CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>S-50 (Manhattan Project) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ba428321-21fe-4315-a29b-b82ca23795a5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"S-50_(Manhattan_Project)","wgTitle":"S-50 (Manhattan Project)","wgCurRevisionId":1217012032,"wgRevisionId":1217012032,"wgArticleId":3673785,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from December 2016","Coordinates on Wikidata","Featured articles","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Commons category link from Wikidata","Buildings and structures in Roane County, Tennessee","History of the Manhattan Project","Isotope separation facilities of the Manhattan Project","Oak Ridge, Tennessee"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en", "wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"S-50_(Manhattan_Project)","wgRelevantArticleId":3673785,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":35.91611111111111,"lon":-84.41194444444444},"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true, "wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q7387043","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site", "mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/1200px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/800px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/640px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="S-50 (Manhattan Project) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-S-50_Manhattan_Project rootpage-S-50_Manhattan_Project skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=S-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=S-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=S-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=S-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquid_thermal_diffusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid_thermal_diffusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Liquid thermal diffusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquid_thermal_diffusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Research and development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Relations with the Manhattan Project </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philadelphia_pilot_plant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philadelphia_pilot_plant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Philadelphia pilot plant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philadelphia_pilot_plant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Construction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Post-war years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">S-50 (Manhattan Project)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 2 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-2" aria-hidden="true" > 2 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxecto_S-50" title="Proxecto S-50 – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Proxecto S-50" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-50" title="S-50 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="S-50" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7387043#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&oldid=1217012032" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=S-50_%28Manhattan_Project%29&id=1217012032&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FS-50_%28Manhattan_Project%29">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FS-50_%28Manhattan_Project%29">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=S-50_%28Manhattan_Project%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7387043" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&params=35_54_58_N_84_24_43_W_">35°54′58″N 84°24′43″W / 35.91611°N 84.41194°W / 35.91611; -84.41194</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Manhattan Project uranium enrichment facility</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&params=35_54_58_N_84_24_43_W_">35°54′58″N 84°24′43″W / 35.91611°N 84.41194°W / 35.91611; -84.41194</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_(F01)_at_S-50_completed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large dark-coloured rectangular building and a smaller building with three smokestacks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/310px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/465px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg/620px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption>Thermal Diffusion Process Building at S-50. The building in the background with the smokestacks is the K-25 powerhouse.</figcaption></figure> The S-50 Project was the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s effort to produce <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresis" title="Thermophoresis">liquid thermal diffusion</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. It was one of three technologies for uranium enrichment pursued by the Manhattan Project. The liquid thermal diffusion process was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project, and was developed independently by <a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Abelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip H. Abelson">Philip H. Abelson</a> and other scientists at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">United States Naval Research Laboratory</a>. This was primarily due to doubts about the process's technical feasibility, but inter-service rivalry between the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> also played a part. Pilot plants were built at the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Facility_Anacostia" title="Naval Support Facility Anacostia">Anacostia Naval Air Station</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Navy Yard">Philadelphia Navy Yard</a>, and a production facility at the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>. This was the only production-scale liquid thermal diffusion plant ever built. It could not enrich uranium sufficiently for use in an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>, but it could provide slightly enriched feed for the Y-12 <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> plants. It was estimated that the S-50 plant had sped up production of enriched uranium used in the <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> bomb employed in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">atomic bombing of Hiroshima</a> by a week. The S-50 plant ceased production in September 1945, but it was reopened in May 1946, and used by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_for_the_Propulsion_of_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft">Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft</a> (NEPA) project. The plant was demolished in the late 1940s. