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Observation history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Observation_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Observation history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Observation_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Milky_Way" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milky_Way"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Milky Way </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milky_Way-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_from_other_nebulae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_from_other_nebulae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Distinction from other nebulae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_from_other_nebulae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multi-wavelength_observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multi-wavelength_observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Multi-wavelength observation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multi-wavelength_observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Modern research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_and_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_and_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Types and morphology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_and_morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types and morphology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types_and_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ellipticals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ellipticals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Ellipticals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ellipticals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Type-cD_galaxies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type-cD_galaxies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Type-cD galaxies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type-cD_galaxies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shell_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shell_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Shell galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shell_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Spirals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barred_spiral_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barred_spiral_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Barred spiral galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barred_spiral_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Super-luminous_spiral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Super-luminous_spiral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Super-luminous spiral </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Super-luminous_spiral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_morphologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_morphologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other morphologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_morphologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dwarfs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dwarfs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Dwarfs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dwarfs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Variants </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Variants subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interacting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interacting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Interacting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interacting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Starburst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Starburst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Starburst </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Starburst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Radio galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Active galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seyfert_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seyfert_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Seyfert galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seyfert_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quasar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quasar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Quasar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quasar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_AGNs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_AGNs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Other AGNs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_AGNs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luminous_infrared_galaxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luminous_infrared_galaxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Luminous infrared galaxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luminous_infrared_galaxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_diameters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_diameters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Physical diameters </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_diameters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physical diameters subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_diameters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Angular_diameter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angular_diameter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Angular diameter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angular_diameter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isophotal_diameter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isophotal_diameter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Isophotal diameter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isophotal_diameter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effective_radius_(half-light)_and_its_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effective_radius_(half-light)_and_its_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Effective radius (half-light) and its variations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effective_radius_(half-light)_and_its_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petrosian_magnitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petrosian_magnitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Petrosian magnitude </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petrosian_magnitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Near-infrared_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Near-infrared_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Near-infrared method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Near-infrared_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Larger-scale_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Larger-scale_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Larger-scale structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Larger-scale_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Magnetic fields </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Formation and evolution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formation_and_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Formation and evolution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Future trends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Galaxy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 177 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-177" aria-hidden="true" > 177 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrestelsel" title="Sterrestelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sterrestelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A8%E1%8C%A8%E1%89%B5" title="ረጨት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ረጨት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="मंदाकिनी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मंदाकिनी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="مجرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="তাৰকাৰাজ্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="তাৰকাৰাজ্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxa" title="Galaxa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Galaxa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapyvore" title="Arapyvore – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arapyvore" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Галаксия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Галаксия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalaktika" title="Qalaktika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qalaktika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="قالاکسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قالاکسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A5" title="ছায়াপথ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ছায়াপথ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AEn-h%C3%B4" title="Gîn-hô – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gîn-hô" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галактыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галяктыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Галяктыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="गैलेक्सी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="गैलेक्सी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B" title="སྐར་མའི་མ་ལག་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐར་མའི་མ་ལག་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksienn" title="Galaksienn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Galaksienn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A0xia" title="Galàxia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Galàxia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzvcazi" title="Muzvcazi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Muzvcazi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaeth" title="Galaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Galaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="مجرة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="مجرة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Γαλαξίες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλαξίες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A2sia" title="Galâsia – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Galâsia" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksio" title="Galaksio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Galaksio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کهکشان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کهکشان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_ke_samundar" title="Tara ke samundar – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Tara ke samundar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rnubreyt" title="Stjørnubreyt – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Stjørnubreyt" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stjerrestelsel_(molkewei)" title="Stjerrestelsel (molkewei) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Stjerrestelsel (molkewei)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassie" title="Galassie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Galassie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9altra" title="Réaltra – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réaltra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-rollageys" title="Co-rollageys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Co-rollageys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reul-chrios" title="Reul-chrios – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Reul-chrios" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAn-hi" title="Sên-hi – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sên-hi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%80%ED%95%98" title="은하 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="은하" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գալակտիկաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գալակտիկաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="मन्दाकिनी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मन्दाकिनी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxio" title="Galaxio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Galaxio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%A4y%E1%BB%8Dk%E1%BB%8D_kpakpando" title="Ụyọkọ kpakpando – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ụyọkọ kpakpando" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariwanas" title="Ariwanas – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ariwanas" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxe" title="Galaxe – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Galaxe" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umthalakazi" title="Umthalakazi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umthalakazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B6rnu%C3%BEoka" title="Stjörnuþoka – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjörnuþoka" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="גלקסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גלקסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naal%C9%A9m_maya%C9%A3" title="Naalɩm mayaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Naalɩm mayaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1" title="ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಾಂಡ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಾಂಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Galaxy" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Мырыт – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Мырыт" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გალაქტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გალაქტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%82_%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%96%D8%B1" title="جادۂ شيٖر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="جادۂ شيٖر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majarra" title="Majarra – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Majarra" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaks%C3%AE" title="Galaksî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Galaksî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxias" title="Galaxias – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Galaxias" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starest%C3%A8lsel" title="Starestèlsel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Starestèlsel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galasia" title="Galasia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Galasia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/barda_tarci_bo_girzu" title="barda tarci bo girzu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="barda tarci bo girzu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxis" title="Galaxis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Galaxis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Галаксија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Галаксија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vondron-kintana" title="Vondron-kintana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vondron-kintana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%82" title="താരാപഥം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="താരാപഥം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दीर्घिका – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="दीर्घिका" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გალაქტიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გალაქტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%87" title="مجره – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مجره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%86" title="کهکشون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کهکشون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1xia" title="Galáxia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Galáxia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Галактикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Галактикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Галактик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Галактик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%AE" title="ဂယ်လက်ဆီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂယ်လက်ဆီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citlalpopocac" title="Citlalpopocac – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Citlalpopocac" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoso_kalokalo" title="Isoso kalokalo – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Isoso kalokalo" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrenstelsel" title="Sterrenstelsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sterrenstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C" title="तारापुञ्ज – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="तारापुञ्ज" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3" title="銀河 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="銀河" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksii" title="Galaksii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Galaksii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9B%E0%AC%BE%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%A5" title="ଛାୟାପଥ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଛାୟାପଥ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE" title="ਅਕਾਸ਼ਗੰਗਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਕਾਸ਼ਗੰਗਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="تارا سمندر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تارا سمندر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کهکشان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کهکشان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gialaxi" title="Gialaxi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gialaxi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galacsie" title="Galacsie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Galacsie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktyka" title="Galaktyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Galaktyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1xia" title="Galáxia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Galáxia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samodor" title="Samodor – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Samodor" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91u%C3%B1u_warani" title="Ñuñu warani – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñuñu warani" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ґалаксія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґалаксія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галаактика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Галаактика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE" title="आकाशगङ्गा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आकाशगङ्गा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yllplimja" title="Yllplimja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Yllplimja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%92" title="මන්දාකිණි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මන්දාකිණි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Galaxy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%87%DA%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ڪهڪشان – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪهڪشان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1%DB%95" title="گەلەستێرە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەلەستێرە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Галаксија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Галаксија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galax" title="Galax – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Galax" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88" title="விண்மீன் பேரடை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="விண்மீன் பேரடை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asif_n_ignwan" title="Asif n ignwan – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Asif n ignwan" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazellaw" title="Amazellaw – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amazellaw" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%80" title="గేలక్సీ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గేలక్సీ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3" title="ดาราจักร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดาราจักร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%83%E1%8F%88%E1%8F%8F_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B7%E1%8E%AC" title="ᏃᏈᏏ ᎤᎾᏓᎷᎬ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏃᏈᏏ ᎤᎾᏓᎷᎬ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Каптагай – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Каптагай" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%81%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="کہکشاں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کہکشاں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C5%82asia" title="Gałasia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Gałasia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktik" title="Galaktik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Galaktik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn_h%C3%A0" title="Thiên hà – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thiên hà" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsirgurada_(t%C3%A4hetiid%C3%BCs)" title="Tsirgurada (tähetiidüs) – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tsirgurada (tähetiidüs)" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B2%B3" title="天河 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="天河" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星系 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="星系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A2" title="גאלאקסיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גאלאקסיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星系 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="星系" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiye" title="Galaksiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Galaksiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakt%C4%97ka" title="Galaktėka – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Galaktėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星系 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="星系" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jula-juli" title="Jula-juli – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Jula-juli" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q318#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large gravitationally bound system of stars and interstellar matter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the astronomical structure. For Earth's galaxy, see <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Galaxy (disambiguation)">Galaxy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:314px;max-width:314px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/310px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/465px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/620px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="1428" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/NGC_4414" title="NGC 4414">NGC 4414</a>, a typical <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral galaxy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> <a href="/wiki/Coma_Berenices" title="Coma Berenices">Coma Berenices</a>, is about 55,000 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> in diameter and approximately 60 million light-years from Earth.