_Khutawy_Sobekhotep" title="Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep">Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonbef" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonbef">Sonbef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerikare" title="Nerikare">Nerikare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemkare" title="Sekhemkare">Sekhemkare Amenemhat V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameny_Qemau" title="Ameny Qemau">Ameny Qemau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotepibre" title="Hotepibre">Hotepibre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iufni" title="Iufni">Iufni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemhet_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenemhet VI">Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semenkare_Nebnuni" title="Semenkare Nebnuni">Semenkare Nebnuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sehetepibre" title="Sehetepibre">Sehetepibre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewadjkare" title="Sewadjkare">Sewadjkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nedjemibre" title="Nedjemibre">Nedjemibre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaankhre_Sobekhotep" title="Khaankhre Sobekhotep">Khaankhre Sobekhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renseneb" title="Renseneb">Renseneb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hor" title="Hor">Hor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemrekhutawy_Khabaw" title="Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw">Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedkheperew" title="Djedkheperew">Djedkheperew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebkay" title="Sebkay">Sebkay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedjefakare" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedjefakare">Sedjefakare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wegaf" title="Wegaf">Wegaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khendjer" title="Khendjer">Khendjer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imyremeshaw" title="Imyremeshaw">Imyremeshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sehetepkare_Intef" title="Sehetepkare Intef">Sehetepkare Intef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_Meribre" title="Seth Meribre">Seth Meribre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekhotep_III" title="Sobekhotep III">Sobekhotep III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferhotep_I" title="Neferhotep I">Neferhotep I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sihathor" title="Sihathor">Sihathor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekhotep_IV" title="Sobekhotep IV">Sobekhotep IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merhotepre_Sobekhotep" title="Merhotepre Sobekhotep">Merhotepre Sobekhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekhotep_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobekhotep VI">Khahotepre Sobekhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahibre_Ibiau" title="Wahibre Ibiau">Wahibre Ibiau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merneferre_Ay" title="Merneferre Ay">Merneferre Ay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merhotepre_Ini" title="Merhotepre Ini">Merhotepre Ini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankhenre_Sewadjtu" title="Sankhenre Sewadjtu">Sankhenre Sewadjtu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersekhemre_Ined" title="Mersekhemre Ined">Mersekhemre Ined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewadjkare_Hori" title="Sewadjkare Hori">Sewadjkare Hori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkawre_Sobekhotep" title="Merkawre Sobekhotep">Merkawre Sobekhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mershepsesre_Ini_II" title="Mershepsesre Ini II">Mershepsesre Ini II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewahenre_Senebmiu" title="Sewahenre Senebmiu">Sewahenre Senebmiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkheperre" title="Merkheperre">Merkheperre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkare" title="Merkare">Merkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewadjare_Mentuhotep" title="Sewadjare Mentuhotep">Sewadjare Mentuhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seheqenre_Sankhptahi" title="Seheqenre Sankhptahi">Seheqenre Sankhptahi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yakbim_Sekhaenre" title="Yakbim Sekhaenre">Yakbim Sekhaenre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27ammu_Nubwoserre" title="Ya'ammu Nubwoserre">Ya'ammu Nubwoserre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qareh" class="mw-redirect" title="Qareh">Qareh Khawoserre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aahotepre" class="mw-redirect" title="Aahotepre">'Ammu Ahotepre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheshi" title="Sheshi">Maaibre Sheshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehesy" title="Nehesy">Nehesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakherewre" class="mw-redirect" title="Khakherewre">Khakherewre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebefawre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebefawre">Nebefawre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sehebre" title="Sehebre">Sehebre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merdjefare" title="Merdjefare">Merdjefare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewadjkare_III" title="Sewadjkare III">Sewadjkare III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebdjefare" title="Nebdjefare">Nebdjefare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebsenre" title="Nebsenre">Nebsenre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekheperenre" title="Sekheperenre">Sekheperenre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bebnum" title="Bebnum">Bebnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Apepi" title="'Apepi">'Apepi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuya" title="Nuya">Nuya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wazad" title="Wazad">Wazad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheneh_(pharaoh)" title="Sheneh (pharaoh)">Sheneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenshek" title="Shenshek">Shenshek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamure" title="Khamure">Khamure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakareb" title="Yakareb">Yakareb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqub-Har" title="Yaqub-Har">Yaqub-Har</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharek" title="Sharek">Sharek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salitis" title="Salitis">Salitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanassi" title="Yanassi">Yanassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apepi" title="Apepi">Apepi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Djehuti" class="mw-redirect" title="Djehuti">Djehuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekhotep_VIII" title="Sobekhotep VIII">Sobekhotep VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferhotep_III" title="Neferhotep III">Neferhotep III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seankhenre_Mentuhotepi" title="Seankhenre Mentuhotepi">Mentuhotepi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebiryraw_I" title="Nebiryraw I">Nebiryraw I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebiriau_II" title="Nebiriau II">Nebiriau II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semenre" title="Semenre">Semenre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bebiankh" title="Bebiankh">Bebiankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemre_Shedwast" class="mw-redirect" title="Sekhemre Shedwast">Sekhemre Shedwast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedumose_I" title="Dedumose I">Dedumose I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedumose_II" title="Dedumose II">Dedumose II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedankhre_Montemsaf" title="Djedankhre Montemsaf">Montuemsaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merankhre_Mentuhotep" title="Merankhre Mentuhotep">Merankhre Mentuhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senusret_IV" title="Senusret IV">Senusret IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepi_III" title="Pepi III">Pepi