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> in 1932,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196210–14-1">[1]</a> followed by that of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> by the German chemists <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> in 1938,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986251–254-2">[2]</a> and its theoretical explanation (and naming) by <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a> soon after,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986256–263-3">[3]</a> opened up the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a> with uranium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196210–14-1">[1]</a> Fears that a <a href="/wiki/German_atomic_bomb_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German atomic bomb project">German atomic bomb project</a> would develop <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Einstein-Szilard_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein-Szilard letter">Einstein-Szilard letter</a>. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones198512-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> applied the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid drop model">liquid drop model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> to explain the mechanism of nuclear fission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohrWheeler1939426–450-5">[5]</a> As the experimental physicists studied fission, they uncovered puzzling results. <a href="/wiki/George_Placzek" title="George Placzek">George Placzek</a> asked Bohr why uranium seemed to fission with both fast and slow neutrons. Walking to a meeting with Wheeler, Bohr had an insight that the fission at low energies was due to the <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a>, while at high energies it was mainly due to the far more abundant <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> isotope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199827–28-6">[6]</a> The former makes up 0.714 percent of the uranium atoms in natural uranium, about one in every 140; natural uranium is 99.28 percent uranium-238. There is also a tiny amount of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">uranium-234</a>, 0.006 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth194532-7">[7]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> in Britain, the Australian physicist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> assigned two refugee physicists—Frisch and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a>—the task of investigating the feasibility of an atomic bomb, ironically because their status as enemy aliens precluded their working on secret projects like <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986322–325-8">[8]</a> Their March 1940 <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> indicated that the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> of uranium-235 was within an <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">order of magnitude</a> of 10 kg, which was small enough to be carried by a <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a> of the day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196242-9">[9]</a> Research into how uranium isotope separation (<a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>) could be achieved assumed enormous importance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–30-10">[10]</a> Frisch's first thought about how this could be achieved was with liquid thermal diffusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrisch1979126-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liquid_thermal_diffusion">Liquid thermal diffusion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Liquid thermal diffusion">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresis" title="Thermophoresis">Thermophoresis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sereies of concentric tubes. In the middle is steam, surrounded by nickel pipe, uranium hexafluoride, copper pipe, water and iron pipe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg/220px-Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg/330px-Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg/440px-Sectional_view_of_a_thermal_diffusion_process_column.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption>Sectional view of a thermal diffusion process column</figcaption></figure> The liquid thermal diffusion process was based on the discovery by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig" title="Carl Ludwig">Carl Ludwig</a> in 1856 and later <a href="/wiki/Charles_Soret" title="Charles Soret">Charles Soret</a> in 1879, that when a temperature gradient is maintained in an originally homogeneous <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salt</a> solution, after a time, a concentration gradient will also exist in the solution. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Soret_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Soret effect">Soret effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195119–22-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Enskog" title="David Enskog">David Enskog</a> in 1911 and <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> in 1916 independently developed the <a href="/wiki/Chapman%E2%80%93Enskog_theory" title="Chapman–Enskog theory">Chapman–Enskog theory</a>, which explained that when a mixture of two gases passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier gas tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter gas at the warm end. This was experimentally confirmed by Chapman and F. W. Dootson in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapmanDootson1917248–253-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapmanCowling1970268-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301-15">[15]</a> Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall, this can be used as a means of <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a>. This process was first demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Clusius" title="Klaus Clusius">Klaus Clusius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Dickel" title="Gerhard Dickel">Gerhard Dickel</a> in Germany in 1938, who used it to separate isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>. They