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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>General history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pre-writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chữ_Hán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chữ_Hán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Chữ Hán</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chữ_Hán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sino-Vietnamese_readings_of_chữ_Hán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sino-Vietnamese_readings_of_chữ_Hán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Sino-Vietnamese readings of <span><i>chữ Hán</i></span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sino-Vietnamese_readings_of_chữ_Hán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chữ_Nôm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chữ_Nôm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Chữ Nôm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chữ_Nôm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quốc_âm_tân_tự" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quốc_âm_tân_tự"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Quốc âm tân tự</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quốc_âm_tân_tự-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chữ_Quốc_ngữ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chữ_Quốc_ngữ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Chữ Quốc ngữ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chữ_Quốc_ngữ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit,_Cham,_Khmer_and_Indic_scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit,_Cham,_Khmer_and_Indic_scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Sanskrit, Cham, Khmer and Indic scripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit,_Cham,_Khmer_and_Indic_scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tai_Dam_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tai_Dam_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Tai Dam script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tai_Dam_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jawi_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jawi_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Jawi script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jawi_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_usage_of_chữ_Hán_and_chữ_Nôm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_usage_of_chữ_Hán_and_chữ_Nôm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Modern usage of <i>chữ Hán</i> and <i>chữ Nôm</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_usage_of_chữ_Hán_and_chữ_Nôm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mixed_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1</span> <span>Mixed script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>"I speak Vietnamese" (<i>Mình nói tiếng Việt</i>—𨉟呐㗂越) in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet"><i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i></a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></i> in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#000000">black</span>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a> in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FF0000">red</span></i></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/52px-Chu_nom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="779" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(East_Asian)" title="Help:Multilingual support (East Asian)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">chữ Quốc ngữ</a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233430381">.mw-parser-output .characters-body{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-content{padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{background-color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{background-color:lightpink;white-space:nowrap;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .blist ol li,.mw-parser-output .blist ul li{display:list-item;text-align:left;text-indent:hanging 1em;margin-left:1em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks noprint characters-body"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_characters_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese characters"><img alt="Chinese characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/220px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/330px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/440px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="177" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></i></span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_script_styles" title="Chinese script styles">script styles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_symbols_in_China" title="Neolithic symbols in China">Neolithic symbols in China</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">Large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">Small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">Bird-worm</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">Regular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_brush_script" title="Flat brush script">Flat brush</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_typography" title="East Asian typography">Modern typefaces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fangsong" title="Fangsong">Fangsong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_typefaces" title="Ming typefaces">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Gothic_typeface" title="East Asian Gothic typeface">Hei</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Properties and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">classification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_components" title="Chinese character components">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">Strokes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">order</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_radicals" title="Chinese character radicals">Radicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters#Printing_and_typefaces" title="Chinese characters">Orthography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_zixing" title="Jiu zixing"><i>jiu zixing</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_zixing" title="Xin zixing"><i>xin zixing</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CJK_characters" title="CJK characters">Digital encoding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed blist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Collation and standards</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangxi Dictionary form"><i>Kangxi Dictionary</i> forms</a> (1716)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonly_Used_Standard_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters">Commonly Used Characters</a></i> (PRC, 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graphemes_of_Commonly-Used_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters">Commonly-Used Characters</a></i> (Hong Kong, 2007)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Southern_Min_Recommended_Characters" title="Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters">Nan Min Recommended Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standard_Form_of_National_Characters" title="Standard Form of National Characters">Standard Form of National Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 1982)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji"><i>Jōyō</i> kanji</a> (Japan, 2010)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Reforms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_round_of_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Second round of simplified Chinese characters">second round</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_traditional_and_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters">debate</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_script_reform" title="Japanese script reform">Japanese script reform</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjitai" title="Kyūjitai">kyūjitai</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Homograph#In_Chinese" title="Homograph">Homographs</a> and readings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">Kanbun</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Variant_Chinese_characters" title="Variant Chinese characters">Variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_of_Empress_Wu" title="Chinese characters of Empress Wu">Zetian characters</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Derived systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">man'yōgana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen script</a></li> <li>Khitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">small</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_for_transcribing_Slavonic" title="Chinese characters for transcribing Slavonic">Slavonic transcription</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Chinese" title="Transliteration of Chinese">Transliteration of Chinese</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png/220px-Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png/330px-Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png/440px-Vietnamese_historical_writing_systems.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Current and past writing systems for Vietnamese in the Vietnamese alphabet and in chữ Hán Nôm</figcaption></figure> <p>Spoken and written <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> today uses the Latin script-based <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> to represent native Vietnamese words (<i>thuần Việt</i>), <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Vietnamese words which are of Chinese origin</a> (<i>Hán-Việt</i>, or Sino-Vietnamese), and other foreign loanwords. Historically, Vietnamese literature was written by scholars using a combination of Chinese characters (<i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Hán</a></i>) and original Vietnamese characters (<i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Nôm</a></i>). From 111 BC up to the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese literature</a> was written in <a href="/wiki/V%C4%83n_ng%C3%B4n" class="mw-redirect" title="Văn ngôn">Văn ngôn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>) using <i>chữ Hán</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>), and then also <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Nôm</a> (Chinese and original Vietnamese characters adapted for vernacular Vietnamese) from the 13th century to 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></i> were introduced to Vietnam during the thousand year period of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Chinese rule</a> from 111 BC to 939 AD. Texts in Vietnam were written using chữ Hán by the 10th century at the latest. Chữ Hán continued to be used as the official administrative script until the 19th century with the exception of two brief periods under the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Hồ</a> (1400–1407) and <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn</a> (1778–1802) dynasties when <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a> was promoted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Chữ Nôm</i> is a blend of chữ Hán and unique Vietnamese characters to write the Vietnamese language. It may have been used as early as the 8th century but concrete textual evidence dates to the 13th century. Chữ Nôm never supplanted chữ Hán as the primary writing system and less than five percent of the Vietnamese population used it, primarily as a learning aid for chữ Hán and writing folk literature. Due to its unofficial nature, chữ Nôm was used as a medium for social protest, leading to several bans during the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a> (1428–1789). In spite of this, a sizable body of literature in chữ Nôm had accumulated by the 19th century, and these texts could be orally disseminated by individuals in villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two concurrent scripts existed until the era of <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> when <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Chữ Quốc ngữ">chữ Quốc ngữ</a></i>, the Latin alphabet, gradually became the current written medium of literature.