</div></div></div></div></div> A galaxy is a system of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_remnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar remnant">stellar remnants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> bound together by <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sparkegallagher2000-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasa060812-2">[2]</a> The word is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally 'milky', a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> galaxy that contains the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. Galaxies, averaging an estimated 100 million stars,<a href="#cite_note-SPC-20220211-3">[3]</a> range in size from <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy" title="Dwarf galaxy">dwarfs</a> with less than a thousand stars,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> to the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_galaxies" title="List of largest galaxies">largest galaxies known</a> – <a href="/wiki/Type-cD_galaxy" title="Type-cD galaxy">supergiants</a> with one hundred <a href="/wiki/10%5E12" class="mw-redirect" title="10^12">trillion</a> stars, each orbiting its galaxy's <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">center of mass</a>. Most of the mass in a typical galaxy is in the form of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, with only a few percent of that mass visible in the form of stars and nebulae. <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">Supermassive black holes</a> are a common feature at the centres of galaxies. Galaxies are categorised according to their visual <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphology (astronomy)">morphology</a> as <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical</a>,<a href="#cite_note-uf030616-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">irregular</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IRatlas-6">[6]</a> The Milky Way is an example of a spiral galaxy. It is estimated that there are between 200 billion<a href="#cite_note-jpost-7">[7]</a> (2×1011) to 2 trillion<a href="#cite_note-Saunders_2023-8">[8]</a> galaxies in the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>. Most galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">parsecs</a> in diameter (approximately 3,000 to 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Light_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Light year">light years</a>) and are separated by distances in the order of millions of parsecs (or megaparsecs). For comparison, the Milky Way has a diameter of at least 26,800 parsecs (87,400 ly)<a href="#cite_note-MilkyWaySize-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[a]</a> and is separated from the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, its nearest large neighbour, by just over 750,000 parsecs (2.5 million ly).<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> The space between galaxies is filled with a tenuous gas (the <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic space">intergalactic medium</a>) with an average density of less than one <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> per cubic metre. Most galaxies are gravitationally organised into <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_group" title="Galaxy group">groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">clusters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> is part of the <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a>, which it dominates along with the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>. The group is part of the <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo Supercluster</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_Cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the Cosmos">largest scale</a>, these associations are generally arranged into <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">sheets and filaments</a> surrounded by immense <a href="/wiki/Void_(astronomy)" title="Void (astronomy)">voids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-camb_lss-14">[13]</a> Both the Local Group and the Virgo Supercluster are contained in a much larger cosmic structure named <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gibney_2014-15">[14]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The word galaxy was borrowed via <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> term for the Milky Way, galaxías (kúklos) <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:γαλαξίας">γαλαξίας</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κύκλος">κύκλος</a>)<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-oed-17">[16]</a> 'milky (circle)', named after its appearance as a milky band of light in the sky. In <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> places his son, born by a mortal woman, the infant <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a>'s breast while she is asleep so the baby will drink <a href="/wiki/Milk_of_Hera" title="Milk of Hera">her divine milk</a> and thus become immortal. Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realises she is nursing an unknown baby: she pushes the baby away, some of her milk spills, and it produces the band of light known as the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-waller_hodge2003-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-konecny2006-19">[18]</a> In the astronomical literature, the capitalised word "Galaxy" is often used to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> galaxy, to distinguish it from the other galaxies in the observable <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>. The English term Milky Way can be traced back to a story by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1380: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">See yonder, lo, the Galaxyë  Which men <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clepe" class="extiw" title="wikt:clepe">clepeth</a> the Milky Wey,  For hit is whyt.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Geoffrey Chaucer, <a href="/wiki/The_House_of_Fame" title="The House of Fame">The House of Fame</a><a href="#cite_note-oed-17">[16]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Galaxies were initially discovered telescopically and were known as <a href="/wiki/Spiral_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiral nebula">spiral nebulae</a>. Most 18th- to 19th-century astronomers considered them as either unresolved <a href="/wiki/Star_cluster" title="Star cluster">star clusters</a> or anagalactic <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebulae</a>, and were just thought of as a part of the Milky Way, but their true composition and natures remained a mystery. Observations using larger telescopes of a few nearby bright galaxies, like the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, began resolving them into huge conglomerations of stars, but based simply on the apparent faintness and sheer population of stars, the true distances of these objects placed them well beyond the Milky Way. For this reason they were popularly called island universes, but this term quickly fell into disuse, as the word universe implied the entirety of existence. Instead, they became known simply as galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-rao2005-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3446" data-file-height="1946" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">Galaxy cluster</a> <a href="/wiki/SDSS_J1152%2B3313" title="SDSS J1152+3313">SDSS J1152+3313</a>. SDSS stands for <a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey</a>, J for <a href="/wiki/Julian_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian epoch">Julian epoch</a>, and 1152+3313 for <a href="/wiki/Right_ascension" title="Right ascension">right ascension</a> and <a href="/wiki/Declination" title="Declination">declination</a> respectively.</figcaption></figure> Millions of galaxies have been catalogued, but <a href="/wiki/List_of_galaxies#Named_galaxies" title="List of galaxies">only a few</a> have well-established names, such as the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Magellanic_Clouds" title="Magellanic Clouds">Magellanic Clouds</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxy" title="Whirlpool Galaxy">Whirlpool Galaxy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxy" title="Sombrero Galaxy">Sombrero Galaxy</a>. Astronomers work with numbers from certain catalogues, such as the <a href="/wiki/Messier_catalogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Messier catalogue">Messier catalogue</a>, the NGC (<a href="/wiki/New_General_Catalogue" title="New General Catalogue">New General Catalogue</a>), the IC (<a href="/wiki/Index_Catalogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Index Catalogue">Index Catalogue</a>), the CGCG (<a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Galaxies_and_of_Clusters_of_Galaxies" title="Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies">Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies</a>), the MCG (<a href="/wiki/Morphological_Catalogue_of_Galaxies" title="Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies">Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies</a>), the UGC (<a href="/wiki/Uppsala_General_Catalogue" title="Uppsala General Catalogue">Uppsala General Catalogue</a> of Galaxies), and the PGC (<a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Principal_Galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalogue of Principal Galaxies">Catalogue of Principal Galaxies</a>, also known as LEDA). All the well-known galaxies appear in one or more of these catalogues but each time under a different number. For example, <a href="/wiki/Messier_109" title="Messier 109">Messier 109</a> (or "M109") is a spiral galaxy having the number 109 in the catalogue of Messier. It also has the designations NGC 3992, UGC 6937, CGCG 269–023, MCG +09-20-044, and PGC 37617 (or LEDA 37617), among others.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> Millions of fainter galaxies are known by their identifiers in <a href="/wiki/Sky_surveys" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky surveys">sky surveys</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observation_history">Observation history</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milky_Way">Milky Way</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> (450–370 BCE) proposed that the bright band on the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of distant stars.<a href="#cite_note-Plutarch-23">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE), however, believed the Milky Way was caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars that were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">region of the World that is continuous with the heavenly motions</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Montada-24">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus the Younger</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 495–570 CE) was critical of this view, arguing that if the Milky Way was <a href="/wiki/Sublunary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublunary">sublunary</a> (situated between Earth and the Moon) it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have <a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">parallax</a>, which it did not. In his view, the Milky Way was celestial.<a href="#cite_note-heidarzadeh23-25">[24]</a> According to Mohani Mohamed, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Arabian</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (965–1037) made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax,<a href="#cite_note-Mohamed-26">[25]</a> and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it must be remote from the Earth, not belonging to the atmosphere."<a href="#cite_note-Bouali_et_al_2008-27">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a> (973–1048) proposed the Milky Way galaxy was "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars."<a href="#cite_note-al-Biruni-28">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1138) proposed that it was composed of many stars that almost touched one another, and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> from sublunary material,<a href="#cite_note-Montada-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-heidarzadeh25-29">[28]</a> citing his observation of the <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(astronomy_and_astrology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)">conjunction</a> of Jupiter and Mars as evidence of this occurring when two objects were near.<a href="#cite_note-Montada-24">[23]</a> In the 14th century, Syrian-born <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_al-Jawziyya" title="Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya">Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya</a> proposed the Milky Way galaxy was "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars."<a href="#cite_note-Livingston-30">[29]</a> Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when the Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> used a <a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">telescope</a> to study it and discovered it was composed of a huge number of faint stars.<a href="#cite_note-Galilei-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-O'Connor_Robertson_2002-32">[31]</a> In 1750, English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wright_(astronomer)" title="Thomas Wright (astronomer)">Thomas Wright</a>, in his An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe, correctly speculated that it might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars held together by <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitational</a> forces, akin to the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> but on a much larger scale, and that the resulting disk of stars could be seen as a band on the sky from a perspective inside it.<a href="#cite_note-34">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright175048–-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-36">[34]</a> In his 1755 treatise, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> elaborated on Wright's idea about the Milky Way's structure.<a href="#cite_note-Kant_1755-37">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herschel-Galaxy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/220px-Herschel-Galaxy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/330px-Herschel-Galaxy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/440px-Herschel-Galaxy.png 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>The shape of the Milky Way as estimated from star counts by <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> in 1785; the Solar System was assumed to be near the center.</figcaption></figure> The first project to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun was undertaken by <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> in 1785 by counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with <a href="/wiki/Galactocentrism" title="Galactocentrism">the Solar System close to the center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Herschel_1785-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-paul1993-39">[37]</a> Using a refined approach, <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Kapteyn" title="Jacobus Kapteyn">Kapteyn</a> in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diameter about 15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center. A different method by <a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a> based on the cataloguing of <a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a> led to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diameter approximately 70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the centre.<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-36">[34]</a> Both analyses failed to take into account the <a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">absorption of light</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">interstellar dust</a> present in the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_plane" title="Galactic plane">galactic plane</a>; but after <a href="/wiki/Robert_Julius_Trumpler" title="Robert Julius Trumpler">Robert Julius Trumpler</a> quantified this effect in 1930 by studying <a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">open clusters</a>, the present picture of the Milky Way galaxy emerged.<a href="#cite_note-Trimble_1999-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinction_from_other_nebulae">Distinction from other nebulae</h3></div> A few galaxies outside the Milky Way are visible on a dark night to the <a href="/wiki/Naked_eye" title="Naked eye">unaided eye</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Small Magellanic Cloud">Small Magellanic Cloud</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Triangulum_Galaxy" title="Triangulum Galaxy">Triangulum Galaxy</a>. In the 10th century, Persian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi</a> made the earliest recorded identification of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a "small cloud".<a href="#cite_note-NSOG-41">[39]</a> In 964, he probably mentioned the Large Magellanic Cloud in his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a>, referring to "Al Bakr of the southern Arabs",<a href="#cite_note-obspm2-42">[40]</a> since at a <a href="/wiki/Declination" title="Declination">declination</a> of about 70° south it was not visible where he lived. It was not well known to Europeans until <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a>'s voyage in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-obspm-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-obspm2-42">[40]</a> The Andromeda Galaxy was later independently noted by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Marius" title="Simon Marius">Simon Marius</a> in 1612.<a href="#cite_note-NSOG-41">[39]</a> In 1734, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a> in his Principia speculated that there might be other galaxies outside that were formed into galactic clusters that were minuscule parts of the universe that extended far beyond what could be seen. These views "are remarkably close to the present-day views of the cosmos."<a href="#cite_note-Gordon2002-44">[42]</a> In 1745, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre Louis Maupertuis</a> conjectured that some <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebula</a>-like objects were collections of stars with unique properties, including a <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_jets" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic jets">glow exceeding the light</a> its stars produced on their own, and repeated <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a>'s view that the bright spots were massive and flattened due to their rotation.<a href="#cite_note-Kant_1755-37">[35]</a> In 1750, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wright_(astronomer)" title="Thomas Wright (astronomer)">Thomas Wright</a> correctly speculated that the Milky Way was a flattened disk of stars, and that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate Milky Ways.<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyson_1979-45">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/220px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/330px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/440px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="371" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of the "Great Andromeda Nebula" by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Roberts" title="Isaac Roberts">Isaac Roberts</a>, 1899, later identified as the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a></figcaption></figure> Toward the end of the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Messier" title="Charles Messier">Charles Messier</a> compiled a <a href="/wiki/Messier_object" title="Messier object">catalog</a> containing the 109 brightest celestial objects having nebulous appearance. Subsequently, William Herschel assembled a catalog of 5,000 nebulae.