III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senebkay" title="Senebkay">Senebkay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wepwawetemsaf" title="Wepwawetemsaf">Wepwawetemsaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantjeny" title="Pantjeny">Pantjeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snaaib" title="Snaaib">Snaaib</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rahotep" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahotep">Rahotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebmaatre" title="Nebmaatre">Nebmaatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekemsaf_I" title="Sobekemsaf I">Sobekemsaf I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobekemsaf_II" title="Sobekemsaf II">Sobekemsaf II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemre-Wepmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubkheperre_Intef" title="Nubkheperre Intef">Nubkheperre Intef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senakhtenre_Ahmose" title="Senakhtenre Ahmose">Senakhtenre Ahmose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao" title="Seqenenre Tao">Seqenenre Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="New_Kingdom_and_Third_Intermediate_Period_(1550–664_BC)32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a>  (1550–664 BC)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Pharaohs  (male</li><li>female♀)</li><li>uncertain</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (1550–1070 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tausret" title="Tausret">Tausret</a>♀</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">XX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3rd Intermediate</a> (1069–664 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Amun" title="High Priest of Amun">High Priests of Amun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piankh" title="Piankh">Piankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinedjem_I" title="Pinedjem I">Pinedjem I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masaharta" title="Masaharta">Masaharta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djedkhonsuefankh" title="Djedkhonsuefankh">Djedkhonsuefankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menkheperre" title="Menkheperre">Menkheperre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smendes_II" title="Smendes II">Smendes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinedjem_II" title="Pinedjem II">Pinedjem II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psusennes_III" title="Psusennes III">Psusennes III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">XXII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutkheperre_Shoshenq" title="Tutkheperre Shoshenq">Tutkheperre Shoshenq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">XXIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iuput_I" title="Iuput I">Iuput I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VII" title="Shoshenq VII">Shoshenq VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">XXV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Late_to_Roman_Period_(664_BC–313_AD)32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Period</a> (664 BC–313 AD)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pharaohs <ul><li>male</li> <li>female♀</li></ul></li> <li>uncertain</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late</a> (664–332 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammeris" title="Ammeris">Ammeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefnakht_II" title="Tefnakht II">Tefnakht II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekauba" title="Nekauba">Nekauba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">XXVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petubastis_III" title="Petubastis III">Petubastis III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psammetichus_IV" title="Psammetichus IV">Psammetichus IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nepherites_I" title="Nepherites I">Nepherites I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakor" title="Hakor">Hakor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psammuthes" title="Psammuthes">Psammuthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepherites_II" title="Nepherites II">Nepherites II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muthis" title="Muthis">Muthis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">XXX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_I" title="Nectanebo I">Nectanebo I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teos_of_Egypt" title="Teos of Egypt">Teos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabash" title="Khabash">Khabash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Arses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> (332–30 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III" title="Cleopatra III">Cleopatra III</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_III" title="Berenice III">Berenice III</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphaneia</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaena" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI Tryphaena">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIV Philopator">Ptolemy XIV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman</a> (30 BC–313 AD)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="XXXIV23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">XXXIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrianus_Minor" title="Macrianus Minor">Macrianus Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietus" title="Quietus">Quietus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Mussius_Aemilianus" title="Lucius Mussius Aemilianus">Lucius Mussius Aemilianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus Daza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Dynastic_genealogies32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Dynastic genealogies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="First Dynasty of Egypt family tree">1st</a></li> <li>2nd</li> <li>3rd</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st,_22nd_%26_23rd_dynasties_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree">21st to 23rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">24th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">25th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">26th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">27th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">30th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">31st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty#Family_tree" title="Argead dynasty">Argead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic family tree">Ptolemaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List of pharaohs</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kings_of_Babylon340" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Babylonian_kings" title="Template:Babylonian kings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Babylonian_kings" title="Template talk:Babylonian kings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Babylonian_kings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Babylonian kings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kings_of_Babylon340" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Kings of Babylon</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Babylon" title="List of kings of Babylon">List of kings of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty90" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Kings  (foreign ruler</li><li>vassal king</li><li>female♀)</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (1894–1595 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Amorite_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite dynasty">I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit" title="Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abi-Eshuh" title="Abi-Eshuh">Abi-Eshuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammi-Ditana" title="Ammi-Ditana">Ammi-Ditana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammi-Saduqa" title="Ammi-Saduqa">Ammi-Saduqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/First_Sealand_dynasty" title="First Sealand dynasty">II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a></li> <li>Unknown king (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a></li> <li>mDIŠ+U-EN</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite period</a> (1729–1157 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="III23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">III</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandash" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandash">Gandash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agum_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Agum I">Agum I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliash I">Kashtiliash