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit and Indic texts</a> also contributed to Vietnamese literature either from religious ideas from <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a>, or from historical influence of <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Vietnamese, Chinese characters go by several names, but all refer to the same script: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></i> (𡨸漢) or <i>Hán tự</i> (漢字): "words of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Hán</a>" or "Hán characters/words". 漢字 is also pronounced as <a href="/wiki/Hanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanzi">Hanzi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a> in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n_v%C4%83n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán văn">Hán văn</a></i> (漢文): "Han writing" or "Han literature",<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also pronounced as <i>Hanwen</i> in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hanmun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanmun">Hanmun</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">Kanbun</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>. Meaning <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>.</li> <li><i>Chữ Nho</i> (𡨸儒, "words of <a href="/wiki/Confucians" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucians">Confucians</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Vietnamese word <i>chữ</i> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:𡨸">𡨸</a> (character, script, writing, letter) is derived from a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> pronunciation of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:字">字</a> (Modern <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a>: zì), meaning 'character'.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Từ Hán Việt</i> (詞漢越, "<a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> words") refers to <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> or terms borrowed from Chinese into the Vietnamese language, usually preserving the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of the original Chinese that was introduced to Vietnamese. As for <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> this Sino-Vietnamese language was no more different from the Chinese of Beijing than medieval English Latin was different from the Latin of Rome. Its major influence comes from Vietnamese Literary Chinese (<i>Chữ Hán</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></i> (𡨸喃, "Southern characters") refers to the former transcription system for vernacular Vietnamese-language texts, written using a mixture of original Chinese characters and locally coined Nôm characters not found in Chinese to phonetically represent local Vietnamese words, meanings and their sound.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the character set for <i>chữ Nôm</i> is extensive, containing up to 37,000 characters, and many are both arbitrary in composition and inconsistent in pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenecke2017525_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenecke2017525-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Hán Nôm</i> (漢喃, "<i>Hán</i> and <i>chữ Nôm</i> characters") may mean both <i><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán">Hán</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B4m" class="mw-redirect" title="Nôm">Nôm</a></i> taken together as in the research remit of Hanoi's <i><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n-N%C3%B4m_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán-Nôm Institute">Hán-Nôm Institute</a></i>, or refer to texts which are written in a mixture of Hán and Nôm, or some Hán texts with parallel Nôm translations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm and many characters are used in both Hán and Nôm with the same reading.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be simplest to think of Nôm as the Vietnamese extension of Han characters. </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Chữ quốc ngữ">chữ quốc ngữ</a></i> (𡨸國語, "national language script") means Vietnamese written in the Latin alphabet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_history">General history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></i> (Chinese characters), also known as <i>chữ nho</i> (Confucian script), were introduced to Vietnam during the thousand year period of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Chinese rule</a> from 111 BC to 939 AD. Although the earliest extant texts written in chữ Hán appeared in Vietnam by the 10th century, chữ Hán was the only known writing system in Vietnam at the time, and had likely been used in prior times. Chữ Hán continued to be used in Vietnam after the end of Chinese rule in the 10th century and was instated as the official court script in 1010 and 1174. The <a href="/wiki/Confucian_court_examination_system_in_Vietnam" title="Confucian court examination system in Vietnam">Confucian examination system</a> in Vietnam was written in chữ Hán. It remained the official writing system of Vietnam until the 19th century with the exception of two brief periods under the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Hồ</a> (1400–1407) and <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn</a> (1778–1802) dynasties when chữ Nôm gained ascendance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a> is the adaptation of chữ Hán and creation of unique Vietnamese characters to transcribe the Vietnamese language based on approximations of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> pronunciations. It is speculated that chữ Nôm appeared as early as the 8th century using chữ Hán to record elements of the Vietnamese language, however the earliest extant textual evidence of chữ Nôm dates to the 13th century. Chữ Nôm includes thousands of characters unique to Vietnamese not found in Chinese. Due to social circumstances and linguistic inefficiencies, chữ Nôm never replaced chữ Hán as the primary writing system in Vietnam and was only promoted during the short-lived Hồ (1400–1407) and Tây Sơn (1778–1802) dynasties. Less than five percent of the Vietnamese population used chữ Nôm and only did so as a learning aid for chữ Hán or writing folk literature. As a result of its marginalized nature and lack of institutional backing, chữ Nôm was used as a medium for social protest during the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a> (1428–1789), leading to its ban in 1663, 1718, and 1760. <a href="/wiki/Gia_Long" title="Gia Long">Gia Long</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> (1802–1945), supported chữ Nôm until he became emperor and immediately reverted to chữ Hán. Despite its limited usage, a sizable body of literature in chữ Nôm had accumulated by the 19th century, and served as a written medium for oral dissemination by individuals in villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two concurrent scripts existed until the era of <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> when <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Chữ Quốc ngữ">chữ Quốc ngữ</a></i>, the Latin alphabet, gradually became the current written medium of literature.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, Sanskrit and Indic texts also contributed to Vietnamese literature either from religious ideas from <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a>, or from historical influence of <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-writing">Pre-writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pre-writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During ancient times, the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a> were considered to have been <a href="/wiki/Proto-Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Austroasiatic">Proto-Austroasiatic</a> (also called <i>Proto-Mon–Khmer</i>) speaking people, possibly traced to the ancient <a href="/wiki/Dong_Son_culture" title="Dong Son culture">Dong Son culture</a>. Modern linguists describe Vietnamese as having lost some Proto-Austroasiatic phonological and morphological features that the original <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a> had. This was noted in the linguistic separation of Vietnamese from Vietnamese-Muong roughly one thousand years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chữ_Hán"><span id="Ch.E1.BB.AF_H.C3.A1n"></span>Chữ Hán</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chữ Hán"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin,_Bronze,_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG/200px-Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG/300px-Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG/400px-Coin%2C_Bronze%2C_1st_-_3rd_century_at_room_3_Period_of_the_struggle_for_independence_of_the_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="1378" /></a><figcaption>Bronze cash coin, 1st century AD with ancient <a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> are specifically called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𡨸漢</span></span>), <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nho</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𡨸儒</span></span>) or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Hán tự</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">漢字</span></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text"><a href="/wiki/Han_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Han character">Han character</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) in Vietnamese. <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Chữ Hoa</i></span> or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tiếng Hoa</i></span> is commonly used to describe <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, as well as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tiếng Tàu</i></span> for Chinese in general. Possibly even a thousand years earlier, in the late first millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Yuè</a> elites in what is now southern China may have already adopted a form of writing based on Chinese characters to record terms from their own languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2017-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Chinese rule from 111 BC to 905 AD, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> had been used as the official writing of the region. Local texts written in Chinese probably also included some characters adapted to represent Proto-Viet-<a href="/wiki/Muong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muong language">Mường</a> sounds, usually personal names or <a href="/wiki/Vietic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietic">Vietic</a> toponyms that had no Chinese equivalent.