<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-36">[34]</a> In 1845, <a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Lord Rosse</a> examined the nebulae catalogued by Herschel and observed the spiral structure of <a href="/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxy" title="Whirlpool Galaxy">Messier object M51</a>, now known as the Whirlpool Galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Vesto_M._Slipher" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesto M. Slipher">Vesto M. Slipher</a> made spectrographic studies of the brightest spiral nebulae to determine their composition. Slipher discovered that the spiral nebulae have high <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shifts</a>, indicating that they are moving at a rate exceeding the velocity of the stars he had measured. He found that the majority of these nebulae are moving away from us.<a href="#cite_note-Slipher_1913-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slipher_1915-49">[47]</a> In 1917, <a href="/wiki/Heber_Doust_Curtis" title="Heber Doust Curtis">Heber Doust Curtis</a> observed nova <a href="/wiki/S_Andromedae" class="mw-redirect" title="S Andromedae">S Andromedae</a> within the "Great <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)" title="Andromeda (constellation)">Andromeda</a> Nebula", as the Andromeda Galaxy, <a href="/wiki/Messier_object" title="Messier object">Messier object</a> <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">M31</a>, was then known. Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more <a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">novae</a>. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">magnitudes</a> fainter than those that occurred within this galaxy. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">parsecs</a>. He became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis, which holds that spiral nebulae are actually independent galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> In 1920 a debate took place between <a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heber_Curtis" class="mw-redirect" title="Heber Curtis">Heber Curtis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Great Debate</a>, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> In 1922, the <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonian</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ernst_%C3%96pik" title="Ernst Öpik">Ernst Öpik</a> gave a distance determination that supported the theory that the Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra-galactic object.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> Using the new 100-inch <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Mt. Wilson</a> telescope, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variables</a>, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> In 1926 Hubble produced a classification of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">galactic morphology</a> that is used to this day.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-wavelength_observation">Multi-wavelength observation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Andromeda_galaxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/220px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/330px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/440px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6200" data-file-height="6200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">This ultraviolet image of <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda</a> shows blue regions containing young, massive stars.</div></div></div></div></div> Advances in astronomy have always been driven by technology. After centuries of success in <a href="/wiki/Optical_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical astronomy">optical astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared astronomy</a> was attempted in the 1830s, but only blossomed in the early 1900s. <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a> was born in the 1930s, and matured by the 1950s and 1960s. The problem was that air only allows visible light and radio waves to pass, with a little bit of near infrared. The first <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">ultraviolet</a> <a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Astronomical_Observatory_2" title="Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2">telescope</a> was launched in 1968, and since then there's been major progress in all regions of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust</a> present in the interstellar medium is opaque to visual light. It is more transparent to <a href="/wiki/Far_infrared_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Far infrared astronomy">far-infrared</a>, which can be used to observe the interior regions of giant molecular clouds and <a href="/wiki/Bulge_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulge (astronomy)">galactic cores</a> in great detail.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> Infrared is also used to observe distant, <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">red-shifted</a> galaxies that were formed much earlier. Water vapor and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> absorb a number of useful portions of the infrared spectrum, so high-altitude or space-based telescopes are used for <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages5-2-the-electromagnetic-spectrum_144],_[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages6-5-observations-outside-earths-atmosphere_202]_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages5-2-the-electromagnetic-spectrum_144],_[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages6-5-observations-outside-earths-atmosphere_202]-58">[56]</a> The first non-visual study of galaxies, particularly active galaxies, was made using <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio frequencies</a>. The Earth's atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">MHz</a> and 30 GHz. The <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> blocks signals below this range.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Large radio <a href="/wiki/Interferometry" title="Interferometry">interferometers</a> have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei. <a href="/wiki/UV_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="UV astronomy">Ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray telescopes</a> can observe highly energetic galactic phenomena. Ultraviolet flares are sometimes observed when a star in a distant galaxy is torn apart from the tidal forces of a nearby black hole.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> The distribution of hot gas in galactic clusters can be mapped by X-rays. The existence of supermassive black holes at the cores of galaxies was confirmed through X-ray astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_research">Modern research</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_(Triangulum).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png/400px-Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png/600px-Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png/800px-Rotation_curve_of_spiral_galaxy_Messier_33_%28Triangulum%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Rotation curve of spiral galaxy Messier 33 (yellow and blue points with error bars), and a predicted one from distribution of the visible matter (gray line). The discrepancy between the two curves can be accounted for by adding a dark matter halo surrounding the galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1944, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_C._van_de_Hulst" title="Hendrik C. van de Hulst">Hendrik van de Hulst</a> predicted that <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> radiation with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_line" title="Hydrogen line">wavelength of 21 cm</a> would be detectable from interstellar atomic <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas;<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> and in 1951 it was observed. This radiation is not affected by dust absorption, and so its Doppler shift can be used to map the motion of the gas in this galaxy. These observations led to the hypothesis of a rotating <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">bar structure</a> in the center of this galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> With improved <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a> uncovered a discrepancy between observed galactic <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve" title="Galaxy rotation curve">rotation speed</a> and that predicted by the visible mass of stars and gas. Today, the galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> Beginning in the 1990s, the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> yielded improved observations. Among other things, its data helped establish that the missing dark matter in this galaxy could not consist solely of inherently faint and small stars.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Deep Field">Hubble Deep Field</a>, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion (1.25×1011) galaxies in the observable universe.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> Improved technology in detecting the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">spectra</a> invisible to humans (radio telescopes, infrared cameras, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">x-ray telescopes</a>) allows detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, surveys in the <a href="/wiki/Zone_of_Avoidance" title="Zone of Avoidance">Zone of Avoidance</a> (the region of sky blocked at visible-light wavelengths by the Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> A 2016 study published in <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Conselice" title="Christopher Conselice">Christopher Conselice</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>, used 20 years of <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a> images to estimate that the observable universe contained at least two trillion (2×1012) galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-Conselice-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20161017-71">[69]</a> However, later observations with the <a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a> space probe from outside the <a href="/wiki/Zodiacal_light" title="Zodiacal light">zodiacal light</a> reduced this to roughly 200 billion (2×1011).<a href="#cite_note-Lauer-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_morphology">Types and morphology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Galactic_bulge" title="Galactic bulge">Galactic bulge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_massive_object" title="Central massive object">Central massive object</a>, <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">Active galactic nucleus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">Galaxy morphological classification</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_sequence_photo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/360px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/540px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/720px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Types of galaxies according to the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_sequence" title="Hubble sequence">Hubble classification scheme</a> : an E indicates a type of <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical galaxy</a>; an S is a <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral</a>; and SB is a <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">barred spiral galaxy</a></figcaption></figure> Galaxies come in three main types: ellipticals, spirals, and irregulars. A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_sequence" title="Hubble sequence">Hubble sequence</a>. Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type (shape), it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as <a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">star formation</a> rate in <a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxy" title="Starburst galaxy">starburst galaxies</a> and activity in the cores of <a href="/wiki/Active_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galaxy">active galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IRatlas-6">[6]</a> Many galaxies are thought to contain a supermassive black hole at their center. This includes the Milky Way, whose core region is called the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">Galactic Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages25-4-the-center-of-the-galaxy_851–856],_[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages27-2-supermassive-black-holes-what-quasars-really-are_907–915]_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages25-4-the-center-of-the-galaxy_851–856],_[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages27-2-supermassive-black-holes-what-quasars-really-are_907–915]-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ellipticals">Ellipticals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">Elliptical galaxy</a></div> The Hubble classification system rates elliptical galaxies on the basis of their ellipticity, ranging from E0, being nearly spherical, up to E7, which is highly elongated. These galaxies have an <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoidal</a> profile, giving them an elliptical appearance regardless of the viewing angle. Their appearance shows little structure and they typically have relatively little <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar matter</a>. Consequently, these galaxies also have a low portion of <a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">open clusters</a> and a reduced rate of new star formation. Instead, they are dominated by generally older, more <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolved stars</a> that are orbiting the common center of gravity in random directions. The stars contain low abundances of heavy elements because star formation ceases after the initial burst. In this sense they have some similarity to the much smaller <a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-elliptical-75">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type-cD_galaxies">Type-cD galaxies</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg/300px-Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg/450px-Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg/600px-Galaxy_Cluster_Abell_1413.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3780" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption>The galaxy cluster <a href="/wiki/Abell_1413" title="Abell 1413">Abell 1413</a> is dominated by this cD elliptical galaxy designated Abell 1413 BCG. It has an isophotal diameter of over 800,000 light-years across. Note the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lensing</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_galaxies" title="List of largest galaxies">largest galaxies</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Type-cD_galaxy" title="Type-cD galaxy">type-cD galaxies</a>. First described in 1964 by a paper by Thomas A. Matthews and others,<a href="#cite_note-Matthews-76">[74]</a> they are a subtype of the more general class of D galaxies, which are giant elliptical galaxies, except that they are much larger. They are popularly known as the supergiant elliptical galaxies and constitute the largest and most luminous galaxies known. These galaxies feature a central elliptical nucleus with an extensive, faint halo of stars extending to megaparsec scales.<a href="#cite_note-NASAVlog-77">[75]</a> The profile of their surface brightnesses as a function of their radius (or distance from their cores) falls off more slowly than their smaller counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-Tonry-78">[76]</a> The formation of these cD galaxies remains an active area of research, but the leading model is that they are the result of the mergers of smaller galaxies in the environments of dense clusters, or even those outside of clusters with random overdensities.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> These processes are the mechanisms that drive the formation of fossil groups or fossil clusters, where a large, relatively isolated, supergiant elliptical resides in the middle of the cluster and are surrounded by an extensive cloud of X-rays as the residue of these galactic collisions. Another older model posits the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Cooling_flow" title="Cooling flow">cooling flow</a>, where the heated gases in clusters collapses towards their centers as they cool, forming stars in the process,<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> a phenomenon observed in clusters such as <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Cluster" title="Perseus Cluster">Perseus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fabian-81">[79]</a> and more recently in the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Cluster" title="Phoenix Cluster">Phoenix Cluster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shell_galaxy">Shell galaxy</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/220px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/330px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/440px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4010" data-file-height="4040" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NGC_3923" title="NGC 3923">NGC 3923</a> Elliptical Shell Galaxy (Hubble photograph)</figcaption></figure> A shell galaxy is a type of elliptical galaxy where the stars in its halo are arranged in concentric shells. About one-tenth of elliptical galaxies have a shell-like structure, which has never been observed in spiral galaxies. These structures are thought to develop when a larger galaxy absorbs a smaller companion galaxy—that as the two galaxy centers approach, they start to oscillate around a center point, and the oscillation creates gravitational ripples forming the shells of stars, similar to ripples spreading on water. For example, galaxy <a href="/wiki/NGC_3923" title="NGC 3923">NGC 3923</a> has over 20 shells.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spirals">Spirals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">Spiral galaxy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/220px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/330px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/440px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15852" data-file-height="12392" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxy" title="Pinwheel Galaxy">Pinwheel Galaxy</a>, NGC 5457</figcaption></figure> Spiral galaxies resemble spiraling <a href="/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)" title="Pinwheel (toy)">pinwheels</a>. Though the stars and other visible material contained in such a galaxy lie mostly on a plane, the majority of mass in spiral galaxies exists in a roughly spherical halo of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> which extends beyond the visible component, as demonstrated by the universal rotation curve concept.<a href="#cite_note-Williams2009-84">[82]</a> Spiral galaxies consist of a rotating disk of stars and interstellar medium, along with a central bulge of generally older stars. Extending outward from the <a href="/wiki/Bulge_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulge (astronomy)">bulge</a> are relatively bright arms. In the Hubble classification scheme, spiral galaxies are listed as type S, followed by a letter (a, b, or c) which indicates the degree of tightness of the spiral arms and the size of the central bulge. An Sa galaxy has tightly wound, poorly defined arms and possesses a relatively large core region. At the other extreme, an Sc galaxy has open, well-defined arms and a small core region.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> A galaxy with poorly defined arms is sometimes referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Flocculent_spiral_galaxy" title="Flocculent spiral galaxy">flocculent spiral galaxy</a>; in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Grand_design_spiral_galaxy" title="Grand design spiral galaxy">grand design spiral galaxy</a> that has prominent and well-defined spiral arms.<a href="#cite_note-bergh1998-86">[84]</a> The speed in which a galaxy rotates is thought to correlate with the flatness of the disc as some spiral galaxies have thick bulges, while others are thin and dense.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/220px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/330px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/440px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6637" data-file-height="3787" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NGC_1300" title="NGC 1300">NGC 1300</a>, an example of a <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">barred spiral galaxy</a></figcaption></figure> In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms do have the shape of approximate <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_spiral" title="Logarithmic spiral">logarithmic spirals</a>, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms rotate around the center, but they do so with constant <a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity">angular velocity</a>. The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high-density matter, or "<a href="/wiki/Density_wave_theory" title="Density wave theory">density waves</a>".