used an apparatus called a "column", consisting of a vertical tube with a hot wire down the center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth1945161–162-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClusiusDickel1938546-17">[17]</a> In the United States, Arthur Bramley at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> improved on this design by using concentric tubes with different temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_development">Research and development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Research and development">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Abelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip H. Abelson">Philip H. Abelson</a> was a young physicist who had been awarded his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California</a> on 8 May 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165-18">[18]</a> He was among the first American scientists to verify nuclear fission,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986273–275-19">[19]</a> reporting his results in an article submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a> in February 1939,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelson1939418-20">[20]</a> and collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> on the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMillanAbelson19401185–1186-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986348–351-22">[22]</a> Returning to the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_for_Science" title="Carnegie Institution for Science">Carnegie Institution</a> in Washington, D.C., where he had a position, he became interested in isotope separation. In July 1940, <a href="/wiki/Ross_Gunn" title="Ross Gunn">Ross Gunn</a> from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">United States Naval Research Laboratory</a> (NRL) showed him a 1939 paper on the subject by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a>, and Abelson became intrigued by the possibility of using the liquid thermal diffusion process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165-18">[18]</a> He began experiments with the process at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution. Using <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> (KCl), <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromide" title="Potassium bromide">potassium bromide</a> (KBr), <a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulfate" title="Potassium sulfate">potassium sulfate</a> (K 2SO 4) and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_dichromate" title="Potassium dichromate">potassium dichromate</a> (K 2Cr 2O 7), he was able to achieve a separation factor of 1.2 (20 percent) of the <a href="/wiki/Potassium-39" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium-39">potassium-39</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium-41" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium-41">potassium-41</a> isotopes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> The next step was to repeat the experiments with uranium. He studied the process with aqueous solutions of uranium salts, but found that they tended to <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">be hydrolyzed</a> in the column. Only <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">uranium hexafluoride</a> (UF 6) seemed suitable. In September 1940, Abelson approached Ross Gunn and <a href="/wiki/Lyman_J._Briggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyman J. Briggs">Lyman J. Briggs</a>, the director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a>, who were both members of the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> (NDRC) <a href="/wiki/Uranium_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium Committee">Uranium Committee</a>. The NRL agreed to make $2,500 available to the Carnegie Institution to allow Abelson to continue his work, and in October 1940, Briggs arranged for it to be moved to the Bureau of Standards, where there were better facilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> Uranium hexafluoride was not readily available, so Abelson devised his own method of producing it in quantity at the NRL, through fluoridation of the more easily produced <a href="/wiki/Uranium_tetrafluoride" title="Uranium tetrafluoride">uranium tetrafluoride</a> at 350 °C (662 °F).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> Initially, this small plant supplied uranium hexafluoride for the research at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a> and the NRL. In 1941, Gunn and Abelson placed an order for uranium hexafluoride with the Harshaw Chemical Company in <a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland, Ohio">Cleveland, Ohio</a>, using Abelson's process. In early 1942, the NDRC awarded Harshaw a contract to build a pilot plant to produce 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of uranium hexafluoride per day. By the spring of 1942, Harshaw's pilot uranium hexafluoride plant was operational, and <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> also began experiments with using the process. Demand for uranium hexafluoride soon rose sharply, and Harshaw and DuPont increased production to meet it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196266-25">[25]</a> Abelson erected eleven columns at the Bureau of Standards, all approximately 1.5 inches (38 mm) in diameter, but ranging from 2 to 12 feet (0.61 to 3.66 m) high. Test runs were carried out with potassium salts, and then, in April 1941, with uranium hexafluoride. On 1 June 1941, Abelson became an employee of the NRL, and he moved to the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Facility_Anacostia" title="Naval Support Facility Anacostia">Anacostia Naval Air Station</a>. In September 1941, he was joined by John I. Hoover, who became his deputy. They constructed an experimental plant there with 36-foot (11 m) columns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> Steam was provided by a 20-horsepower (15 kW) gas-fired boiler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985173-26">[26]</a> They were able to separate isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, but the apparatus was ruined in November by the decomposition products of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> The next run indicated 2.5% separation, and it was found that the optimal spacing of the columns was between 0.21 and 0.38 millimetres (0.0083 and 0.0150 in).