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2017-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some scholars, the adoption chữ Hán or Hán tự had been started by <a href="/wiki/Shi_Xie" title="Shi Xie">Shi Xie</a> (137–226), but many disagree.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiernan2017-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest extant poem in chữ Hán written by somebody from Vietnam was authored in 815 by <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%AAu_H%E1%BB%AFu_Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Liêu Hữu Phương">Liêu Hữu Phương</a>. Liêu had made the journey to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> to take the civil service examinations and failed, which he recounted in his poem. He passed the examination in the following year and received an official appointment. The poem is preserved in the <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i>. By the time Vietnam became independent in 938, it is apparent that chữ Hán had become the official writing system of Vietnam without any consideration that it was a Chinese language. The <i><a href="/wiki/Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_s%C6%A1n_h%C3%A0" title="Nam quốc sơn hà">Nam quốc sơn hà</a></i>, a patriotic Vietnamese poem attributed to the Vietnamese general <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_Ki%E1%BB%87t" title="Lý Thường Kiệt">Lý Thường Kiệt</a> (1019–1105), was said to have been read aloud as inspiration to Vietnamese troops before they fought victoriously against Chinese troops during the <a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t_war" title="Song–Đại Việt war">Song–Đại Việt war</a>. The poem was written in <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a>. It is unknown when exactly knowledge of Chinese texts became widespread in Vietnam, but a Song dynasty envoy who reached Vietnam in 987 recounts that a local monk was able to sing the last couplet of a poem written by Tang poet <a href="/wiki/Luo_Binwang" title="Luo Binwang">Luo Binwang</a> (ca. 619–684?).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-571_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-571-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">writings</a> were at first indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical Chinese works produced in China, Korea or Japan. These include the first poems in Literary Chinese by the monk <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Khu%C3%B4ng_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Khuông Việt">Khuông Việt</a></span></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">匡越</span></span>), the <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_S%C6%A1n_H%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Nam Quốc Sơn Hà">Nam Quốc Sơn Hà</a></i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">南國山河</span></span>), and many Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist scriptures.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cœdès_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cœdès-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after the invention of <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a>, the adaptation of chữ Hán to write vernacular Vietnamese, educated men were still expected to have a good understanding of chữ Hán and to be able to compose poetry in it. <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%C3%A3i" title="Nguyễn Trãi">Nguyễn Trãi</a> (1380–1442) composed poetry in both writing systems. This familiarity with poetry in chữ Hán enabled Vietnamese envoys to communicate with envoys from as far away as Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017571-572_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017571-572-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Chữ Hán</i></span> became the official writing script of the court in 1010 and 1174. It was mainly used by the administration and literati. It continued to serve this role until the mid-19th century during French colonial rule when the traditional writing system was abolished in favour of transliterated <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ quốc ngữ</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sino-Vietnamese_readings_of_chữ_Hán"><span id="Sino-Vietnamese_readings_of_ch.E1.BB.AF_H.C3.A1n"></span>Sino-Vietnamese readings of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sino-Vietnamese readings of chữ Hán"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Vietnamese reading">Sino-Vietnamese reading</a></div><p> In Vietnam, <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span> texts were read with the vocalization of Chinese text, called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n_v%C4%83n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán văn">Hán văn</a></i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">漢文</span></span>), similar to Chinese <a href="/wiki/On%27yomi" title="On'yomi">on-yomi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kambun" class="mw-redirect" title="Kambun">kanbun</a></i></span> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">漢文</span></span>), or the assimilated vocalizations in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hanmun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanmun">hanmun</a></i></span> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">한문</span></span>/<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">漢文</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurred alongside the diffusion of <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> into vernacular Vietnamese,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and created a <a href="/wiki/Sinoxenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinoxenic">Sinoxenic</a> dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sinologist <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Edwin G. Pulleyblank</a> was one of the first linguists to actively employ "Sino-Vietnamese" to recover earlier histories of China.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chữ_Nôm"><span id="Ch.E1.BB.AF_N.C3.B4m"></span>Chữ Nôm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chữ Nôm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg/220px-Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg/330px-Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg/440px-Vietnamese_Birth_Certificate_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Vietnamese birth certificate in 1941 showing Vietnamese in two scripts, chữ Quốc ngữ and chữ Nôm.</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 13th century, the dominance of Chinese characters began to be challenged by <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></i>, a different writing system based on the Chinese script to transcribe native Vietnamese words. These were even more difficult than Chinese characters themselves. Nôm script borrowed Chinese characters in their phonetic and semantic values to create new characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-103_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-103-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst designed for native Vietnamese words, Nôm required the user to have a fair knowledge of chữ Hán, and thus Nôm was used primarily for literary writings by cultural elites (such as the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a> and <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Xu%C3%A2n_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Hồ Xuân Hương">Hồ Xuân Hương</a>), while almost all other official writings and documents continued to be written in classical Chinese until the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While chữ Nôm had emerged by the 13th century, very few extant vernacular texts in Nôm predate the 15th century, and even later many texts in Nôm were translations or rewritings of works in chữ Hán. During the 15th and 16th centuries, reformist governments translated <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Classics">Chinese Classics</a> into Nôm, but these translations have not survived due to being seen as subversive by successive governments. The <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn dynasty</a> (1778–1802) mandated the use of Nôm in both government business and civil service examinations but their policy was reverted after the dynasty's collapse. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Minh_M%E1%BA%A1ng" title="Minh Mạng">Minh Mạng</a> (r. 1820–1841), the second emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> (1802–1945), prohibited the use of Nôm in both areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-570_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-570-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poetry in Nôm was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%C3%A3i" title="Nguyễn Trãi">Nguyễn Trãi</a> (1380–1442). He wrote Vietnamese poetry in Nôm using the Chinese seven-syllable pattern. Later in the 17th century, Vietnamese poetry shifted towards a native pattern of alternating lines in six and eight syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017573_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017573-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epic poem, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kieu</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a> (1765–1820), was written in Nôm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Nôm never replaced chữ Hán as the primary writing system, a growing number of Buddhist, Confucian, and moral texts had added vernacular explanations in Nôm by the 17th century. Some 19th century editions of Chinese classics also included translations in Nôm, later editions of Chinese fiction started including notes or translations in Nôm, while medical writers had to use Nôm to describe local plants not found in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of its marginalized nature and lack of institutional backing, chữ Nôm was used as a medium for social protest during the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a> (1428–1789), leading to its ban in 1663, 1718, and 1760. <a href="/wiki/Gia_Long" title="Gia Long">Gia Long</a> (r. 1802–1820), founder of the Nguyễn dynasty, supported chữ Nôm until he became emperor and immediately reverted to chữ Hán. Despite its limited usage, a sizable body of literature in chữ Nôm had accumulated by the 19th century, and served as a written medium for oral dissemination by individuals in villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quốc_âm_tân_tự"><span id="Qu.E1.BB.91c_.C3.A2m_t.C3.A2n_t.E1.BB.B1"></span>Quốc âm tân tự</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Quốc âm tân tự"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg/220px-Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg/330px-Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg/440px-Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%82m_T%C3%A2n_T%E1%BB%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>The syllabary "Quốc âm tân tự"<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Quốc âm tân tự</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a>: 國音新字), literally 'new script of national sound (language)', was a writing system for Vietnamese proposed in the mid-19th century. Two documents written on this type of script (four pages each) are kept at the Institute for the Study of Hán-Nôm: An older unnamed manuscript, and a more recent copy called Quốc âm tân tự (國音新字). There is no information in the text of the Quốc âm tân tự that indicates the specific date and year this work was written. Based on the fact that in the preface of the work the last stroke of the character "華" (Hoa) has been omitted due to <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">naming taboo</a>, it can be guessed that this text was written during the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%87u_Tr%E1%BB%8B" title="Thiệu Trị">Thiệu Trị</a> (whose mother's name was "Hồ Thị Hoa" 胡氏華). At the end of the text's preface, there is a line "五星聚斗南城居士阮子書" (Ngũ Tinh Tụ Đẩu Nam thành cư sĩ Nguyễn tử thư). Through this inscription, it can be known that the author of Quốc âm tân tự is a layman with the surname Nguyễn (阮) in <a href="/wiki/Nam_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Nam Định">Nam Định</a> citadel (南定) with the nickname Ngũ Tinh Tụ Đẩu (五星聚斗).