<a href="#cite_note-bertin_lin1996-89">[87]</a> As stars move through an arm, the space velocity of each stellar system is modified by the gravitational force of the higher density. (The velocity returns to normal after the stars depart on the other side of the arm.) This effect is akin to a "wave" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation, and therefore they harbor many bright and young stars.<a href="#cite_note-belkora355-90">[88]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoag%27s_object.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/220px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/330px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/440px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1521" data-file-height="1489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hoag%27s_Object" title="Hoag's Object">Hoag's Object</a>, an example of a <a href="/wiki/Ring_galaxy" title="Ring galaxy">ring galaxy</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barred_spiral_galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h4></div> A majority of spiral galaxies, including the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> galaxy, have a linear, bar-shaped band of stars that extends outward to either side of the core, then merges into the spiral arm structure.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> In the Hubble classification scheme, these are designated by an SB, followed by a lower-case letter (a, b or c) which indicates the form of the spiral arms (in the same manner as the categorization of normal spiral galaxies). Bars are thought to be temporary structures that can occur as a result of a density wave radiating outward from the core, or else due to a <a href="/wiki/Galactic_tide" title="Galactic tide">tidal interaction</a> with another galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> Many barred spiral galaxies are active, possibly as a result of gas being channeled into the core along the arms.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Our own galaxy, the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, is a large disk-shaped barred-spiral galaxy<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> about 30 kiloparsecs in diameter and a kiloparsec thick. It contains about two hundred billion (2×1011)<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> stars and has a total mass of about six hundred billion (6×1011) times the mass of the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Super-luminous_spiral">Super-luminous spiral</h4></div> Recently, researchers described galaxies called super-luminous spirals. They are very large with an upward diameter of 437,000 light-years (compared to the Milky Way's 87,400 light-year diameter). With a mass of 340 billion solar masses, they generate a significant amount of ultraviolet and mid-infrared light. They are thought to have an increased star formation rate around 30 times faster than the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_morphologies">Other morphologies</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peculiar_galaxy" title="Peculiar galaxy">Peculiar galaxies</a> are galactic formations that develop unusual properties due to tidal interactions with other galaxies. <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Ring_galaxy" title="Ring galaxy">ring galaxy</a> has a ring-like structure of stars and interstellar medium surrounding a bare core. A ring galaxy is thought to occur when a smaller galaxy passes through the core of a spiral galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> Such an event may have affected the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy#Structure" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, as it displays a multi-ring-like structure when viewed in <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> radiation.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a></li></ul></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Lenticular_galaxy" title="Lenticular galaxy">lenticular galaxy</a> is an intermediate form that has properties of both elliptical and spiral galaxies. These are categorized as Hubble type S0, and they possess ill-defined spiral arms with an elliptical halo of stars<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barred_lenticular_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Barred lenticular galaxy">barred lenticular galaxies</a> receive Hubble classification SB0).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">Irregular galaxies</a> are galaxies that can not be readily classified into an elliptical or spiral morphology. <ul><li>An Irr-I galaxy has some structure but does not align cleanly with the Hubble classification scheme.</li> <li>Irr-II galaxies do not possess any structure that resembles a Hubble classification, and may have been disrupted.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Nearby examples of (dwarf) irregular galaxies include the <a href="/wiki/Magellanic_Clouds" title="Magellanic Clouds">Magellanic Clouds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages26-2-types-of-galaxies_879]-103">[101]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Dark_galaxy" title="Dark galaxy">dark</a> or "ultra diffuse" galaxy is an extremely-low-luminosity galaxy. It may be the same size as the Milky Way, but have a visible star count only one percent of the Milky Way's. Multiple mechanisms for producing this type of galaxy have been proposed, and it is possible that different dark galaxies formed by different means.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> One candidate explanation for the low luminosity is that the galaxy lost its star-forming gas at an early stage, resulting in old stellar populations.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240126-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dwarfs">Dwarfs</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy" title="Dwarf galaxy">Dwarf galaxy</a></div> Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies are dwarf galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-Mateo19989-107">[105]</a> They are relatively small when compared with other galactic formations, being about one hundredth the size of the Milky Way, with only a few billion stars. <a href="/wiki/Blue_compact_dwarf" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue compact dwarf">Blue compact dwarf</a> galaxies contains large clusters of <a href="/wiki/OB_star" title="OB star">young, hot, massive stars</a>. Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies have been discovered that are only 100 parsecs across.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites, with an estimated 300–500 yet to be discovered.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> Most of the information we have about dwarf galaxies come from observations of the <a href="/wiki/Local_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Local group">local group</a>, containing two spiral galaxies, the Milky Way and Andromeda, and many dwarf galaxies. These dwarf galaxies are classified as either <a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">irregular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_elliptical_galaxy" title="Dwarf elliptical galaxy">dwarf elliptical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dwarf_spheroidal_galaxy" title="Dwarf spheroidal galaxy">dwarf spheroidal galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mateo19989-107">[105]</a> A study of 27 Milky Way neighbors found that in all dwarf galaxies, the central mass is approximately 10 million <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a>, regardless of whether it has thousands or millions of stars. This suggests that galaxies are largely formed by <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, and that the minimum size may indicate a form of <a href="/wiki/Warm_dark_matter" title="Warm dark matter">warm dark matter</a> incapable of gravitational coalescence on a smaller scale.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variants">Variants</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interacting">Interacting</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interacting_galaxy" title="Interacting galaxy">Interacting galaxy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/200px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/300px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/400px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3915" data-file-height="3885" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Antennae_Galaxies" title="Antennae Galaxies">Antennae Galaxies</a> are undergoing a collision that will result in their eventual merger.</figcaption></figure> Interactions between galaxies are relatively frequent, and they can play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galactic evolution</a>. Near misses between galaxies result in warping distortions due to <a href="/wiki/Galactic_tide" title="Galactic tide">tidal interactions</a>, and may cause some exchange of gas and dust.<a href="#cite_note-umda-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-112">[110]</a> Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have sufficient relative momentum not to merge. The stars of interacting galaxies usually do not collide, but the gas and dust within the two forms interacts, sometimes triggering star formation. A collision can severely distort the galaxies' shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.<a href="#cite_note-umda-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-112">[110]</a> At the extreme of interactions are galactic mergers, where the galaxies' relative momentums are insufficient to allow them to pass through each other. Instead, they gradually merge to form a single, larger galaxy. Mergers can result in significant changes to the galaxies' original morphology. If one of the galaxies is much more massive than the other, the result is known as <a href="/wiki/Interacting_galaxy#Galactic_cannibalism" title="Interacting galaxy">cannibalism</a>, where the more massive larger galaxy remains relatively undisturbed, and the smaller one is torn apart. The Milky Way galaxy is currently in the process of cannibalizing the <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Elliptical_Galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy">Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canis_Major_Dwarf_Galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy">Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-umda-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-112">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Starburst">Starburst</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxy" title="Starburst galaxy">Starburst galaxy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/200px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/300px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/400px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9500" data-file-height="7400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Messier_82" title="Messier 82">M82</a>, a starburst galaxy that has ten times the star formation of a "normal" galaxy<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></figcaption></figure> Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms giant <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a>. Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate, which is known as a starburst. If they continue to do so, they would consume their reserve of gas in a time span less than the galaxy's lifespan. Hence starburst activity usually lasts only about ten million years, a relatively brief period in a galaxy's history. Starburst galaxies were more common during the universe's early history,<a href="#cite_note-chandra-114">[112]</a> but still contribute an estimated 15% to total star production.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Starburst galaxies are characterized by dusty concentrations of gas and the appearance of newly formed stars, including massive stars that ionize the surrounding clouds to create <a href="/wiki/H_II_region" title="H II region">H II regions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> These stars produce <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> explosions, creating expanding <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">remnants</a> that interact powerfully with the surrounding gas. These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of star-building that spreads throughout the gaseous region. Only when the available gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the activity end.<a href="#cite_note-chandra-114">[112]</a> Starbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies. The prototype example of such a starburst-forming interaction is <a href="/wiki/Messier_82" title="Messier 82">M82</a>, which experienced a close encounter with the larger <a href="/wiki/Messier_81" title="Messier 81">M81</a>. Irregular galaxies often exhibit spaced knots of starburst activity.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_galaxy">Radio galaxy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">Radio galaxy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg/220px-A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg/330px-A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg/440px-A_Multi-Wavelength_View_of_Radio_Galaxy_Hercules_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hercules_A" title="Hercules A">Hercules A</a>, supergiant elliptical radio galaxy</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">radio galaxy</a> is a galaxy with giant regions of radio emission extending well beyond its visible structure. These energetic radio lobes are powered by jets from its <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">active galactic nucleus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JonesAdamsLambourne20042-118">[116]</a> Radio galaxies are classified according to their <a href="/wiki/Fanaroff%E2%80%93Riley_classification" title="Fanaroff–Riley classification">Fanaroff–Riley classification</a>. The FR I class have lower radio luminosity and exhibit structures which are more elongated; the FR II class are higher radio luminosity. The correlation of radio luminosity and structure suggests that the sources in these two types of galaxies may differ.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> Radio galaxies can also be classified as giant radio galaxies (GRGs), whose radio emissions can extend to scales of megaparsecs (3.26 million light-years). <a href="/wiki/Alcyoneus_(galaxy)" title="Alcyoneus (galaxy)">Alcyoneus</a> is an FR II class low-excitation radio galaxy which has the largest observed radio emission, with lobed structures spanning 5 <a href="/wiki/Parsec#Megaparsecs_and_gigaparsecs" title="Parsec">megaparsecs</a> (16×106 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">ly</a>). For comparison, another similarly sized giant radio galaxy is <a href="/wiki/3C_236" title="3C 236">3C 236</a>, with lobes 15 million light-years across. It should however be noted that radio emissions are not always considered part of the main galaxy itself.<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Maryland-120">[118]</a> A giant radio galaxy is a special class of objects characterized by the presence of radio lobes generated by <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_jet" title="Astrophysical jet">relativistic jets</a> powered by the central galaxy's <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a>. Giant radio galaxies are different from ordinary radio galaxies in that they can extend to much larger scales, reaching upwards to several megaparsecs across, far larger than the diameters of their host galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> A "normal" radio galaxy do not have a source that is a supermassive black hole or monster neutron star; instead the source is <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a> from relativistic electrons accelerated by supernova. These sources are comparatively short lived, making the radio spectrum from normal radio galaxies an especially good way to study star formation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_galaxy">Active galaxy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">Active galactic nucleus</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M87_jet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/200px-M87_jet.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/300px-M87_jet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/400px-M87_jet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>A jet of particles is being emitted from the core of the elliptical radio galaxy <a href="/wiki/Messier_87" title="Messier 87">M87</a>.</figcaption></figure> Some observable galaxies are classified as "active" if they contain an active galactic nucleus (AGN).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages27-1-quasars_906]-123">[121]</a> A significant portion of the galaxy's total energy output is emitted by the active nucleus instead of its stars, dust and <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>. There are multiple classification and naming schemes for AGNs, but those in the lower ranges of luminosity are called <a href="/wiki/Seyfert_galaxy" title="Seyfert galaxy">Seyfert galaxies</a>, while those with luminosities much greater than that of the host galaxy are known as quasi-stellar objects or <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>. Models of AGNs suggest that a significant fraction of their light is shifted to far-infrared frequencies because optical and UV emission in the nucleus is absorbed and remitted by dust and gas surrounding it.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> The standard model for an <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">active galactic nucleus</a> is based on an <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretion disc">accretion disc</a> that forms around a <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a> (SMBH) at the galaxy's core region. The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">gravitational energy</a> of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages27-2-supermassive-black-holes-what-quasars-really-are_907–915]-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-keel-126">[124]</a> The AGN's luminosity depends on the SMBH's mass and the rate at which matter falls onto it. In about 10% of these galaxies, a diametrically opposed pair of <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_jet" title="Astrophysical jet">energetic jets</a> ejects particles from the galaxy core at velocities close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. The mechanism for producing these jets is not well understood.<a href="#cite_note-monster-127">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seyfert_galaxy">Seyfert galaxy</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seyfert_galaxy" title="Seyfert galaxy">Seyfert galaxy</a></div> Seyfert galaxies are one of the two largest groups of active galaxies, along with quasars. They have quasar-like nuclei (very luminous, distant and bright sources of electromagnetic radiation) with very high surface brightnesses; but unlike quasars, their host galaxies are clearly detectable.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson1997-128">[126]</a> Seen through a telescope, a Seyfert galaxy appears like an ordinary galaxy with a bright star superimposed atop the core. Seyfert galaxies are divided into two principal subtypes based on the frequencies observed in their spectra.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quasar">Quasar</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">Quasar</a></div> Quasars are the most energetic and distant members of active galactic nuclei. Extremely luminous, they were first identified as high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that appeared more similar to stars than to extended sources similar to galaxies. Their luminosity can be 100 times that of the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraknoi_et_al.2023[httpsopenstaxorgbooksastronomy-2epages27-1-quasars_899–906]-130">[128]</a> The nearest known quasar, <a href="/wiki/Markarian_231" title="Markarian 231">Markarian 231</a>, is about 581 million light-years from Earth,<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> while others have been discovered as far away as <a href="/wiki/UHZ1" title="UHZ1">UHZ1</a>, roughly 13.2 billion light-years distant.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> Quasars are noteworthy for providing the first demonstration of the phenomenon that <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravity can act as a lens for light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_AGNs">Other AGNs</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">Blazars</a> are believed to be active galaxies with a <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic jet">relativistic jet</a> pointed in the direction of Earth. A <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">radio galaxy</a> emits radio frequencies from relativistic jets. A unified model of these types of active galaxies explains their differences based on the observer's position.<a href="#cite_note-monster-127">[125]</a> Possibly related to active galactic nuclei (as well as <a href="/wiki/Starburst_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Starburst (astronomy)">starburst</a> regions) are <a href="/wiki/Low-ionization_nuclear_emission-line_region" title="Low-ionization nuclear emission-line region">low-ionization nuclear emission-line regions</a> (LINERs). The emission from LINER-type galaxies is dominated by weakly <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionized</a> elements. The excitation sources for the weakly ionized lines include post-<a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">AGB</a> stars, AGN, and shocks.