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">[24]</a> Abelson regarded a run on 22 June with a 9.6% result as the first successful test of liquid thermal diffusion with uranium hexafluoride. In July, he was able to achieve 21%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011168-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relations_with_the_Manhattan_Project">Relations with the Manhattan Project</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relations with the Manhattan Project">edit</a>]</div> The NRL authorized a pilot plant in July 1942, which commenced operation on 15 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> This time they used fourteen 48-foot (15 m) columns, with a separation of 25 millimetres (0.98 in) between them. The pilot plant ran without interruption from 3 to 17 December 1942.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011169–170-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr.">Leslie R. Groves, Jr.</a>, who had been designated to take charge of what would become known as the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> (but would not do so for another two days), visited the pilot plant with the Deputy District Engineer of the Manhattan District, <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel (United States)">Lieutenant Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_D._Nichols" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth D. Nichols">Kenneth D. Nichols</a> on 21 September, and spoke with Gunn and <a href="/wiki/Rear_Admiral_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear Admiral (United States)">Rear Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Harold_G._Bowen,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Harold G. Bowen, Sr.">Harold G. Bowen, Sr.</a>, the director the NRL. Groves left with the impression that the project was not being pursued with sufficient urgency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves196223-30">[30]</a> The project was expanded, and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen" title="Nathan Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a> joined the project as a theoretical physicist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">[23]</a> Groves visited the pilot plant again on 10 December 1942, this time with <a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a>, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a> from <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, and three DuPont employees. In his report Lewis recommended that the work be continued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011169–170-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen,_USN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg/170px-Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg/255px-Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg/340px-Rear_Admiral_Harold_Gardiner_Bowen%2C_USN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5114" data-file-height="6102" /></a><figcaption>Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Harold_G._Bowen,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Harold G. Bowen, Sr.">Harold G. Bowen, Sr.</a>, at his desk at the Navy Department, Washington, D.C., during the World War II years.</figcaption></figure> The S-1 Executive Committee superseded the Uranium Committee on 19 June 1942, dropping Gunn from its membership in the process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196275-31">[31]</a> It considered Lewis' report, and passed on its recommendation to <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, the director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> (OSRD), of which the S-1 Executive Committee was a part.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170-32">[32]</a> The relationship between the OSRD and the NRL was not good; Bowen criticised it for diverting funds from the NRL.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225-33">[33]</a> Bush was mindful of a 17 March 1942 directive from the president, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170-32">[32]</a> albeit on his advice,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225-33">[33]</a> that the navy was to be excluded from the Manhattan Project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170-32">[32]</a> He preferred to work with the more congenial <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Stimson">Henry Stimson</a>, over whom he had more influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, the chairman of the NDRC and the S-1 Executive Committee, was concerned that the navy was running its own nuclear project, but Bush felt that it did no harm. He met with Gunn at Anacostia on 14 January 1943, and explained the situation to him. Gunn responded that the navy was interested in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">nuclear marine propulsion</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">nuclear submarines</a>. Liquid thermal diffusion was a viable means of producing enriched uranium, and all he needed was details about <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> design, which he knew was being pursued by the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> in Chicago. He was unaware that it had already built <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, a working nuclear reactor. Bush was unwilling to provide the requested data, but arranged with Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William R. Purnell</a>, a fellow member of the Military Policy Committee that ran the Manhattan Project, for Abelson's efforts to receive additional support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170-32">[32]</a> The following week, Briggs, Urey, and <a href="/wiki/Eger_V._Murphree" title="Eger V. Murphree">Eger V. Murphree</a> from the S-1 Executive Committee, along with Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">Standard Oil</a>, visited the pilot plant at Anacostia. They were impressed with the simplicity of the process, but disappointed that no enriched uranium product had been withdrawn from the plant; production had been calculated by measuring the difference in concentration. They calculated that a liquid thermal diffusion plant capable of producing 1 kg per day of uranium enriched to 90% uranium-235 would require 21,800 36-foot (11 m) columns, each with a separation factor of 30.7%. It would take 18 months to build, assuming the use of the Manhattan Project's overriding priority for materials. This included 1,700 short tons (1,500 t) of scarce <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> for the outer tubes and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> for