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quốc âm tân tự is a type of phonetic syllabary script made from the strokes of chữ Hán and chữ Nôm, similar to <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a> of Japanese or <a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> in Chinese. Based on the pronunciation of Vietnamese, there are 22 <i>cán tự</i> (幹字) and 110 <i>chi tự</i> (枝字) ("cán" means trunk, "chi" means branches, "tự" means character). <i>Cán tự</i> is used to record the first consonant, and the <i>chi tự</i> is used to write the rhyme. Each character is named with a word that rhymes "ông" with the first consonant being the first consonant that the character signifies, for example, the word "đ" denotes the consonant "đ" is named "đông" (similar to today, the Vietnamese call the consonant "đ" the sound "đờ"). Quốc âm tân tự does not distinguish between "d" and "gi" as in Quốc ngữ (possibly because the author followed the Northern accent when "d" and "gi" sound almost the same).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is a shank used to record the initial consonant /ʔ/, which is named "ông". </p><p>The author of Quốc âm tân tự used four stroke types: (一), (丨), (丶), (丿) (also including "㇏" as a variant of "丶") to create the characters. Every character (including all "trunk" and "branch" characters) has a total of four strokes. Most of the characters only use two or three stroke types, but the total number of strokes is exactly four. </p><p>Quốc âm tân tự uses the traditional "tone" division, the tones are divided into four categories: "bình" (平), "thượng" (上), "khứ" (去), "nhập" (入). Each type is further divided into two degrees, " âm" (陰) and "dương" (陽). The tones in the old classification were called <i>Âm bình</i> 陰平 (<i>ngang</i>), <i>Dương bình</i> 陽平 (<i>huyền</i>), <i>Âm thượng</i> 陰上 (<i>hỏi</i>), <i>Dương thượng</i> 陽上 (<i>ngã</i>), <i>Âm khứ</i> 陰去 (<i>sắc</i>; for words that do not end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), <i>Dương khứ</i> 陽去 (<i>nặng</i>; for words that do not end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), <i>Âm nhập</i> 陰入 (<i>sắc</i>; for words that do end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/), and <i>Dương nhập</i> 陽入 (<i>nặng</i>; for words that do end in /p/, /t/, /c/ and /k/). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Traditional tone category </th> <th>Traditional tone name </th> <th>Modern tone name </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>bằng</i> 平 <i>'</i>level<i>'</i></b> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>bình</i> 平 <i>'</i>even<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm bình</i> 陰平 </td> <td><i>ngang</i> </td> <td>ma 'ghost' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương bình</i> 陽平 </td> <td><i>huyền</i> </td> <td>mà 'but' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6"><b><i>trắc</i> 仄 <i>'</i>sharp<i>'</i></b> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>thượng</i> 上 <i>'</i>rising<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm thượng</i> 陰上 </td> <td><i>hỏi</i> </td> <td>rể 'son-in-law; groom' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương thượng</i> 陽上 </td> <td><i>ngã</i> </td> <td>rễ 'root' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>khứ</i> 去 <i>'</i>departing<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm khứ</i> 陰去 </td> <td><i>sắc</i> </td> <td>lá 'leaf' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương khứ</i> 陽去 </td> <td><i>nặng</i> </td> <td>lạ 'strange' </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b><i>nhập</i> 入 <i>'</i>entering<i>'</i></b> </td> <td><i>Âm nhập</i> 陰入 </td> <td><i>sắc</i> </td> <td>mắt 'eye' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Dương nhập</i> 陽入 </td> <td><i>nặng</i> </td> <td>mặt 'face' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tones of "âm" degree are marked with a small semi-circle, and tones of "dương" degree are marked with a small circle mark. To indicate serenity, the tone is placed next to the "left foot" of the word, with the bar mark placed next to the "left shoulder" of the word, with the accent bar placed next to the "right shoulder" of the text, with the accent bar placed next to the "right foot" of the text. </p><p>Quốc âm tân tự can be written vertically or horizontally like chữ Hán and chữ Nôm, and is a set of phonetic scripts created by the Vietnamese themselves (when <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a> is a logographic system created by the Vietnamese, <i>Quốc Ngữ</i> is a phonetic script created by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a>). When Quốc âm tân tự was created, it did not gain any widespread usage due to it just being a proposal, and because the political and social situation of Vietnam was too complicated at that time due to the gradual weakening of Nguyễn rule and the beginning of the French invasion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chữ_Quốc_ngữ"><span id="Ch.E1.BB.AF_Qu.E1.BB.91c_ng.E1.BB.AF"></span>Chữ Quốc ngữ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chữ Quốc ngữ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, called <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i>, is the currently-used script. It was first developed by Portuguese missionaries in the 17th century, based on the <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese alphabet">alphabet</a>. For 200 years, chữ Quốc ngữ was mainly used within the Catholic community. However it was mainly used a tool for missionaries to learn Vietnamese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020106_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020106-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main script for Vietnamese Catholic texts was chữ Nôm. During <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French administration</a>, the alphabet was further modified and then later made a part of compulsory education in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the use of chu Hán and chữ Nôm started to decline. At this time there were briefly four competing writing systems in Vietnam; <i>chữ Hán</i>, <i>chữ Nôm</i>, <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i>, and French.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <i><a href="/wiki/Gia_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_B%C3%A1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Gia Định Báo">Gia Định Báo</a></i>, the first Vietnamese newspaper in <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i>, was founded in 1865, Vietnamese nationalists continued to use chữ Nôm until after the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. </p><p>After French rule, <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i> became the favored <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> of the Vietnamese independence movement.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> journalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Giang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nguyễn Giang (page does not exist)">Nguyễn Giang</a> noted that while the early Christian missionaries are credited with creating the Vietnamese alphabet, what they did was not unique or difficult and would have been done later without them had they not created it.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Giang further stated that the main reason for the popularisation of the Latin alphabet in the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">French protectorates of Annam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a>) was because of the pioneering efforts by intellectuals from <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> combined with the progressive and scientific policies of the French government in French Indochina, that created the momentum for the usage of <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i> to spread.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Giang stated that the <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a> only removed the stigma against using <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i> for the Nguyễn dynasty elites, but did not actually popularise it.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important reason why Latin script became the standard writing system of Vietnam but did not do so in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> that were both dominated by the French for a similar amount of time and existed within the same colonial framework has to do with the fact that the Emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty heavily promoted its usage.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Liam_Kelley_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liam Kelley (historian)">Liam Kelley</a> in his 2016 work "Emperor Thành Thái's Educational Revolution" neither the French nor the revolutionaries had enough power to spread the usage of <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i> down to the village level.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was by imperial decree in 1906 that the <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh_Th%C3%A1i" title="Thành Thái">Thành Thái</a> Emperor parents could decide whether their children will follow a curriculum in <i>Hán văn</i> (漢文) or <i>Nam âm</i> (南音, "Southern sound", the contemporary Nguyễn dynasty name for <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decree was issued at the same time when other social changes, such as the cutting of long male hair, were occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From the first days it was recognized that the Chinese language was a barrier between us and the natives; the education provided by means of the hieroglyphic characters was completely beyond us; this writing makes possible only with difficulty transmitting to the population the diverse ideas which are necessary for them at the level of their new political and commercial situation. Consequently we are obliged to follow the traditions of our own system of education; it is the only one which can bring close to us the Annamites of the colony by inculcating in them the principles of European civilization and isolating them from the hostile influence of our neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020107_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020107-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>In a letter dated January 15, 1866, Paulin Vial, Directeur du Cabinet du Gouverneur de la Cochinchine</cite></div></blockquote> <p>As a result of extensive education in <i>chữ Quốc ngữ</i>, Vietnamese people of today who are not versed in Chinese characters or Chinese-origin words are unable to read earlier Vietnamese texts written in Hán-Nôm. The <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n_N%C3%B4m_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán Nôm Institute">Hán Nôm Institute</a> is the national centre for academic research into Hán-Nôm literature. Although there have been movements to restore Hán-Nôm in Vietnam, via education in schools or usage in everyday life, almost all ancient poems and literary texts have been translated to and converted to chữ Quốc ngữ, which makes the need for literacy in Hán-Nôm almost obsolete.