<a href="#cite_note-heckman1980-135">[133]</a> Approximately one-third of nearby galaxies are classified as containing LINER nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-keel-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-heckman1980-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoetal1997b-136">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luminous_infrared_galaxy">Luminous infrared galaxy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Luminous_infrared_galaxy" title="Luminous infrared galaxy">Luminous infrared galaxy</a></div> Luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs) are galaxies with luminosities—the measurement of electromagnetic power output—above 1011 L☉ (solar luminosities). In most cases, most of their energy comes from large numbers of young stars which heat surrounding dust, which reradiates the energy in the infrared. Luminosity high enough to be a LIRG requires a star formation rate of at least 18 M☉ yr−1. Ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) are at least ten times more luminous still and form stars at rates >180 M☉ yr−1. Many LIRGs also emit radiation from an AGN.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-138">[136]</a> Infrared galaxies emit more energy in the infrared than all other wavelengths combined, with peak emission typically at wavelengths of 60 to 100 microns. LIRGs are believed to be created from the strong interaction and merger of spiral galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> While uncommon in the local universe, LIRGs and ULIRGS were more prevalent when the universe was younger.<a href="#cite_note-:0-138">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_diameters">Physical diameters</h2></div> Galaxies do not have a definite boundary by their nature, and are characterized by a gradually decreasing stellar density as a function of increasing distance from their center, making measurements of their true extents difficult. Nevertheless, astronomers over the past few decades have made several criteria in defining the sizes of galaxies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Angular_diameter">Angular diameter</h3></div> As early as the time of <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> in 1936, there have been attempts to characterize the diameters of galaxies. The earliest efforts were based on the observed angle subtended by the galaxy and its estimated distance, leading to an angular diameter (also called "metric diameter").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESandageKronLongair199543-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isophotal_diameter">Isophotal diameter</h3></div> The isophotal diameter is introduced as a conventional way of measuring a galaxy's size based on its apparent surface brightness.<a href="#cite_note-Chamba-141">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isophote" title="Isophote">Isophotes</a> are curves in a diagram - such as a picture of a galaxy - that adjoins points of equal brightnesses, and are useful in defining the extent of the galaxy. The apparent brightness flux of a galaxy is measured in units of <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">magnitudes</a> per square <a href="/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc" title="Minute and second of arc">arcsecond</a> (mag/arcsec2; sometimes expressed as mag arcsec−2), which defines the brightness depth of the isophote. To illustrate how this unit works, a typical galaxy has a brightness flux of 18 mag/arcsec2 at its central region. This brightness is equivalent to the light of an 18th magnitude hypothetical point object (like a star) being spread out evenly in a one square arcsecond area of the sky.<a href="#cite_note-UMD_Week_6-142">[140]</a> The isophotal diameter is typically defined as the region enclosing all the light down to 25 mag/arcsec2 in the blue <a href="/wiki/Jhk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jhk">B-band</a>,<a href="#cite_note-sparkegallagher2000_131-143">[141]</a> which is then referred to as the D25 standard.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples of isophotal diameters (25.0 B-mag/arcsec2 isophote) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>galaxy</th> <th>diameter</th> <th>reference </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a></td> <td>9.96 <a href="/wiki/Parsec#Parsecs_and_kiloparsecs" title="Parsec">kiloparsecs</a> (32,500 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a>)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a></td> <td>26.8 <a href="/wiki/Parsec#Parsecs_and_kiloparsecs" title="Parsec">kiloparsecs</a> (87,400 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a>)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-MilkyWaySize-9">[9]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Messier_87" title="Messier 87">Messier 87</a></td> <td>40.55 <a href="/wiki/Parsec#Parsecs_and_kiloparsecs" title="Parsec">kiloparsecs</a> (132,000 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a>)</td> <td> <a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a></td> <td>46.58 <a href="/wiki/Parsec#Parsecs_and_kiloparsecs" title="Parsec">kiloparsecs</a> (152,000 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a>)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-AndromedaSize-147">[145]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effective_radius_(half-light)_and_its_variations">Effective radius (half-light) and its variations</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Half-light_radius" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-light radius">half-light radius</a> (also known as effective radius; Re) is a measure that is based on the galaxy's overall brightness flux. This is the radius upon which half, or 50%, of the total brightness flux of the galaxy was emitted. This was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Vaucouleurs" title="Gérard de Vaucouleurs">Gérard de Vaucouleurs</a> in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-Vaucouleurs-148">[146]</a> The choice of using 50% was arbitrary, but proved to be useful in further works by R. A. Fish in 1963,<a href="#cite_note-Fish-149">[147]</a> where he established a luminosity concentration law that relates the brightnesses of elliptical galaxies and their respective Re, and by <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_S%C3%A9rsic" title="José Luis Sérsic">José Luis Sérsic</a> in 1968<a href="#cite_note-Sersic-150">[148]</a> that defined a mass-radius relation in galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-Chamba-141">[139]</a> In defining Re, it is necessary that the overall brightness flux galaxy should be captured, with a method employed by Bershady in 2000 suggesting to measure twice the size where the brightness flux of an arbitrarily chosen radius, defined as the local flux, divided by the overall average flux equals to 0.2.<a href="#cite_note-Bershady-151">[149]</a> Using half-light radius allows a rough estimate of a galaxy's size, but is not particularly helpful in determining its morphology.<a href="#cite_note-SpiralDisks-152">[150]</a> Variations of this method exist. In particular, in the ESO-Uppsala Catalogue of Galaxies values of 50%, 70%, and 90% of the total blue light (the light detected through a B-band specific filter) had been used to calculate a galaxy's diameter.<a href="#cite_note-ESO-153">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petrosian_magnitude">Petrosian magnitude</h3></div> First described by Vahe Petrosian in 1976,<a href="#cite_note-Petrosian-154">[152]</a> a modified version of this method has been used by the <a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey</a> (SDSS). This method employs a mathematical model on a galaxy whose radius is determined by the azimuthally (horizontal) averaged profile of its brightness flux. In particular, the SDSS employed the Petrosian magnitude in the R-band (658 nm, in the red part of the visible spectrum) to ensure that the brightness flux of a galaxy would be captured as much as possible while counteracting the effects of background noise. For a galaxy whose brightness profile is exponential, it is expected to capture all of its brightness flux, and 80% for galaxies that follow a profile that follows <a href="/wiki/De_Vaucouleurs%27s_law" title="De Vaucouleurs's law">de Vaucouleurs's law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sdss-155">[153]</a> Petrosian magnitudes have the advantage of being redshift and distance independent, allowing the measurement of the galaxy's apparent size since the Petrosian radius is defined in terms of the galaxy's overall luminous flux.<a href="#cite_note-Graham-156">[154]</a> A critique of an earlier version of this method has been issued by the <a href="/wiki/Infrared_Processing_and_Analysis_Center" title="Infrared Processing and Analysis Center">Infrared Processing and Analysis Center</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ipac1-157">[155]</a> with the method causing a magnitude of error (upwards to 10%) of the values than using isophotal diameter. The use of Petrosian magnitudes also have the disadvantage of missing most of the light outside the Petrosian aperture, which is defined relative to the galaxy's overall brightness profile, especially for elliptical galaxies, with higher signal-to-noise ratios on higher distances and redshifts.<a href="#cite_note-Ned2-158">[156]</a> A correction for this method has been issued by Graham et al. in 2005, based on the assumption that galaxies follow <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9rsic_profile" title="Sérsic profile">Sérsic's law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Graham-156">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Near-infrared_method">Near-infrared method</h3></div> This method has been used by <a href="/wiki/2MASS" title="2MASS">2MASS</a> as an adaptation from the previously used methods of isophotal measurement. Since 2MASS operates in the near infrared, which has the advantage of being able to recognize dimmer, cooler, and older stars, it has a different form of approach compared to other methods that normally use B-filter. The detail of the method used by 2MASS has been described thoroughly in a document by Jarrett et al., with the survey measuring several parameters.<a href="#cite_note-Jarrett-159">[157]</a> The standard aperture ellipse (area of detection) is defined by the infrared isophote at the <a href="/wiki/K_band_(infrared)" title="K band (infrared)">Ks band</a> (roughly 2.2 μm wavelength) of 20 mag/arcsec2. Gathering the overall luminous flux of the galaxy has been employed by at least four methods: the first being a circular aperture extending 7 arcseconds from the center, an isophote at 20 mag/arcsec2, a "total" aperture defined by the radial light distribution that covers the supposed extent of the galaxy, and the Kron aperture (defined as 2.5 times the first-moment radius, an integration of the flux of the "total" aperture).<a href="#cite_note-Jarrett-159">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Larger-scale_structures">Larger-scale structures</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">Observable universe § Large-scale structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">Galaxy groups and clusters</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:234px;max-width:234px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/230px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/345px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/460px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1392" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Seyfert%27s_Sextet" title="Seyfert's Sextet">Seyfert's Sextet</a> is an example of a compact galaxy group.</div></div></div></div></div> Deep-sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in groups and <a href="/wiki/Clusters_of_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Clusters of galaxies">clusters</a>. Solitary galaxies that have not significantly interacted with other galaxies of comparable mass in the past few billion years are relatively scarce.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> Only about 5% of the galaxies surveyed are isolated in this sense.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> However, they may have interacted and even merged with other galaxies in the past,<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> and may still be orbited by smaller satellite galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> On the largest scale, the universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies (see <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>). Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction. These associations formed early, as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together. Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters. This ongoing merging process, as well as an influx of infalling gas, heats the intergalactic gas in a cluster to very high temperatures of 30–100 <a href="/wiki/Megakelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Megakelvin">megakelvins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> About 70–80% of a cluster's mass is in the form of dark matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent in the form of galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> Most galaxies are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies. These form a <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a>-like hierarchical distribution of clustered structures, with the smallest such associations being termed groups. A group of galaxies is the most common type of galactic cluster; these formations contain the majority of galaxies (as well as most of the <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryonic</a> mass) in the universe.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> To remain gravitationally bound to such a group, each member galaxy must have a sufficiently low velocity to prevent it from escaping (see <a href="/wiki/Virial_theorem" title="Virial theorem">Virial theorem</a>). If there is insufficient <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>, however, the group may evolve into a smaller number of galaxies through mergers.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> Clusters of galaxies consist of hundreds to thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity.<a href="#cite_note-Hubble_protocluster-170">[168]</a> Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, known as the <a href="/wiki/Brightest_cluster_galaxy" title="Brightest cluster galaxy">brightest cluster galaxy</a>, which, over time, <a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">tidally</a> destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/220px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/330px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/440px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4746" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption>Southern plane of the Milky Way from submillimeter wavelengths<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">Superclusters</a> contain tens of thousands of galaxies, which are found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually. At the <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_Cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the Cosmos">supercluster scale</a>, galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Above this scale, the universe appears to be the same in all directions (<a href="/wiki/Isotropy" title="Isotropy">isotropic</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Homogeneity" class="extiw" title="wikt:Homogeneity">homogeneous</a>),<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> though this notion has been challenged in recent years by numerous findings of large-scale structures that appear to be exceeding this scale. The <a href="/wiki/Hercules%E2%80%93Corona_Borealis_Great_Wall" title="Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall">Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall</a>, currently the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cosmic_structures" title="List of largest cosmic structures">largest structure</a> in the universe found so far, is 10 billion <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> (three gigaparsecs) in length.<a href="#cite_note-HBHT2-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-HBHT-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-cookie-177">[175]</a> The Milky Way galaxy is a member of an association named the <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a>, a relatively small group of galaxies that has a diameter of approximately one megaparsec. The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are the two brightest galaxies within the group; many of the other member galaxies are dwarf companions of these two.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> The Local Group itself is a part of a cloud-like structure within the <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo Supercluster</a>, a large, extended structure of groups and clusters of galaxies centered on the <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Cluster" title="Virgo Cluster">Virgo Cluster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tully1982-179">[177]</a> In turn, the Virgo Supercluster is a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea Supercluster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Magnetic_fields">Magnetic fields</h2></div> Galaxies have <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> of their own. A galaxy's magnetic field influences its dynamics in multiple ways, including affecting the formation of spiral arms and transporting angular momentum in gas clouds. The latter effect is particularly important, as it is a necessary factor for the gravitational collapse of those clouds, and thus for star formation.<a href="#cite_note-galactic_magnetic_fields-181">[179]</a> The typical average <a href="/wiki/Equipartition_theorem" title="Equipartition theorem">equipartition</a> strength for <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral galaxies</a> is about 10 μG (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">microgauss</a>) or 1 nT (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">nanotesla</a>). By comparison, the Earth's magnetic field has an average strength of about 0.3 G (Gauss) or 30 μT (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">microtesla</a>). Radio-faint galaxies like <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">M 31</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triangulum_Galaxy" title="Triangulum Galaxy">M33</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>'s neighbors, have weaker fields (about 5 μG), while gas-rich galaxies with high star-formation rates, like M 51, M 83 and NGC 6946, have 15 μG on average. In prominent spiral arms, the field strength can be up to 25 μG, in regions where cold gas and dust are also concentrated. The strongest total equipartition fields (50–100 μG) were found in <a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxy" title="Starburst galaxy">starburst galaxies</a>—for example, in M 82 and the <a href="/wiki/Antennae_Galaxies" title="Antennae Galaxies">Antennae</a>; and in nuclear starburst regions, such as the centers of NGC 1097 and other <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">barred galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-galactic_magnetic_fields-181">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_and_evolution">Formation and evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/220px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/330px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/440px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of a protocluster forming in the early universe<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a></figcaption></figure> Current models of the formation of galaxies in the early universe are based on the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">ΛCDM</a> model. About 300,000 years after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, atoms of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> began to form, in an event called <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a>. Nearly all the hydrogen was neutral (non-ionized) and readily absorbed light, and no stars had yet formed. As a result, this period has been called the "<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang#Dark_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">dark ages</a>". It was from density fluctuations (or <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropic</a> irregularities) in this primordial matter that <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">larger structures</a> began to appear. As a result, masses of <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryonic</a> matter started to condense within <a href="/wiki/Cold_dark_matter" title="Cold dark matter">cold dark matter</a> halos.<a href="#cite_note-hqrdvj-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-rmaa17_107-184">[182]</a> These primordial structures allowed gasses to condense in to <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Protogalaxies">protogalaxies</a>, large scale gas clouds that were precursors to the first galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-DayalFerrara2018-185">[183]</a>: 6  As gas falls in to the gravity of the dark matter halos, its pressure and temperature rise. To condense further, the gas must radiate energy. This process was slow in the early universe dominated by hydrogen atoms and molecules which are inefficient radiators compared to heavier elements. As clumps of gas aggregate forming rotating disks, temperatures and pressures continue to increase. Some places within the disk reach high enough density to form stars. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/220px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/330px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/440px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Artist impression of a young galaxy accreting material</figcaption></figure> Once protogalaxies began to form and contract, the first <a href="/wiki/Halo_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Halo star">halo stars</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Population_3_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Population 3 stars">Population III stars</a>, appeared within them.