I</a></li> <li>Unknown king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abi-Rattash" class="mw-redirect" title="Abi-Rattash">Abi-Rattash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliash II">Kashtiliash II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urzigurumash" class="mw-redirect" title="Urzigurumash">Urzigurumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agum_II" title="Agum II">Agum II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harba-Shipak" class="mw-redirect" title="Harba-Shipak">Harba-Shipak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipta%27ulzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shipta'ulzi">Shipta'ulzi</a></li> <li>Unknown king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a></li> <li>Kadashman-Sah</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_I" title="Kadashman-Harbe I">Kadashman-Harbe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burna-Buriash_II" title="Burna-Buriash II">Burna-Buriash II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_IV" title="Kashtiliash IV">Kashtiliash IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian period</a> (1157–732 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sealand_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Sealand dynasty">V</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Bazi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bazi dynasty">VI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_dynasty" title="Elamite dynasty">VII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_E" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasty of E">VIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-suma-ukin_II" title="Nabu-suma-ukin II">Nabu-suma-ukin II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian period</a> (732–626 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="IX119" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_dynasty_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian dynasty of Babylon">IX</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0.2em 0.2em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%A1%C5%A1ur-n%C4%81din-%C5%A1umi" title="Aššur-nādin-šumi">Aššur-nādin-šumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ama%C5%A1-%C5%A1uma-ukin" title="Šamaš-šuma-ukin">Šamaš-šuma-ukin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandalanu" title="Kandalanu">Kandalanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-%C5%A1umu-l%C4%AB%C5%A1ir" title="Sîn-šumu-līšir">Sîn-šumu-līšir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (626–539 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="X22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_dynasty" title="Chaldean dynasty">X</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:1.0em 0.2em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Babylon_under_foreign_rule_(539_BC_–_AD_224)340" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Babylon under foreign rule (539 BC – AD 224)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian period</a> (539–331 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="XI25" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">XI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0.2em 0.2em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Bardiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_III" title="Nebuchadnezzar III">Nebuchadnezzar III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_IV" title="Nebuchadnezzar IV">Nebuchadnezzar IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamash-eriba" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamash-eriba">Shamash-eriba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel-shimanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel-shimanni">Bel-shimanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_II" title="Xerxes II">Xerxes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdianus" title="Sogdianus">Sogdianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Artaxerxes IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nidin-Bel" title="Nidin-Bel">Nidin-Bel</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> (331–141 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">XII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">XIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I Soter</a></li> <li>Seleucus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II Theos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II Callinicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III Ceraunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III Megas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_(son_of_Antiochus_III_the_Great)" title="Antiochus (son of Antiochus III the Great)">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_(son_of_Seleucus_IV)" title="Antiochus (son of Seleucus IV)">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V Eupator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timarchus" title="Timarchus">Timarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander Balas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II Nicator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:13em"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian period</a> (141 BC – AD 224)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="XIV23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid dynasty">XIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinnu" title="Rinnu">Rinnu</a>♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates II</a></li> <li>Ubulna♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes I</a></li> <li>Asi'abatar♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a></li> <li>Ispubarza♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a></li> <li>Piriustana♀</li> <li>Teleuniqe♀</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II" title="Gotarzes II">Gotarzes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_III_of_Parthia" title="Vologases III of Parthia">Vologases III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Kings_of_Babylon" title="Category:Kings of Babylon">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link 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href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8409#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122835816">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/88742742">VIAF</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/101353608">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/281151028">3</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/607154380951330290701">4</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/99934177">5</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/773144647700590707289">6</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/765144647704392521762">7</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/238144647698704607750">8</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316415327">9</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01681468?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500280655">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118501828">FID</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/785558">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118501828.html?language=en">Deutsche 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-5p2x4","wgBackendResponseTime":178,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"5.201","walltime":"5.641","ppvisitednodes":{"value":57395,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1177288,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":159847,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":46,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":953279,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4743.506 1 -total"," 24.64% 1168.789 1 Template:OSM_Location_map"," 23.83% 1130.530 1 Template:OSM_Location_map/core"," 21.63% 1026.209 2 Template:Reflist"," 21.45% 1017.408 168 Template:Cite_book"," 16.30% 772.961 18 Template:OSM_Location_map/cssmapping"," 10.57% 501.580 164 Template:Sfn"," 10.09% 478.839 2 Template:Infobox"," 7.65% 362.700 60 