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, many Vietnamese find it difficult to detach themselves from their Hán-Nôm legacy, and may still feel an intimate relationship with Chinese characters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanskrit,_Cham,_Khmer_and_Indic_scripts"><span id="Sanskrit.2C_Cham.2C_Khmer_and_Indic_scripts"></span>Sanskrit, Cham, Khmer and Indic scripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sanskrit, Cham, Khmer and Indic scripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inscribed_limestone_stele,_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF,_Thap_Muoi,_Dong_Thap,_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD,_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History,_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sanskrit"><img alt="Sanskrit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg/93px-Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg/140px-Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg/186px-Inscribed_limestone_stele%2C_Bia_%C4%91%C3%A1_c%C3%B3_kh%E1%BA%AFc_ch%E1%BB%AF%2C_Thap_Muoi%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_2nd_half_of_5th_century_AD%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sanskrit</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cham"><img alt="Cham" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG/140px-Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG/210px-Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG/280px-Muzium_Negara_KL40.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="1421" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cham</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brick_-_Hanoi,_Vong_La_temple,_eleventh_cen.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cham–Vietnamese"><img alt="Cham–Vietnamese" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg/140px-Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg/210px-Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg/280px-Brick_-_Hanoi%2C_Vong_La_temple%2C_eleventh_cen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="277" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cham–Vietnamese</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_dating_to_reign_of_King_Udayadityavarman_II_(1050-1066_AD)_marking_territories_free_from_taxes,_view_1,_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06099.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khmer"><img alt="Khmer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Stele_dating_to_reign_of_King_Udayadityavarman_II_%281050-1066_AD%29_marking_territories_free_from_taxes%2C_view_1%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06099.JPG/93px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Stele_dating_to_reign_of_King_Udayadityavarman_II_%281050-1066_AD%29_marking_territories_free_from_taxes%2C_view_1%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06099.JPG/140px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Stele_dating_to_reign_of_King_Udayadityavarman_II_%281050-1066_AD%29_marking_territories_free_from_taxes%2C_view_1%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06099.JPG/186px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Khmer</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_(An_Giang).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Khmer"><img alt="Khmer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg/105px-Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg/157px-Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg/210px-Bia_c%E1%BB%95_ch%C3%B9a_Linh_S%C6%A1n_Ba_Th%C3%AA_%28An_Giang%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="3296" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Khmer</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_in_Sanskrit_and_Old_Khmer,_documenting_donations_to_Siva,_Cai_Tau_Ha,_Phu_Huu,_Dong_Thap,_dated_639_AD,_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06097.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sanskrit–Khmer"><img alt="Sanskrit–Khmer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stele_in_Sanskrit_and_Old_Khmer%2C_documenting_donations_to_Siva%2C_Cai_Tau_Ha%2C_Phu_Huu%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_dated_639_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06097.JPG/93px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stele_in_Sanskrit_and_Old_Khmer%2C_documenting_donations_to_Siva%2C_Cai_Tau_Ha%2C_Phu_Huu%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_dated_639_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06097.JPG/140px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stele_in_Sanskrit_and_Old_Khmer%2C_documenting_donations_to_Siva%2C_Cai_Tau_Ha%2C_Phu_Huu%2C_Dong_Thap%2C_dated_639_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06097.JPG/186px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sanskrit–Khmer</div> </li> </ul><p>Sanskrit texts have often been passed over and translated to Vietnamese indirectly from Chinese texts via religious teachings from Buddhist sectors, or directly, such as from Champa and Khmer. One of the most significant landmarks still remaining to this day is the ancient <i><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BB%B9_S%C6%A1n" title="Mỹ Sơn">Mỹ Sơn</a></i> Hindu Temple which has Sanskrit and <i>Champa</i> inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B5_C%E1%BA%A1nh_inscription" title="Võ Cạnh inscription">Võ Cạnh inscription</a></i> is also the oldest <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">inscription</a> ever found in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, a legacy of <i><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%E1%BA%A4p" title="Lâm Ấp">Lâm Ấp</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Funan" title="Funan">Funan</a> kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most well-known modern Vietnamese phrase with Sanskrit phrase is from common religious Buddhist mantra नमोऽमिताभाय/ Namo Amitābhāya <i>(<a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nam mô A Di Đà Phật</a></i> / 南無阿彌陀佛), meaning, "Hail <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a> of Infinite Light" (translated directly from Sanskrit) or "I pay homage to the Enlightened One immeasurable" / "I turn to rely on the Enlightened One immeasurable".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, many sites in Vietnam have names that are Khmer in origin, from when the land was under Funan and <a href="/wiki/Chenla" title="Chenla">Chenla</a> reign, etc. For example, ស្រុកឃ្លាំង <i>Srok Khleang</i> is written as <i><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B3c_Tr%C4%83ng" title="Sóc Trăng">Sóc Trăng</a></i> in Vietnamese. Hence, there is some Khmer influence in <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a>, Vietnam. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tai_Dam_script">Tai Dam script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tai Dam script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet script</a> is the abugida used by the <a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_people" title="Tai Dam people">Tai Dam people</a> and other Southwest Tai-speaking peoples in Northern Vietnam, from 16th century to present-day, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham script</a> of Tai <a href="/wiki/Lanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanna">Lanna</a> people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jawi_script">Jawi script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jawi script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the onset of the 18th century, Cham communities in the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta</a> began adopting the Arabic-derived <a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a>. Today, the Western Cham (Cambodian and Mekong Delta Cham whom majority are Sunni Muslims) use both Jawi and Latin alphabets to write their language, compared to the Eastern Cham who are mostly Bani Muslims and Balamon and still using Akhar Thrah (traditional) script and Latin alphabets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_usage_of_chữ_Hán_and_chữ_Nôm"><span id="Modern_usage_of_ch.E1.BB.AF_H.C3.A1n_and_ch.E1.BB.AF_N.C3.B4m"></span>Modern usage of <i>chữ Hán</i> and <i>chữ Nôm</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern usage of chữ Hán and chữ Nôm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg/180px-Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg/270px-Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg/360px-Van_Mieu_han_tu_5412916981_273dedbe99.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>Writing the Chinese character 祿 "good fortune" (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <i>lộc</i>) in preparation for Tết, at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Literature,_Hanoi" title="Temple of Literature, Hanoi">Temple of Literature, Hanoi</a> (2011)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg/220px-B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg/330px-B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg/440px-B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m_Nguy%C3%AAn_Ninh_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="706" /></a><figcaption>Chữ Hán on the packaging of a brand that produces <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_c%E1%BB%91m" title="Bánh cốm">Bánh cốm</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Individual <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a></i> are still written by <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">calligraphers</a> for special occasions such as the Vietnamese New Year, <i><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt" title="Tết">Tết</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are still present outside Buddhist temples and are still studied for scholarly and religious purposes. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">Vietnamese calligraphy</a> (<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C6%B0_ph%C3%A1p_ch%E1%BB%AF_Vi%E1%BB%87t" class="extiw" title="vi:Thư pháp chữ Việt">Thư pháp chữ Việt</a>) has enjoyed tremendous success at the expense of <i>chữ Hán</i> calligraphy since its introduction in the 1950s. </p><p>Since the mid-1990s there has been a noticeable resurgence in the teaching of Chinese characters, both for <i>chữ Hán</i> and the additional characters used in <i><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></i>. This is to enable the study of Vietnam's long history as well as cultural synthesis and unification.