the inner, which would be required to resist corrosion by the steam and uranium hexafluoride respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011170–171-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> The estimated cost of such a plant was around $32.6 million to build and $62,600 per day to run. What killed the proposal was that the plant would require 600 days to reach equilibrium, by which time $72 million would have been spent, which the S-1 Executive Committee rounded up to $75 million. Assuming that work started immediately, and the plant worked as designed, no enriched uranium could be produced before 1946. Murphree suggested that a liquid thermal diffusion plant producing uranium enriched to 10% uranium-235 might be a substitute for the lower stages of a <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> plant, but the S-1 Executive Committee decided against this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011170–171-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> Between February and July 1943 the Anacostia pilot plant produced 236 pounds (107 kg) of slightly enriched uranium hexafluoride, which was shipped to the Metallurgical Laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011172-36">[36]</a> In September 1943, the S-1 Executive Committee decided that no more uranium hexafluoride would be allocated to the NRL, although it would exchange enriched uranium hexafluoride for regular uranium hexafluoride. Groves turned down an order from the NRL for additional uranium hexafluoride in October 1943. When it was pointed out that the navy had developed the production process for uranium hexafluoride in the first place, the army reluctantly agreed to fulfil the order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philadelphia_pilot_plant">Philadelphia pilot plant</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philadelphia pilot plant">edit</a>]</div> Abelson's studies indicated that in order to reduce the equilibrium time, he needed to have a much greater temperature gradient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">[24]</a> The NRL considered building it at the Naval Engineering Experiment Station in <a href="/wiki/Annapolis,_Maryland" title="Annapolis, Maryland">Annapolis, Maryland</a>, but this was estimated to cost $2.5 million, which the NRL regarded as too expensive. Other sites were canvassed, and it was decided to build a new pilot plant at the Naval Boiler and Turbine Laboratory (NBTL) at the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Navy Yard">Philadelphia Navy Yard</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003226-37">[37]</a> where there was space, steam and cooling water, and, perhaps most important of all, engineers with experience with high-pressure steam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133-38">[38]</a> The cost was estimated at $500,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003226-37">[37]</a> The pilot plant was authorized by Rear Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Earle_W._Mills&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Earle W. Mills (page does not exist)">Earle W. Mills</a>, the Assistant Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Ships" title="Bureau of Ships">Bureau of Ships</a> on 17 November 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133-38">[38]</a> Construction commenced on 1 January 1944, and was completed in July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986551-39">[39]</a> The NBTL was responsible for the design, construction and operation of the steam and cooling water systems, while the NRL dealt with the columns and subsidiary equipment. <a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-6)" title="Captain (United States O-6)">Captain</a> <a href="/wiki/Thorvald_A._Solberg" title="Thorvald A. Solberg">Thorvald A. Solberg</a> from the Bureau of Ships was project officer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133-38">[38]</a> The Philadelphia pilot plant occupied 13,000 square feet (1,200 m2) of space on a site one block west of <a href="/wiki/Broad_Street_(Philadelphia)" title="Broad Street (Philadelphia)">Broad Street</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Delaware_River" title="Delaware River">Delaware River</a>. The plant consisted of 102 48-foot (15 m) columns, known as a "rack", arranged into a cascade of seven stages. The plant was intended to be able to produce one gram per day of uranium enriched to 6% uranium-235. The outer copper tubes were cooled by 155 °F (68 °C) water flowing between them and the external 4-inch steel pipes. The inner nickel tubes were heated by high pressure steam at 545 °F (285 °C) and 1,000 pounds per square inch (6,900 kPa). Each column therefore held about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb) of uranium hexafluoride. This was driven by vapor pressure; the only working parts were the water pumps. In operation, the rack consumed 11.6 MW of power. Each column was connected to a reservoir of 3 to 170 kilograms (6.6 to 374.8 lb) of uranium hexafluoride. Because of the dangers involved in handling uranium hexafluoride, all work with it, such as replenishing the reservoirs from the shipping cylinders, was accomplished in a transfer room.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011173-40">[40]</a> The columns at the Philadelphia plant were operated in parallel instead of in series, so the Philadelphia pilot plant eventually produced over 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg) of uranium hexafluoride enriched to 0.86 percent uranium-235, which was handed over to the Manhattan Project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003231-41">[41]</a> The Philadelphia pilot plant was disposed of in September 1946, with salvageable equipment being returned to the NRL, while the rest was dumped at sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011179-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Construction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_(F01)_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A mass of steel trusses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg/220px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg/330px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg/440px-Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_under_construction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Thermal Diffusion Process Building (F01) at S-50 under construction (ca. August 1944)</figcaption></figure> In early 1944, news of the Philadelphia pilot plant reached <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, the