<a href="#cite_note-KlessenGlover2023-186">[184]</a> These were composed of primordial gas, almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. Emission from the first stars heats the remaining gas helping to trigger additional star formation; the ultraviolet light emission from the first generation of stars re-ionized the surrounding neutral hydrogen in expanding spheres eventually reaching the entire universe, an event called <a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">reionization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> The most massive stars collapse in violent <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> explosions releasing heavy elements ("metals") into the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150617-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-DayalFerrara2018-185">[183]</a>: 14  This metal content is incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Population_II_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Population II stars">population II stars</a>. Theoretical models for early galaxy formation have been verified and informed by a large number and variety of sophisticated astronomical observations.<a href="#cite_note-DayalFerrara2018-185">[183]</a>: 43  The photometric observations generally need spectroscopic confirmation due the large number mechanisms that can introduce systematic errors. For example, a high redshift (z ~ 16) photometric observation by <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) was later corrected to be closer to z ~ 5.<a href="#cite_note-ConfirmRefute-189">[187]</a> Nevertheless, confirmed observations from the JWST and other observatories are accumulating, allowing systematic comparison of early galaxies to predictions of theory.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> Evidence for individual Population III stars in early galaxies is even more challenging. Even seemingly confirmed spectroscopic evidence may turn out to have other origins. For example, astronomers reported HeII emission evidence for <a href="/wiki/Population_3_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Population 3 stars">Population III stars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Redshift_7" title="Cosmos Redshift 7">Cosmos Redshift 7</a> galaxy, with a redshift value of 6.60.<a href="#cite_note-AJ-20150604-191">[189]</a> Subsequent observations<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> found metallic emission lines, OIII, inconsistent with an early-galaxy star.<a href="#cite_note-KlessenGlover2023-186">[184]</a>: 108  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/220px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/330px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/440px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="929" /></a><figcaption>Different components of near-infrared background light detected by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> in deep-sky surveys<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3></div> Once stars begin to form, emit radiation, and in some cases explode, the process of galaxy formation becomes very complex, involving interactions between the forces of gravity, radiation, and thermal energy. Many details are still poorly understood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongair2008583-194">[192]</a> Within a billion years of a galaxy's formation, key structures begin to appear.<a href="#cite_note-SA-20221206-195">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">Globular clusters</a>, the central <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Bulge_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulge (astronomy)">galactic bulge</a> of metal-poor <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">Population II stars</a> form. The creation of a supermassive black hole appears to play a key role in actively regulating the growth of galaxies by limiting the total amount of additional matter added.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> During this early epoch, galaxies undergo a major burst of star formation.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> During the following two billion years, the accumulated matter settles into a <a href="/wiki/Disc_(galaxy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Disc (galaxy)">galactic disc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> A galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from <a href="/wiki/High-velocity_cloud" title="High-velocity cloud">high-velocity clouds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy" title="Dwarf galaxy">dwarf galaxies</a> throughout its life.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> This matter is mostly hydrogen and helium. The cycle of stellar birth and death slowly increases the abundance of heavy elements, eventually allowing the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary formation">formation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Extreme Deep Field">Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF)</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/200px-XDF-scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/300px-XDF-scale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/400px-XDF-scale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2489" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Extreme Deep Field">XDF</a> view field compared to the <a href="/wiki/Angular_diameter" title="Angular diameter">angular size</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. Several thousand galaxies, each consisting of billions of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, are in this small view.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/200px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/300px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/400px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="2078" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Extreme Deep Field">XDF</a> (2012) view: Each light speck is a galaxy, some of which are as old as 13.2 billion years<a href="#cite_note-Space-20120925-201">[199]</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a> is estimated to contain 200 billion to two trillion galaxies.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-separated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/200px-XDF-separated.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/300px-XDF-separated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/400px-XDF-separated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2101" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Extreme Deep Field">XDF</a> image shows (from left) fully mature galaxies, nearly mature galaxies (from five to nine billion years ago), and <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">protogalaxies</a>, blazing with <a href="/wiki/Young_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Young star">young stars</a> (beyond nine billion years).</div></div></div></div></div> Star formation rates in galaxies depend upon their local environment. Isolated 'void' galaxies have highest rate per stellar mass, with 'field' galaxies associated with spiral galaxies having lower rates and galaxies in dense cluster having the lowest rates.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> The evolution of galaxies can be significantly affected by interactions and collisions. Mergers of galaxies were common during the early epoch, and the majority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology.<a href="#cite_note-sa296-203">[201]</a> Given the distances between the stars, the great majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However, gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars known as tidal tails. Examples of these formations can be seen in <a href="/wiki/NGC_4676" class="mw-redirect" title="NGC 4676">NGC 4676</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Antennae_Galaxies" title="Antennae Galaxies">Antennae Galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> The Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are moving toward each other at about 130 <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second" title="Metre per second">km/s</a>, and—depending upon the lateral movements—the two might collide in about five to six billion years. Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, it has collided and merged with other galaxies in the past.<a href="#cite_note-Buser-206">[204]</a> Cosmological simulations indicate that, 11 billion years ago, it merged with a particularly large galaxy that has been labeled the <a href="/wiki/Kraken_galaxy" title="Kraken galaxy">Kraken</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> Such large-scale interactions are rare. As time passes, mergers of two systems of equal size become less common. Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally unchanged for the last few billion years, and the net rate of star formation probably also peaked about ten billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_trends">Future trends</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></div> Spiral galaxies, like the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a> of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> Elliptical galaxies are largely devoid of this gas, and so form few new stars.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> The supply of star-forming material is finite; once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end.<a href="#cite_note-cosmic_battle-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (1013–1014 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in the visible universe, tiny <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red dwarfs</a>, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of <a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">compact objects</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarfs</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarfs</a> that are cooling or cold ("<a href="/wiki/Black_dwarf" title="Black dwarf">black dwarfs</a>"), <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>. Eventually, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Relaxation_(physics)#Relaxation_in_astronomy" title="Relaxation (physics)">gravitational relaxation</a>, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.<a href="#cite_note-cosmic_battle-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 674.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 672.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): NGC 7541, NGC 3021, NGC 5643, NGC 3254, NGC 3147, NGC 105, NGC 2608, NGC 3583, NGC 3147, MRK 1337, NGC 5861, NGC 2525, NGC 1015, UGC 9391, NGC 691, NGC 7678, NGC 2442, NGC 5468, NGC 5917, NGC 4639, NGC 3972, The Antennae Galaxies, NGC 5584, M106, NGC 7250, NGC 3370, NGC 5728, NGC 4424, NGC 1559, NGC 3982, NGC 1448, NGC 4680, M101, NGC 1365, NGC 7329, NGC 3447"><img alt="Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): NGC 7541, NGC 3021, NGC 5643, NGC 3254, NGC 3147, NGC 105, NGC 2608, NGC 3583, NGC 3147, MRK 1337, NGC 5861, NGC 2525, NGC 1015, UGC 9391, NGC 691, NGC 7678, NGC 2442, NGC 5468, NGC 5917, NGC 4639, NGC 3972, The Antennae Galaxies, NGC 5584, M106, NGC 7250, NGC 3370, NGC 5728, NGC 4424, NGC 1559, NGC 3982, NGC 1448, NGC 4680, M101, NGC 1365, NGC 7329, NGC 3447" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg/1009px-Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg" decoding="async" width="673" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg/1514px-Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Hubble-Space-Telescope-Galaxy-Collection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="892" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): <a href="/wiki/NGC_7537" title="NGC 7537">NGC 7541</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3021" title="NGC 3021">NGC 3021</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5643" title="NGC 5643">NGC 5643</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3254" title="NGC 3254">NGC 3254</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3147" title="NGC 3147">NGC 3147</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_105" title="NGC 105">NGC 105</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_2608" title="NGC 2608">NGC 2608</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3583" title="NGC 3583">NGC 3583</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3147" title="NGC 3147">NGC 3147</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy#Gallery" title="Spiral galaxy">MRK 1337</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5861" title="NGC 5861">NGC 5861</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_2525" title="NGC 2525">NGC 2525</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_1015" title="NGC 1015">NGC 1015</a>, <a href="/wiki/UGC_9391" title="UGC 9391">UGC 9391</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_691" title="NGC 691">NGC 691</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_Peculiar_Galaxies#One_heavy_arm" title="Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies">NGC 7678</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_2442" class="mw-redirect" title="NGC 2442">NGC 2442</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5468" title="NGC 5468">NGC 5468</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5917" title="NGC 5917">NGC 5917</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_4639" title="NGC 4639">NGC 4639</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3972" title="NGC 3972">NGC 3972</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antennae_Galaxies" title="Antennae Galaxies">The Antennae Galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5584" title="NGC 5584">NGC 5584</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messier_106" title="Messier 106">M106</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_7250" title="NGC 7250">NGC 7250</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3370" title="NGC 3370">NGC 3370</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_5728" title="NGC 5728">NGC 5728</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_4424" title="NGC 4424">NGC 4424</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_1559" title="NGC 1559">NGC 1559</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_3982" title="NGC 3982">NGC 3982</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_1448" title="NGC 1448">NGC 1448</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_4680" title="NGC 4680">NGC 4680</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messier_101" class="mw-redirect" title="Messier 101">M101</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_1365" title="NGC 1365">NGC 1365</a>, <a href="/wiki/NGC_7329" title="NGC 7329">NGC 7329</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interacting_galaxy#Gallery" title="Interacting galaxy">NGC 3447</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="19 face-on spiral galaxies from the James Webb Space Telescope in near- and mid-infrared light. Older stars appear blue here, and are clustered at the galaxies’ cores. Glowing dust, showing where it exists around and between stars – appearing in shades of red and orange. Stars that haven't yet fully formed and are encased in gas and dust appear bright red.[213]"><img alt="19 face-on spiral galaxies from the James Webb Space Telescope in near- and mid-infrared light. Older stars appear blue here, and are clustered at the galaxies’ cores. Glowing dust, showing where it exists around and between stars – appearing in shades of red and orange. Stars that haven't yet fully formed and are encased in gas and dust appear bright red.[213]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg/450px-PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg/675px-PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg/900px-PHANGS_image_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="4500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">19 face-on spiral galaxies from the <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> in near- and mid-infrared light. Older stars appear blue here, and are clustered at the galaxies’ cores. Glowing dust, showing where it exists around and between stars – appearing in shades of red and orange. Stars that haven't yet fully formed and are encased in gas and dust appear bright red.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 940.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 938.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy – A mosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy and the largest image ever released by the Hubble Space Telescope"><img alt="Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy – A mosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy and the largest image ever released by the Hubble Space Telescope" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg/1408px-Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="939" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg/2112px-Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg/2816px-Andromeda_Galaxy_M31_-_Heic1502a_Full_resolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="40000" data-file-height="12788" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Zooming_In_on_the_Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy">Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy</a> – A mosaic of the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> and the largest image ever released by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/22px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/34px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/45px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Solar system">solar system portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/48px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/64px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">outer space portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/28px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/42px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/56px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">astronomy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/24px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/36px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/49px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">stars portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bright_early_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright early galaxies">Bright early galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_galaxy" title="Dark galaxy">Dark galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_orientation" title="Galactic orientation">Galactic orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustris_project" title="Illustris project">Illustris project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_galaxies" title="List of galaxies">List of galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">List of the most distant astronomical objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_galaxies" title="List of nearest galaxies">List of nearest galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_galaxies" title="List of largest galaxies">List of largest galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_surface_brightness_galaxy" title="Low surface brightness galaxy">Low surface brightness galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_galaxies" title="Outline of galaxies">Outline of galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_knowledge_about_galaxies,_clusters_of_galaxies,_and_large-scale_structure" title="Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure">Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> This is the diameter measured using the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Isophotal_diameter">D25 standard</a>. A 2018 study suggested that there is a presence of disk stars beyond this diameter, although it is not clear how much of this influences the surface brightness profile.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Wright called the Milky Way the Vortex Magnus (Great Whirlpool) and estimated its diameter to be 8.64×1012 miles (13.9×1012 km).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright175073-33">[32]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sparkegallagher2000-1"><a href="#cite_ref-sparkegallagher2000_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSparkeGallagher2000">Sparke & Gallagher 2000</a>, p. i </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa060812-2"><a href="#cite_ref-nasa060812_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHuppRoyWatzke2006" class="citation web cs1">Hupp, Erica; Roy, Steve; Watzke, Megan (August 12, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200328193824/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06297_CHANDRA_Dark_Matter.html">"NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 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Vol. 9664, Ninth International Topical Meeting on Education and Training in Optics and Photonics. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005SPIE.9664E..22B">2005SPIE.9664E..22B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.2207764">10.1117/12.2207764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+SPIE&rft.atitle=Ninth+International+Topical+Meeting+on+Education+and+Training+in+Optics+and+Photonics&rft.volume=9664%2C+Ninth+International+Topical+Meeting+on+Education+and+Training+in+Optics+and+Photonics&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.2207764&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005SPIE.9664E..22B&rft.aulast=Bouali&rft.aufirst=Hamid-Eddine&rft.au=Zghal%2C+Mourad&rft.au=Lakhdar%2C+Zohra+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2Fetop%2FETOP2005_080.