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For linguists, the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Vietnamese reading">Sino-Vietnamese readings</a> of Chinese characters provide data for the study of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">historical Chinese phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">reconstruction of the Old Chinese language</a>. </p><p>Additionally, many Vietnamese may study Chinese characters as part of learning Chinese, Japanese, or Korean (since Japanese and Korean have a high concentration of Chinese-cognate words). In the process, they also end up with some measure of fluency with <i>Hán–Nôm</i> characters. </p><p>The significance of <i>chữ Hán</i> and <i>chữ Nôm</i> has occasionally entered <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> depiction of Vietnam, especially since French rule. Novelist E. M. Nathanson, for example, mentions <i>chu Hán</i> in <i>A Dirty Distant War</i> (1987).<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mixed_script">Mixed script</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mixed script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg/220px-Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg/330px-Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg/440px-Vietnamese_Mixed_Script_in_the_Ho_Chi_Minh_Museum_in_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Vietnamese Mixed Script in the Ho Chi Minh Museum in 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>It is known that <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> wrote in a mixed Vietnamese Latin–Hán-Nôm script. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic numerals</a> </th> <th><i>Chữ Hán</i> </th> <th>Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation </th> <th><i><b>Chữ Nôm</b></i> </th> <th>Modern <i><b>chữ Quốc ngữ</b></i> </th> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a> for comparison</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td>0 </td> <td>〇/零 </td> <td>linh </td> <td>空 </td> <td>không </td> <td>líng </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>一 </td> <td>nhất </td> <td>𠬠 </td> <td>một </td> <td>yī </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>二 </td> <td>nhị, nhì </td> <td>𠄩 </td> <td>hai </td> <td>èr </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>三 </td> <td>tam </td> <td>𠀧 </td> <td>ba </td> <td>sān </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>四 </td> <td>tứ, tư </td> <td>𦊚 </td> <td>bốn </td> <td>sì </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>五 </td> <td>ngũ </td> <td>𠄼 </td> <td>năm </td> <td>wǔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td>六 </td> <td>lục </td> <td>𦒹 </td> <td>sáu </td> <td>liù </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td>七 </td> <td>thất </td> <td>𦉱 </td> <td>bảy </td> <td>qī </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td>八 </td> <td>bát </td> <td>𠔭 </td> <td>tám </td> <td>bā </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td>九 </td> <td>cửu </td> <td>𠃩 </td> <td>chín </td> <td>jiǔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>十 </td> <td>thập </td> <td>𨑮 </td> <td>mười </td> <td>shí </td></tr> <tr> <td>100 </td> <td>百 </td> <td>bách </td> <td>𤾓 </td> <td>trăm </td> <td>bǎi </td></tr> <tr> <td>1000 </td> <td>千 </td> <td>thiên </td> <td>𠦳 </td> <td>nghìn </td> <td>qiān </td></tr> <tr> <td>10,000 </td> <td>萬 </td> <td>vạn </td> <td>𨑮𠦳 </td> <td>mười nghìn </td> <td>wàn </td></tr> <tr> <td>1,000,000 </td> <td>百萬 </td> <td>bách vạn </td> <td>兆 </td> <td>triệu </td> <td>bǎi wàn </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From the Sino-Vietnamese readings, some words have ended up in common vernacular Vietnamese. For example, "nhất" (一) has come to mean "first" and "tứ" (四) has come to mean fourth in vernacular Vietnamese. Modern Vietnamese can be thought of as a romanised or transliteration rendering of common Hán-Nôm words, that has since been used as the main medium of language in Vietnam. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Related romanisations: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese Alphabet</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> was largely based on the conventions of the Romance languages)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2002" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Tri Tài (2002). <i>Giáo trình tiếng Hán. Tập I: Cơ sở</i>. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gi%C3%A1o+tr%C3%ACnh+ti%E1%BA%BFng+H%C3%A1n.+T%E1%BA%ADp+I%3A+C%C6%A1+s%E1%BB%9F&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+Qu%E1%BB%91c+gia+Th%C3%A0nh+ph%E1%BB%91+H%E1%BB%93+Ch%C3%AD+Minh&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=Tri+T%C3%A0i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Vietnamese-literature">"Vietnamese literature"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Vietnamese+literature&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FVietnamese-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-106_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 102-106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 78–79, 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–84_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 78–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarr1984">Marr 1984</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 44–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs – Volumes 20–21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 – Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vietnam 10 – Page 522 Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart – 2009 "For centuries, the Vietnamese language was written in standard Chinese characters (chữ nho). Around the 13th century, the Vietnamese devised their own writing system called chữ nôm (or just nôm), which was created by combining two Chinese words or by using single Chinese characters for their phonetic value. Both writing systems were in use until the 20th century – official business and scholarship was conducted in chữ nho, while chữ nôm was used for popular literature. The Latin-based quốc ngữ script, widely used since WWI, was developed in the 17th century by Alexandre de Rhodes (see the boxed text, right). Quốc ngữ served to undermine the position of Mandarin officials, whose power was based on traditional scholarship in chữ nho and chữ nôm, scripts that were largely inaccessible to the masses."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHội_Khai-trí_tiến-đức1954" class="citation book cs1">Hội Khai-trí tiến-đức (1954). <i>Việt-nam tự-điển</i>. Văn Mới. p. 228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t-nam+t%E1%BB%B1-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=V%C4%83n+M%E1%BB%9Bi&rft.date=1954&rft.au=H%E1%BB%99i+Khai-tr%C3%AD+ti%E1%BA%BFn-%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFĐào2005" class="citation book cs1">Đào, Duy Anh (2005). <i>Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu</i>. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. pp. 281, 900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A1n-Vi%E1%BB%87t+t%E1%BB%AB-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+gi%E1%BA%A3n+y%E1%BA%BFu&rft.pages=281%2C+900&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+V%C4%83n+ho%C3%A1+Th%C3%B4ng+tin&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=%C4%90%C3%A0o&rft.aufirst=Duy+Anh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2001" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn (2001). <i>Nguồn gốc và quá trình hình thành cách đọc Hán Việt</i>. Nhà xuất bản Đại học quốc gia Hà Nội. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ngu%E1%BB%93n+g%E1%BB%91c+v%C3%A0+qu%C3%A1+tr%C3%ACnh+h%C3%ACnh+th%C3%A0nh+c%C3%A1ch+%C4%91%E1%BB%8Dc+H%C3%A1n+Vi%E1%BB%87t&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+qu%E1%BB%91c+gia+H%C3%A0+N%E1%BB%99i&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=T%C3%A0i+C%E1%BA%A9n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHội_Khai-trí_tiến-đức1954" class="citation book cs1">Hội Khai-trí tiến-đức (1954). <i>Việt-nam tự-điển</i>. Văn Mới. pp. 141, 228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t-nam+t%E1%BB%B1-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n&rft.pages=141%2C+228&rft.pub=V%C4%83n+M%E1%BB%9Bi&rft.date=1954&rft.au=H%E1%BB%99i+Khai-tr%C3%AD+ti%E1%BA%BFn-%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFĐào2005" class="citation book cs1">Đào, Duy Anh (2005). <i>Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu</i>. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. p. 281.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A1n-Vi%E1%BB%87t+t%E1%BB%AB-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+gi%E1%BA%A3n+y%E1%BA%BFu&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+V%C4%83n+ho%C3%A1+Th%C3%B4ng+tin&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=%C4%90%C3%A0o&rft.aufirst=Duy+Anh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1995" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn (1995). <i>Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt (sơ thảo)</i>. Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục. p. 47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gi%C3%A1o+tr%C3%ACnh+l%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+ng%E1%BB%AF+%C3%A2m+ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+%28s%C6%A1+th%E1%BA%A3o%29&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+Gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=T%C3%A0i+C%E1%BA%A9n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarr1984" class="citation cs2">Marr, David G. (1984), <i>Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945</i>, p. 141, <q>Because the Chinese characters were pronounced according to Vietnamese preferences, and because certain stylistic modifications occurred over time, later scholars came to refer to a hybrid 'Sino-Vietnamese' (Han-Viet) language. However, there would seem to be no more justification for this term than for a Fifteenth Century 'Latin-English' versus the Latin written contemporaneously in Rome.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Tradition+on+Trial%2C+1920%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=141&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2009" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Khuê (2009). <i>Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao</i>. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. pp. 5, 215.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m%3A+c%C6%A1+s%E1%BB%9F+v%C3%A0+n%C3%A2ng+cao&rft.pages=5%2C+215&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+Qu%E1%BB%91c+gia+Th%C3%A0nh+ph%E1%BB%91+H%E1%BB%93+Ch%C3%AD+Minh&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=Khu%C3%AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Dyson Walker East Asia A New History −2012 Page 262 "...chu nom, Vietnamese transcription, using Chinese and nom characters for Vietnamese sounds."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenecke2017525-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenecke2017525_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDenecke2017">Denecke 2017</a>, p. 525.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 82: "The linguistic defects are the same as those noted throughout this book for Chinese characters generally, caused by the large number of tokens (some twenty thousand in <i>chữ nôm</i>), the arbitrariness of their composition, and the inconsistent way the units and their components connect with the sounds of the language."