director of the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986552-43">[43]</a> Oppenheimer wrote to Conant on 4 March 1944, and asked for the reports on the liquid thermal diffusion project, which Conant forwarded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011174-44">[44]</a> Like nearly everyone else, Oppenheimer had been thinking of uranium enrichment in terms of a process to produce <a href="/wiki/Weapons_grade_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons grade uranium">weapons grade uranium</a> suitable for use in an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120-45">[45]</a> but now he considered another option. If the columns at the Philadelphia plant were operated in parallel instead of in series, then it might produce 12 kg per day of uranium enriched to 1 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986552-43">[43]</a> This could be valuable because an electromagnetic enrichment process that could produce one gram of uranium enriched to 40 percent uranium-235 from natural uranium, could produce two grams per day of uranium enriched to 80 percent uranium-235 if the feed was enriched to 1.4 percent uranium-235, double the 0.7 percent of natural uranium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth1945202-46">[46]</a> On 28 April, he wrote to Groves, pointing out that "the production of the <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12</a> plant could be increased by some 30 or 40 percent, and its enhancement somewhat improved, many months earlier than the scheduled date for <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a> production."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985176-47">[47]</a> Groves obtained permission from the Military Policy Committee to renew contact with the navy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> and on 31 May 1944 he appointed a review committee consisting of Murphree, Lewis, and his scientific advisor, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tolman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Tolman">Richard Tolman</a>, to investigate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985176-47">[47]</a> The review committee visited the Philadelphia pilot plant the following day. They reported that while Oppenheimer was fundamentally correct, his estimates were optimistic. Adding an additional two racks to the pilot plant would take two months, but would not produce enough feed to meet the requirements of the Y-12 electromagnetic plant at the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a>. They therefore recommended that a full-scale liquid thermal diffusion plant be built.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> Groves therefore asked Murphree on 12 June for a costing of a production plant capable of producing 50 kg of uranium enriched to between 0.9 and 3.0 percent uranium-235 per day. Murphree, Tolman, Cohen and Thompson estimated that a plant with 1,600 columns would cost $3.5 million. Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985177-48">[48]</a> and informed the Military Policy Committee that it would be operational by 1 January 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S50_Columns.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dozens of pipes, like a giant organ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/S50_Columns.jpg/170px-S50_Columns.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/S50_Columns.jpg/255px-S50_Columns.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/S50_Columns.jpg/340px-S50_Columns.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Diffusion columns, S-50 Liquid Thermal Diffusion plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1945</figcaption></figure> Sites at <a href="/wiki/Watts_Bar_Dam" title="Watts Bar Dam">Watts Bar Dam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_Shoals,_Alabama" title="Muscle Shoals, Alabama">Muscle Shoals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> were considered, but it was decided to build it at the Clinton Engineer Works, where water could be obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Clinch_River" title="Clinch River">Clinch River</a> and steam from the K-25 powerhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977303-49">[49]</a> The thermal diffusion project was codenamed S-50.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301-15">[15]</a> An S-50 Division was created at the Manhattan District headquarters in June under Lieutenant Colonel Mark C. Fox, with Major Thomas J. Evans, Jr., as his assistant with special authority for plant construction. Groves selected the H. K. Ferguson Company of <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, Ohio, as the prime construction contractor on its record of finishing jobs on time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985178-50">[50]</a> notably the <a href="/wiki/Prairie,_Mississippi" title="Prairie, Mississippi">Gulf Ordnance Plant</a> in Mississippi,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011175-51">[51]</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Cost-plus_contract" title="Cost-plus contract">cost plus fixed fee</a> contract. The H. A. Jones Construction Company would build the steam plant, with H. K. Ferguson as engineer-architect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977303-49">[49]</a> Although his advisors had estimated that it would take six months to build the plant, Groves gave H. K. Ferguson just four,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985178-50">[50]</a> and he wanted operations to commence in just 75 days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305-52">[52]</a> Groves, Tolman, Fox, and Wells N. Thompson from H. K. Ferguson, collected blueprints of the Philadelphia pilot from there on 26 June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011175-51">[51]</a> The production plant would consist of twenty-one 102-column racks, arranged in three groups of seven, a total of 2,142 48-foot (15 m) columns. Each rack was a copy of the Philadelphia pilot plant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304-53">[53]</a> The columns had to be manufactured to fine tolerances; ±0.0003 inches (0.0076 mm) for the diameter of the inner nickel tubes, and ±0.002 inches (0.051 mm) between the inner nickel tubes and the outer copper tubes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011175-51">[51]</a> The first orders for columns were placed on 5 July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305-52">[52]</a> Twenty-three companies were approached, and the Grinnell Company