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-Biruni-28"><a href="#cite_ref-al-Biruni_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. 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Retrieved January 10, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sidereus+Nuncius&rft.place=Venice&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Thomas+Baglioni&rft.date=1610&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=Galileo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FSidereusnuncius00Gali%23page%2Fn37%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileiKepler1880" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galilei, Galileo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler, Johannes</a> (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/siderealmessenge80gali#page/42/mode/2up/">The Sidereal Messenger of Galileo Galilei: and a part of the preface to Kepler's Dioptrics containing the original account of Galileo's astronomical discoveries</a>. 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C. (November 24, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030924183332/http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm">"Our Galaxy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm">the original</a> on September 24, 2003. 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On the Construction of the Heavens"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IU9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213">Giving Some Accounts of the Present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours, of the Ingenious, in Many Considerable Parts of the World</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Vol. 75. London. pp. 213–266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1785.0012">10.1098/rstl.1785.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-0523">0261-0523</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186213203">186213203</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161120170623/https://books.google.com/books?id=IU9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XII.+On+the+Construction+of+the+Heavens&rft.btitle=Giving+Some+Accounts+of+the+Present+Undertakings%2C+Studies%2C+and+Labours%2C+of+the+Ingenious%2C+in+Many+Considerable+Parts+of+the+World&rft.place=London&rft.series=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.pages=213-266&rft.date=1785&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186213203%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0261-0523&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1785.0012&rft.aulast=Herschel&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frstl.royalsocietypublishing.org%2Fcontent%2F75%2F213.full.pdf%2Bhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"> Herschel's diagram of the galaxy appears immediately after p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-paul1993-39"><a href="#cite_ref-paul1993_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPaul1993">Paul 1993</a>, pp. 16–18 </li> <li id="cite_note-Trimble_1999-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Trimble_1999_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrimble1999" class="citation journal cs1">Trimble, V. 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Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00402-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00402-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00402-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39108765">39108765</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072040/https://books.google.com/books?id=0CKLswEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galactic+Astronomy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39108765&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00402-0&rft.aulast=Binney&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Merrifield%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0CKLswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickinson2004" class="citation book cs1">Dickinson, Terence (2004). The Universe and Beyond (4th ed.). Firefly Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55297-901-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55297-901-3"><bdi>978-1-55297-901-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55596414">55596414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universe+and+Beyond&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Firefly+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55596414&rft.isbn=978-1-55297-901-3&rft.aulast=Dickinson&rft.aufirst=Terence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraknoi_et_al.2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fraknoi" title="Andrew Fraknoi">Fraknoi, Andrew</a>; et al. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy-2e">Astronomy 2e</a>. <a href="/wiki/OpenStax" title="OpenStax">OpenStax</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-951693-50-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-951693-50-3"><bdi>978-1-951693-50-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+2e&rft.pub=OpenStax&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-951693-50-3&rft.aulast=Fraknoi&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenstax.org%2Fdetails%2Fbooks%2Fastronomy-2e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidarzadeh2008" class="citation book cs1">Heidarzadeh, Tofigh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acraAAAAMAAJ">A History of Physical Theories of Comets, from Aristotle to Whipple</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8322-8"><bdi>978-1-4020-8322-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072049/https://books.google.com/books?id=acraAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Physical+Theories+of+Comets%2C+from+Aristotle+to+Whipple&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-8322-8&rft.aulast=Heidarzadeh&rft.aufirst=Tofigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacraAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMovan_den_BoschWhite2010" class="citation book cs1">Mo, Houjun; van den Bosch, Frank; <a href="/wiki/Simon_White" title="Simon White">White, Simon</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj7fDU3Z4wsC">Galaxy Formation and Evolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85793-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85793-2"><bdi>978-0-521-85793-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072050/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj7fDU3Z4wsC">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxy+Formation+and+Evolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85793-2&rft.aulast=Mo&rft.aufirst=Houjun&rft.au=van+den+Bosch%2C+Frank&rft.au=White%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZj7fDU3Z4wsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeppleSanner1998" class="citation book cs1">Kepple, George R.; Sanner, Glen W. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aCocRAAACAAJ">The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willmann-Bell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willmann-Bell (page does not exist)">Willmann-Bell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-943396-58-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-943396-58-3"><bdi>978-0-943396-58-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072055/https://books.google.com/books?id=aCocRAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Night+Sky+Observer%27s+Guide%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=Willmann-Bell&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-943396-58-3&rft.aulast=Kepple&rft.aufirst=George+R.&rft.au=Sanner%2C+Glen+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaCocRAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongair2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Longair" title="Malcolm Longair">Longair, Malcolm S.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-540-73478-9">Galaxy Formation</a>. Astronomy and Astrophysics Library (2nd ed.). Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-73478-9">10.1007/978-3-540-73478-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-73477-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-73477-2"><bdi>978-3-540-73477-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxy+Formation&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Astronomy+and+Astrophysics+Library&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-73478-9&rft.isbn=978-3-540-73477-2&rft.aulast=Longair&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-73478-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerritt2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Merritt" title="David Merritt">Merritt, David R.</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOa1ku640zAC">Dynamics and Evolution of Galactic Nuclei</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4612-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4612-2"><bdi>978-1-4008-4612-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324074542/https://books.google.com/books?id=cOa1ku640zAC">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamics+and+Evolution+of+Galactic+Nuclei&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4612-2&rft.aulast=Merritt&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOa1ku640zAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohamed2000" class="citation book cs1">Mohamed, Mohaini (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8uEFaPCpAdgC">Great Muslim Mathematicians</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penerbit_UTM&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penerbit UTM (page does not exist)">Penerbit UTM</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-52-0157-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-52-0157-8"><bdi>978-983-52-0157-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48759017">48759017</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072117/https://books.google.com/books?id=8uEFaPCpAdgC">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Muslim+Mathematicians&rft.pub=Penerbit+UTM&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48759017&rft.isbn=978-983-52-0157-8&rft.aulast=Mohamed&rft.aufirst=Mohaini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8uEFaPCpAdgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul1993" class="citation book cs1">Paul, Erich R. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7PA9EsFB84C">The Milky Way Galaxy and Statistical Cosmology, 1890–1924</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35363-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35363-2"><bdi>978-0-521-35363-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072121/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7PA9EsFB84C">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Milky+Way+Galaxy+and+Statistical+Cosmology%2C+1890%E2%80%931924&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35363-2&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Erich+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA7PA9EsFB84C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandageKronLongair1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allan_Sandage" title="Allan Sandage">Sandage, Allan R.</a>; Kron, Richard G.; <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Longair" title="Malcolm Longair">Longair, Malcolm S.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I8zkMgEACAAJ">The Deep Universe</a>. Saas-Fee Advanced Course, Swiss Society for Astrophysics and Astronomy. Vol. 23. <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-54-058913-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-54-058913-6"><bdi>978-3-54-058913-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Deep+Universe&rft.series=Saas-Fee+Advanced+Course%2C+Swiss+Society+for+Astrophysics+and+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-54-058913-6&rft.aulast=Sandage&rft.aufirst=Allan+R.&rft.au=Kron%2C+Richard+G.&rft.au=Longair%2C+Malcolm+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI8zkMgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparkeGallagher2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Sparke" title="Linda Sparke">Sparke, Linda S.</a>; Gallagher, John S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzNF79roUfoC">Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59740-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59740-1"><bdi>978-0-521-59740-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072126/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzNF79roUfoC">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxies+in+the+Universe%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59740-1&rft.aulast=Sparke&rft.aufirst=Linda+S.&rft.au=Gallagher%2C+John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzNF79roUfoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_den_Bergh1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Van_den_Bergh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Van den Bergh">Van den Bergh, Sidney</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=geEVkpueEPcC">Galaxy Morphology and Classification</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62335-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62335-3"><bdi>978-0-521-62335-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072137/https://books.google.com/books?id=geEVkpueEPcC">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxy+Morphology+and+Classification&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62335-3&rft.aulast=Van+den+Bergh&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgeEVkpueEPcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallerHodge2003" class="citation book cs1">Waller, William H.; <a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Hodge" title="Paul W. Hodge">Hodge, Paul W.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galaxiescosmicfr0000wall">Galaxies and the Cosmic Frontier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01079-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01079-6"><bdi>978-0-674-01079-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxies+and+the+Cosmic+Frontier&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01079-6&rft.aulast=Waller&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Hodge%2C+Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalaxiescosmicfr0000wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1750" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wright_(astronomer)" title="Thomas Wright (astronomer)">Wright, Thomas</a> (1750). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430062726/https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s">An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe</a>. London: Chapelle. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ">the original</a> on April 30, 2021. Retrieved April 21, 2024. <q>... the stars are not infinitely dispersed and distributed in a promiscuous manner throughout all the mundane space, without order or design, ... this phænomenon [is] no other than a certain effect arising from the observer's situation, ... To a spectator placed in an indefinite space, ... it [i.e., the Milky Way (Via Lactea)] [is] a vast ring of stars ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Original+Theory+or+New+Hypothesis+of+the+Universe&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chapelle&rft.date=1750&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D80VZAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalaxy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Galaxy at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/galaxy" class="extiw" title="wikt:galaxy">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Galaxies" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Galaxies">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Galaxy" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Galaxy">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Galaxy" class="extiw" title="q:Galaxy">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/High_School_Earth_Science/Galaxies" class="extiw" title="b:High School Earth Science/Galaxies">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Stars/Galaxies" class="extiw" title="v:Stars/Galaxies">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/">NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/">NED Redshift-Independent Distances</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003c1cn">Galaxies</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150718054637/http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/">An Atlas of The Universe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150912191650/http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies/">Galaxies – Information and amateur observations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galaxyzoo.org/">Galaxy Zoo – citizen science galaxy classification project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08LBltePDZw">"A Flight Through the Universe, by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey" – animated video from Berkeley Lab</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Galaxies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galaxy" title="Template:Galaxy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galaxy" title="Template talk:Galaxy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galaxy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galaxy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Galaxies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galaxies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">Morphology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disc_galaxy" title="Disc galaxy">Disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenticular_galaxy" title="Lenticular galaxy">Lenticular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barred_lenticular_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Barred lenticular galaxy">barred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unbarred_lenticular_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unbarred lenticular galaxy">unbarred</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">Spiral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anemic_galaxy" title="Anemic galaxy">anemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">barred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculent_spiral_galaxy" title="Flocculent spiral galaxy">flocculent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_design_spiral_galaxy" title="Grand design spiral galaxy">grand design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_spiral_galaxy" title="Intermediate spiral galaxy">intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magellanic_spiral" title="Magellanic spiral">Magellanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unbarred_spiral_galaxy" title="Unbarred spiral galaxy">unbarred</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy" title="Dwarf galaxy">Dwarf galaxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_elliptical_galaxy" title="Dwarf elliptical galaxy">elliptical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy#Common_dwarf_galaxy_types" title="Dwarf galaxy">irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_spheroidal_galaxy" title="Dwarf spheroidal galaxy">spheroidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_spiral_galaxy" title="Dwarf spiral galaxy">spiral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">Elliptical galaxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type-cD_galaxy" title="Type-cD galaxy">cD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">Irregular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barred_irregular_galaxy" title="Barred irregular galaxy">barred</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peculiar_galaxy" title="Peculiar galaxy">Peculiar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_galaxy" title="Ring galaxy">Ring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxy" title="Polar-ring galaxy">Polar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">Active galactic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_bulge" title="Galactic bulge">Bulge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_massive_object" title="Central massive object">Central massive object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">Galactic Center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter_halo" title="Dark matter halo">Dark matter halo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_disc" title="Galactic disc">Disc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disc_galaxy" title="Disc galaxy">Disc galaxy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_halo" title="Galactic halo">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_corona" title="Galactic corona">corona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_plane" title="Galactic plane">Galactic plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_ridge" title="Galactic ridge">Galactic ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">Protogalaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy#Spiral_arms" title="Spiral galaxy">Spiral arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">Supermassive black hole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultramassive_black_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramassive black hole">Ultramassive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">Active nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">Blazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-ionization_nuclear_emission-line_region" title="Low-ionization nuclear emission-line region">LINER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markarian_galaxies" title="Markarian galaxies">Markarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">Quasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BL_Lacertae_object" title="BL Lacertae object">BL Lacertae object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">Radio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-shaped_radio_galaxy" title="X-shaped radio