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrần2012" class="citation journal cs1">Trần, Văn Chánh (January 2012). "Tản mạn kinh nghiệm học chữ Hán cổ". <i>Suối Nguồn, Tập 3&4</i>. Nhà xuất bản Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh: 82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Su%E1%BB%91i+Ngu%E1%BB%93n%2C+T%E1%BA%ADp+3%264&rft.atitle=T%E1%BA%A3n+m%E1%BA%A1n+kinh+nghi%E1%BB%87m+h%E1%BB%8Dc+ch%E1%BB%AF+H%C3%A1n+c%E1%BB%95&rft.pages=82&rft.date=2012-01&rft.aulast=Tr%E1%BA%A7n&rft.aufirst=V%C4%83n+Ch%C3%A1nh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHungWakabayashi2005" class="citation cs2">Hung, Eva; Wakabayashi, Judy (2005), <i>Asian translation traditions</i>, p. 174, <q>A large portion of the lexicon of the Vietnamese language in recent centuries derives from Hán. Consequently, there is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm, which is to say that many characters are used in both with the same meaning. This is primarily a lexical, not a syntactic, phenomenon, although Hán grammar did influence Nôm prose to a relatively significant extent (Xtankevich 1986).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+translation+traditions&rft.pages=174&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hung&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.au=Wakabayashi%2C+Judy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs – Volumes 20–21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 – Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vietnam 10 – Page 522 Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart – 2009 "For centuries, the Vietnamese language was written in standard Chinese characters (chữ nho). Around the 13th century, the Vietnamese devised their own writing system called chữ nôm (or just nôm), which was created by combining two Chinese words or by using single Chinese characters for their phonetic value. Both writing systems were in use until the 20th century – official business and scholarship was conducted in chữ nho, while chữ nôm was used for popular literature. The Latin-based quốc ngữ script, widely used since WWI, was developed in the 17th century by Alexandre de Rhodes (see the boxed text, right). Quốc ngữ served to undermine the position of Mandarin officials, whose power was based on traditional scholarship in chữ nho and chữ nôm, scripts that were largely inaccessible to the masses."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF清水政明" class="citation journal cs1">清水政明, Masaaki Shimizu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/19872044">"The Mường features in the written Ancient Vietnamese"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+M%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng+features+in+the+written+Ancient+Vietnamese&rft.aulast=%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E6%94%BF%E6%98%8E&rft.aufirst=Masaaki+Shimizu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F19872044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaPolla2010" class="citation journal cs1">LaPolla, Randy J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2010.05.036">"Language Contact and Language Change in the History of the Sinitic Languages"</a>. <i>Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 6858–6868. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2010.05.036">10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.036</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1877-0428">1877-0428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+-+Social+and+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=Language+Contact+and+Language+Change+in+the+History+of+the+Sinitic+Languages&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=6858-6868&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2010.05.036&rft.issn=1877-0428&rft.aulast=LaPolla&rft.aufirst=Randy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.sbspro.2010.05.036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiernan2017-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kiernan2017_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2017" class="citation book cs1">Kiernan, Ben (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tw3xDQAAQBAJ&q=c%E1%BA%A3nh+th%E1%BB%8Bnh&pg=PA264"><i>Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195160765" title="Special:BookSources/9780195160765"><bdi>9780195160765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam%3A+A+History+from+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780195160765&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtw3xDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dc%25E1%25BA%25A3nh%2Bth%25E1%25BB%258Bnh%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-571-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-571_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 570-571.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cœdès-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cœdès_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCœdès1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_C%C5%93d%C3%A8s" title="George Cœdès">Cœdès, George</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qgrAFlAC4-QC&pg=PA87"><i>The Making of South East Asia</i></a>. Translated by H. M. Wright. University of California Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520050617" title="Special:BookSources/9780520050617"><bdi>9780520050617</bdi></a>. <q>No work of literature from the brush of a Vietnamese survives from the period of Chinese rule prior to the rise of the first national dynasties; and from the Dinh, Former Le, and Ly dynasties, all that remains are some poems by Lac Thuan (end of the tenth century), Khuông Việt (same period), and Ly Thuong Kiet (last quarter of the eleventh century). Those competent to judge consider these works to be quite up to the best standards of Chinese literature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+South+East+Asia&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=9780520050617&rft.aulast=C%C5%93d%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqgrAFlAC4-QC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNick_RayYu-Mei_Balasingamchow2010" class="citation book cs1">Nick Ray; Yu-Mei Balasingamchow (2010). <i>Lonely Planet Vietnam</i>. <q>Sino-Vietnamese literature was written in Chinese characters (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ nho</i></span>). Dominated by Confucian and Buddhist texts, it was governed by strict rules of metre and verse. Modern Vietnamese literature (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">quoc am</i></span>) includes anything recorded in ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lonely+Planet+Vietnam&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Nick+Ray&rft.au=Yu-Mei+Balasingamchow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodside1971" class="citation book cs1">Woodside, Alexander Barton (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&pg=PA53"><i>Vietnam and the Chinese Model</i></a>. Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674937215" title="Special:BookSources/9780674937215"><bdi>9780674937215</bdi></a>. <q>Although traditional Vietnamese scholars called Sino-Vietnamese literature 'serious literature' and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nôm</i></span> literature 'the literature of pleasure', this dichotomy is obviously misleading.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+and+the+Chinese+Model&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780674937215&rft.aulast=Woodside&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Barton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0LgSI9UQNpwC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017571-572-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017571-572_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 571-572.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrellesvig2010" class="citation book cs1">Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). <i>A History of the Japanese Language</i>. p. 258. <q>the rendition of Chinese text in Japanese, which affected grammar and usage (see 9.1) and (kanbun-)ondoku, the vocalization of Chinese text as such, which paved the way for the intake of a large number of loanwords from Chinese (9.2)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Japanese+Language&rft.pages=258&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Frellesvig&rft.aufirst=Bjarke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichibunken newsletter Kokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā 1996 – No23–36 – Page 52 "The novel was then translated from Chinese into Vietnamese by a Vietnamese revolutionist. Knowledge of kanbun (classical Chinese) was quite common among Vietnamese intellectuals, and the new kanbun style of Liang Zhi-chau ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 77: "Sifting out Sinitic from native vocabulary is more of a problem in Vietnamese than in Japanese or even in Korean because of the longer history of contact between Chinese and Vietnamese, and because of the intimacy (most Vietnamese would...) Vietnam was under Chinese 'suzerainty'... During this long period, the Vietnamese language itself was overshadowed and to some extent replaced by Chinese, opening the door to thousands of Chinese terms..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Language research – Seoul University Language Research Centre 1990 – Volume 26 – Page 327 "The term Sinoxenic dialects was first used by Samuel Martin to refer to the foreign readings of Chinese characters, such as Sino-Korean, Sino-Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese. By Sino-Korean, Sino- Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese, ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John R. Bentley <i>A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose</i> 2001 – Page 39 "... (1975:195, fn. 3) and his reconstructions, but it is interesting to note that Pulleyblank's work actually supports Miller's claims. ... to have been one of the first linguists to notice the importance of SV in reconstructing earlier stages of Chinese."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-103-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102-103_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 102-103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ha Minh Nguyen, Bac Hoai Tran, Tuan Duc Vuong <i>Colloquial Vietnamese: The Complete Course for Beginners</i> Routledge 2012 Page 3 "Because of thousands of years of Chinese domination and influence, the Vietnamese used Chinese characters known as chu nho as their official written language for many centuries. However chu nho was not easy to learn and only the ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. W. Sloper, Thạc Cán Lê <i>Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response</i> 1995 Page 45 "All teaching materials are written in Han, Chinese classical characters known as chu nho. From about the thirteenth century a Vietnamese system of writing, chu nom or simply nom, was developed. ... chu nho was used for official business and scholarship, while chu nom was used for popular literature."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-570-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-570_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 569-570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017573-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017573_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 573.