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1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownHutton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurn1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBursztajn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCambonJarrige2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarney2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCawkwell1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCawthorne2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristides2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnerney2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtisTallisAndre-Salvini2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDahmen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanforth1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarvishi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_George_Hogarth1897\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelamarche1833\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDepuydt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiana_Spencer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodge1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoherty2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_Presgrave_Little1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonde2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoufikar-Aerts2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowney2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurant1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngels1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErrington1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFawcett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFermor2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFine1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForeman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabriel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGergel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerinGrandjeanAmandryde_Callatay2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrafton2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham_Shipley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunther2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammondWalbank2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeckel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeckelTritle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolland2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblower2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoweBrice2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoint_Association_of_Classical_Teachers1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaren_M._Kern2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeay2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosmetatou1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKosmin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLE_RIDER2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane_Fox1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane_Fox1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane_Fox1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane_Fox2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuniya1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddoxSturm-Maddox2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarilyn_Skinner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarrCalisher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMary_Renault1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarty2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCrindle1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCrindle1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKechnie1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMercer1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonti2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorkot1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphyKatulaHillOchs2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMínguez_CornellesRodríguez_Moya2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNandanBhavan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarain1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNawotka2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgden2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOldachRichardBorzaBenitez1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborne2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen_Jarus2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapapostolou2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParise2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerlman1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPingree1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittRichardson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomeroyBursteinDolanRoberts1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrevas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProser2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRebuffat1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenault2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenault2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRingSalkinBerneySchellinger1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoisman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRolfe1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRommCartledge\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowson2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRufus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabinvan_WeesWhitby2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSacks1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavill1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSbarounis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchepSlaughterValeWheatley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiculus1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSismondo_Ridgway1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquires2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarr1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart1993\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFStoneman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrudwick2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStudniczka1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvechin1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarn1948\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_Hubbard2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_K._Hubbard2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripathi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrogus1853\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlrich_Wilcken1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatermanMcDowellHopkins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilcken1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhouse1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorthington2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorthington2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorthington2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYenne2010\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Alexander the Great series\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Egyptian royal titulary case\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Babylonian kings\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 5,\n [\"Campaigns of Alexander the Great\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 168,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite map\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 36,\n [\"Cnote2\"] = 9,\n [\"Cnote2 Begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Cnote2 End\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Coord\"] = 16,\n [\"Cref2\"] = 9,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Encyclopaedia Iranica\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 151,\n [\"Hellenistic rulers\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 5,\n [\"Infobox pharaoh/Prenomen\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox pharaoh/Serekh\"] = 4,\n [\"Infobox royalty\"] = 1,\n [\"Kings of Macedon\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 11,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 16,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OSM Location map\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 6,\n [\"Pharaohs\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Project MUSE\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 2,\n [\"S-break\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-hou\"] = 1,\n [\"S-new\"] = 1,\n [\"S-reg\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 164,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 19,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 8,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Yes2\"] = 20,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = 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