galaxy">X-shaped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DRAGN" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAGN">DRAGN</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_jet#Relativistic_jet" title="Astrophysical jet">Relativistic jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyfert_galaxy" title="Seyfert galaxy">Seyfert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Energetic galaxies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyman-alpha_emitter" title="Lyman-alpha emitter">Lyman-alpha emitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman-break_galaxy" title="Lyman-break galaxy">Lyman-break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_infrared_galaxy" title="Luminous infrared galaxy">Luminous infrared</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ULIRG" class="mw-redirect" title="ULIRG">ULIRG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HLIRG" class="mw-redirect" title="HLIRG">HLIRG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELIRG" class="mw-redirect" title="ELIRG">ELIRG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxy" title="Starburst galaxy">Starburst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy#Blue_compact_dwarf_galaxies" title="Dwarf galaxy">blue compact dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea_galaxy" title="Pea galaxy">pea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faint_blue_galaxy" title="Faint blue galaxy">faint blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_infrared_galaxy" title="Luminous infrared galaxy">Luminous infrared galaxy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot,_dust-obscured_galaxy" title="Hot, dust-obscured galaxy">Hot dust-obscured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_bean_galaxy" title="Green bean galaxy">Green bean galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanny%27s_Voorwerp" title="Hanny's Voorwerp">Hanny's Voorwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf-Rayet_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf-Rayet galaxy">Wolf-Rayet galaxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Low activity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_surface_brightness_galaxy" title="Low surface brightness galaxy">Low surface brightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_diffuse_galaxy" title="Ultra diffuse galaxy">Ultra diffuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_galaxy" title="Dark galaxy">Dark galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_nugget" title="Red nugget">Red nugget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Nugget" title="Blue Nugget">Blue Nugget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_disk" title="Dead disk">Dead disk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_galaxy" title="Field galaxy">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_tide" title="Galactic tide">Galactic tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">Groups and clusters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_group" title="Galaxy group">group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brightest_cluster_galaxy" title="Brightest cluster galaxy">Brightest cluster galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_galaxy_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil galaxy group">fossil group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_galaxy" title="Interacting galaxy">Interacting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_merger" title="Galaxy merger">merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_collision" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxy collision">collision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_cannibalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic cannibalism">cannibalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish_galaxy" title="Jellyfish galaxy">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxy" title="Satellite galaxy">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics#Stellar_streams" title="Stellar kinematics">Stellar stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">Superclusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_(astronomy)" title="Void (astronomy)">Voids and supervoids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Void_galaxy" title="Void galaxy">void galaxy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_galaxies" title="Lists of galaxies">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_galaxies" title="List of galaxies">Galaxies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_objects_named_after_people#Galaxies" title="List of astronomical objects named after people">Galaxies named after people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_galaxies" title="List of largest galaxies">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_galaxies" title="List of nearest galaxies">Nearest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_polar-ring_galaxies" title="List of polar-ring galaxies">Polar-ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ring_galaxies" title="List of ring galaxies">Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spiral_galaxies" title="List of spiral galaxies">Spiral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="List of galaxy groups and clusters">Groups and clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group#List_of_LQGs" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasars" title="List of quasars">Quasars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">List of the most distant astronomical objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Starburst galaxies">Starburst galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercluster#List_of_superclusters" title="Supercluster">Superclusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_voids" title="List of voids">Voids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_coordinate_system" title="Galactic coordinate system">Galactic coordinate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_magnetic_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic magnetic fields">Galactic magnetic fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_orientation" title="Galactic orientation">Galactic orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_quadrant" title="Galactic quadrant">Galactic quadrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_color%E2%80%93magnitude_diagram" title="Galaxy color–magnitude diagram">Galaxy color–magnitude diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve" title="Galaxy rotation curve">Galaxy rotation curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">Gravitational lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing" title="Gravitational microlensing">Gravitational microlensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustris_project" title="Illustris project">Illustris project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_dust" title="Intergalactic dust">Intergalactic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Intergalactic stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallicity#Population_IIIstars" title="Metallicity">Population III stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_X_(galaxy)" title="Galaxy X (galaxy)">Galaxy X (galaxy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Galaxies" title="Category:Galaxies">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stellar_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stellar_system" title="Template:Stellar system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stellar_system" title="Template talk:Stellar system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stellar_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stellar system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stellar_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stellar</a> <a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bound</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_galaxy" title="Dwarf galaxy">Dwarf galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cluster" title="Star cluster">Star cluster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercompact_stellar_system" title="Hypercompact stellar system">Hypercompact stellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">Globular cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_globular_cluster" title="Dark globular cluster">Dark globular cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">Open cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters" title="List of most massive star clusters">List of most massive star clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_star_clusters" title="List of largest star clusters">List of largest star clusters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercompact_stellar_system" title="Hypercompact stellar system">Hypercompact stellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">Star system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">Binary star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unbound</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar stream">Stellar stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_association" title="Stellar association">Stellar association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics" title="Stellar kinematics">Moving group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway star">Runaway star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics#Hypervelocity_stars" title="Stellar kinematics">Hypervelocity star</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Visual grouping</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_star" title="Double star">Double star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple star">Multiple star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Star cloud">Star cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterism_(astronomy)" title="Asterism (astronomy)">Asterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Star_systems" title="Category:Star systems">Category:Star systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4057375-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85052763">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941212g">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941212g">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562458">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120460&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555549005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=28303">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galaxy&oldid=1259978371">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galaxy&oldid=1259978371</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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146.979 2 Template:Efn"," 4.20% 101.322 2 Template:Transliteration"," 3.06% 73.682 2 Template:Navbox"," 2.99% 72.072 1 Template:Galaxy"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.654","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22390430,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamsCaylessJonesJones2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsLaughlin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlard2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArgudo-FernándezVerleyBergondDuarte_Puertas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArrabal_HaroDickinsonFinkelsteinKartaltepe2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBahcall1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalazsBagolyHakkilaHorváth2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkanaLoeb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarstow2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBaughFrenk1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeck2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelkora2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellLevine1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellocchiPereira-SantaellaColinaLabiano2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenderKormendyCornellFisher2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertinLin1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBinneyMerrifield1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlandfordNarayan1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBogdánGouldingNatarajanKovács2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoualiZghalLakhdar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBournaudCombes2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowlerMcLureDunlopMcLeod2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoylan-Kolchin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgarellaBuatDonasMilliard2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamba2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChemla2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondon1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConselice2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConselice2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConseliceBershadyJangren2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbelliSalucci2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtis1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDayalFerrara2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Vaucouleurs1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickinson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubinski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEskridgeFrogel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFabianNulsen1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirmaniAvila-Reese2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFish1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFountain2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFouquePaturel1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraknoi_et_al.2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrommertKronberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrommertKronberg2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1610\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileiKepler1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerberLambBalsara1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibney2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardiGiuricin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzalez1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwinGribbinHendry1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrahamDriverPetrosianConselice2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrahamGuzmán2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroshong2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeckman1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeidarzadeh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerschel1785\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschmannDe_LuciaIovinoCucciati2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoFilippenkoSargent1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoover2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorváthBagolyHakkilaTóth2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorváthBagolyHakkilaTóth2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowellHarvey2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubble1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubble1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuppRoyWatzke2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarretRosenberg1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrett\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrettChesterCutriSchneider2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKant2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarachentsevMakarovKarachentsevaMelnyk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKembhaviNarlikar2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennicutt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennicuttTamblynCongdon1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeppleSanner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlessenGlover2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnapenPerez-RamirezLaine2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnapp1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonečný\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovačevićYiDaiYang2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraan-KortewegJuraszek2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruijssenPfefferChevanceBonaca2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaubertsValentijn1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauerPostmanWeaverSpencer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivingston1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLochner\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongair2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-Corredoira2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-CorredoiraAllende_PrietoGarzónWang2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMandolesi1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasseyHeward2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMateo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsMorganSchmidt1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonaldMcNamaraVoitBayliss2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelnykKarachentsevaKarachentsev2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerritt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohamed2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontada2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoskowitz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMovan_den_BoschWhite2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMushotzky\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNemiroffBonnell2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoguchi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Callaghan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObreschkowGlazebrook2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOeivan_WeerenHardcastleBotteon2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgleLanzNaderHelou2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnionsFriedrichsenBurchfield1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPandyaRomanowskyLaineBrodie2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanterJimenezHeavensCharlot2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne-Gaposchkin1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrosian1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillippsDrinkwaterGreggJones2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPobojewski1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPompeiDahlemIovino2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPonman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPérez-TorresMattilaAlonso-HerreroAalto2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRao2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRieke2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiessFliriValls-Gabaud2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRojasVogeleyHoyleBrinkmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandage1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandageKronLongair1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanders2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandersMirabel1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantos2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaunders2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchirber2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlipher1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlipher1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobralMattheeDarvishSchaerer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSparkeGallagher2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinicke2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrigariBullockKaplinghatSimon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStruck1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSérsic1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTempel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTenn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTonry1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTovmassianAndernach2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrimble1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTully1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_den_Bergh1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallerHodge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangWhite2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeaver\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsBureauCappellari2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1750\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZakamskaStraussKrolikCollinge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_DokkumAbrahamMerrittZhang2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_den_Bergh2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÖpik1922\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Abbr\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 93,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 57,\n [\"Convert\"] = 4,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Galaxy\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 11,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 3,\n [\"MacTutor Biography\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 10,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Stellar system\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 2,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 4,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","280","16.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","12.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","10.3"],["dataWrapper 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