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017575_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs – Volumes 20–21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 – Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hannom.org.vn/web/tchn/data/8602v.htm">"Tap chi Han Nom so 1/1989"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tap+chi+Han+Nom+so+1%2F1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hannom.org.vn%2Fweb%2Ftchn%2Fdata%2F8602v.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hannom.org.vn/web/tchn/data/8602v.htm">"CÙNG BẠN ĐỌC KÍNH MẾN"</a>. <i>www.hannom.org</i> (in Vietnamese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220211135600/https://www.hannom.org.vn/web/tchn/data/8602v.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 11, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hannom.org&rft.atitle=C%C3%99NG+B%E1%BA%A0N+%C4%90%E1%BB%8CC+K%C3%8DNH+M%E1%BA%BEN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hannom.org.vn%2Fweb%2Ftchn%2Fdata%2F8602v.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020106-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020106_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quoc-ngu">"Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Quoc-ngu+%7C+Vietnamese+writing+system&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FQuoc-ngu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Simpson <i>Language and national identity in Asia</i> 2007 Page 428 "..there existed a situation in which there were briefly four different available writing systems in Vietnam, chu nho, chu nom, quoc ngu, and Romanized French. ... (4) The acceptability of quoc ngu was then further heightened by its use to translate works of literature from Chinese and chu nom, as well as through its ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose <i>A Companion to the History of the Book</i> – Page 124 2009 "The first publication in quoc ngu was the first Vietnamese newspaper, Gia-dinh báo (Daily Paper, 1865), ... During World War I, the colonial administration encouraged quoc ngu journalism for propaganda purposes, and as a result journals"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn_Quang_Duy2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nguyễn Quang Duy (12 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nguoi-viet.com/van-hoc-nghe-thuat/quoc-ngu-va-no-luc-thoat-han-cua-cac-vua-nha-nguyen/">"Quốc ngữ và nỗ lực 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyễn"</a> (in Vietnamese). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qu%E1%BB%91c+ng%E1%BB%AF+v%C3%A0+n%E1%BB%97+l%E1%BB%B1c+%27tho%C3%A1t+H%C3%A1n%27+c%E1%BB%A7a+c%C3%A1c+vua+nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n.&rft.pub=Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Daily+News&rft.date=2018-09-12&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Quang+Duy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nguoi-viet.com%2Fvan-hoc-nghe-thuat%2Fquoc-ngu-va-no-luc-thoat-han-cua-cac-vua-nha-nguyen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020107-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020107_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.nhandan.org.vn/culture/item/6001702-my-son-sanskrit-texts-to-be-translated-into-vietnamese-english.html">"My Son Sanskrit texts to be translated into Vietnamese, English"</a>. <i>en.nhandan.org.vn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.nhandan.org.vn&rft.atitle=My+Son+Sanskrit+texts+to+be+translated+into+Vietnamese%2C+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.nhandan.org.vn%2Fculture%2Fitem%2F6001702-my-son-sanskrit-texts-to-be-translated-into-vietnamese-english.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meruheritage.com/Insc-VoCanh.html">"The Inscription of Vo-Canh"</a>. <i>www.meruheritage.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tamil+and+Vedas&rft.atitle=Sanskrit+inscriptions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftamilandvedas.com%2Ftag%2Fsanskrit-inscriptions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kienthuc.net.vn/kho-tri-thuc/nam-mo-a-di-da-phat-co-nghia-la-gi-1262443.html">"Nam Mô A Di Đà Phật có nghĩa là gì?"</a>. <i>trithuccuocsong.vn</i>. 2019-08-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=trithuccuocsong.vn&rft.atitle=Nam+M%C3%B4+A+Di+%C4%90%C3%A0+Ph%E1%BA%ADt+c%C3%B3+ngh%C4%A9a+l%C3%A0+g%C3%AC%3F&rft.date=2019-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkienthuc.net.vn%2Fkho-tri-thuc%2Fnam-mo-a-di-da-phat-co-nghia-la-gi-1262443.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Vietnam Economic Times</i> Volume 98 – Page 14 Viện kinh tế thế giới (Vietnam) "Today calligraphy is considered one of their most respected art forms. Vietnam also has a long history of calligraphy, but in its earliest form it was called <i>Hân-Nôm</i>, a way of using the Chinese characters to convey Vietnamese words."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose <i>A Companion to the History of the Book</i> Page 124 – 2011 "Since the use of [Quốc ngữ] for education has rendered most Vietnamese now incapable of reading earlier Vietnamese ... an increasing commitment to the publication of translations from Chinese or of transcriptions from [Nôm] texts to render ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. M. Nathanson <i>Dirty Distant War</i> 1987 Page 121 "So they took the Chinese ideographs for those words, changed them a little to make them distinctive from the Chinese characters, and in that way developed a written language. That's the script that became what we refer to today as chữ nho."</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1977), <i>Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam</i>, Mouton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7"><bdi>978-90-279-7643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+language+policy+in+Viet+Nam&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7643-7&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenecke2017" class="citation cs2">Denecke, Wiebke (2017), "Shared Literary Heritage", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE)</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 510–532, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1"><bdi>978-0-199-35659-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shared+Literary+Heritage&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Classical+Chinese+Literature+%281000+BCE-900+CE%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=510-532&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-199-35659-1&rft.aulast=Denecke&rft.aufirst=Wiebke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannas1997" class="citation cs2">Hannas, Wm. C. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA82"><i>Asia's Orthographic Dilemma</i></a>, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, p. 82, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824818920" title="Special:BookSources/9780824818920"><bdi>9780824818920</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780824818920&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=Wm.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJfv8Iyd2m4C%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornicki2017" class="citation cs2">Kornicki, Peter (2017), "Sino-Vietnamese literature", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE)</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 568–578, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1"><bdi>978-0-199-35659-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Vietnamese+literature&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Classical+Chinese+Literature+%281000+BCE-900+CE%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=568-578&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-199-35659-1&rft.aulast=Kornicki&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2020" class="citation book cs1">Li, Yu (2020). <i>The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7"><bdi>978-1-00-069906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Writing+System+in+Asia%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Perspective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-00-069906-7&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing+in+Vietnam" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing_in_Vietnam&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101022085207/http://zung.zetamu.com/Hantu/hantu_index.html"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1051880798">.mw-parser-output .vi-nom{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Nom Na Tong","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","HAN NOM A","HAN NOM B","Han-Nom Kai","TH-Khaai-TP0","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP0","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP0","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP0","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP0","TH-Ming-JP2","Sun-ExtA","Sun-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-UNI-H","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinA","HanaMinB","HanaMin","MingLiU","MingLiU-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","SimSun","SimSun-ExtB","FZKaiT-Extended","FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)",sans-serif}.mw-parser-output .vi-nom.ext{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP2","BabelStone Han","Sun-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinB","Han-Nom Kai",sans-serif}</style><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">漢字</span> Hán tự: A Vietnamese-Chinese wordlist (via Wayback Machine)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060428023755/http://perso.wanadoo.fr/dang.tk/langues/hanviet.htm">Từ điển Hán Việt Thiều Chửu (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">漢越辭典</span>) (via Wayback Machine)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanviet.org/">Hán Việt Từ Điển Trích Dẫn</a>, Vietnamese Han character dictionary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vietnamtudien.org/thieuchuu/">Thiều Chửu dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_vi%E1%BA%BFt_ti%E1%BA%BFng_Vi%E1%BB%87t" class="extiw" title="vi:Chữ viết tiếng Việt">vi:Chữ viết tiếng Việt</a> (contains additional info that has yet to be translated into the English wiki)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Vietnamese-literature">https://www.britannica.com/art/Vietnamese-literature</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Writing_systems" title="Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Writing_systems" title="Template talk:Writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Graphemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_(Unicode)" title="Script (Unicode)">Scripts in Unicode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">by first written account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">Ancient languages corpuses by size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">Undeciphered writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">Creators of writing systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Featural_writing_system" title="Featural writing system">Featural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">Numeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">Phonogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabary" title="Semi-syllabary">Semi-syllabaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current examples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Africa" title="Writing systems of Africa">In Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Writing systems of Southeast Asia">In Southeast Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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