of <a href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence, Rhode Island</a>, and the Mehring and Hanson Company of Washington, D.C., accepted the challenge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304-53">[53]</a> Ground was broken at the site on 9 July 1944. By 16 September, with about a third of the plant complete, the first rack had commenced operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305-52">[52]</a> Testing in September and October revealed problems with leaking pipes that required further welding. Nonetheless, all racks were installed and ready for operations in January 1945. The construction contract was terminated on 15 February, and the remaining insulation and electrical work was assigned to other firms in the Oak Ridge area. They also completed the auxiliary buildings, including the new steam plant. The plant became fully operational in March 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985179-54">[54]</a> Construction of the new boiler plant was approved on 16 February 1945. The first boiler was started on 5 July 1945, and operations commenced on 13 July. Work was completed on 15 August 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305-52">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.30.529_(10444575983).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A factory on a river bend, viewed from across the river" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg/220px-HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg/330px-HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg/440px-HD.30.529_%2810444575983%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3800" data-file-height="2992" /></a><figcaption>The S-50 Thermal Diffusion Process Building is the dark building. In front is the steam plant. The building in the background with the chimneys is the K-25 powerhouse. In the foreground is the Clinch River.</figcaption></figure> The Thermal Diffusion Process Building (F01) was a black structure 522 feet (159 m) long, 82 feet (25 m) wide, and 75 feet (23 m) high. There was one control room and one transfer room for each pair of racks, except for the final one, which had its own control and transfer rooms for training purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985179-54">[54]</a> Four pumps drew 15,000 US gallons (57,000 L) per minute of cooling water from the Clinch River. Steam pumps were specially designed by Pacific Pumps Inc. The plant was designed to use the entire output of the K-25 powerhouse, but as K-25 stages came online there was competition for this. It was decided to build a new boiler plant. Twelve surplus 450 pounds per square inch (3,100 kPa) boilers originally intended for <a href="/wiki/Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">destroyer escorts</a> were acquired from the navy. The lower hot wall temperature due to the reduced steam pressure (450 pounds per square inch (3,100 kPa) instead of the 1,000 pounds per square inch (6,900 kPa) of the pilot plant) was compensated for by the ease of operation. Because they were oil-fired, a 6,000,000-US-gallon (23,000,000 L) oil tank farm was added, with sufficient storage to operate the plant for 60 days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304-53">[53]</a> In addition to the Thermal Diffusion Process Building (F01) and the new steam plant (F06) buildings, structures in the S-50 area included the <a href="/wiki/Pumping_station" title="Pumping station">pumping station</a> (F02), laboratories, a cafeteria, machine shop (F10), warehouses, a gas station, and a water treatment plant (F03).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> For security reasons, Groves wanted H. K. Ferguson to operate the new plant, but it was a <a href="/wiki/Closed_shop" title="Closed shop">closed shop</a>, and security regulations at the Clinton Engineer Works did not allow <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>. To get around this, H. K. Ferguson created a wholly owned <a href="/wiki/Subsidiary" title="Subsidiary">subsidiary</a>, the Fercleve Corporation (from Ferguson of Cleveland), and the Manhattan District contracted it to operate the plant for $11,000 a month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180-56">[56]</a> Operating personnel for the new plant were initially trained at the Philadelphia pilot plant. In August 1944, Groves, Conant and Fox asked ten <a href="/wiki/Enlisted_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlisted men">enlisted men</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Engineer_Detachment" title="Special Engineer Detachment">Special Engineer Detachment</a> (SED) at Oak Ridge for volunteers, warning that the job would be dangerous. All ten volunteered.<a href="#cite_note-Kramish-57">[57]</a> Along with four Fercleve employees, they were sent to Philadelphia to learn about the plant's operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985179-54">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.30.524_(10444340646).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dozens of pipes, like a giant organ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg/220px-HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg/330px-HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg/440px-HD.30.524_%2810444340646%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3808" data-file-height="3115" /></a><figcaption>Another view of the columns</figcaption></figure> On 2 September 1944, SED <a href="/wiki/Private_(rank)" title="Private (rank)">Private</a> <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Kramish" title="Arnold Kramish">Arnold Kramish</a>, and two civilians, Peter N. Bragg, Jr., an NRL chemical engineer, and Douglas P. Meigs, a Fercleve employee, were working in a transfer room when a 600-pound (270 kg) cylinder of uranium hexafluoride exploded, rupturing nearby steam pipes.<a href="#cite_note-Kramish-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atomic_Accidents-58">[58]</a> The steam reacted with the uranium hexafluoride to create <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a>, and the three men were badly burned. Private <a href="/wiki/John_D._Hoffman" title="John D. Hoffman">John D. Hoffman</a> ran through the toxic cloud to rescue them, but Bragg and Meigs died from their injuries. Another eleven men, including Kramish and four other soldiers, were injured but recovered. Hoffman, who suffered burns, was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Soldier%27s_Medal" title="Soldier's Medal">Soldier's Medal</a>, the United States Army's highest award for an act of valor in a non-combat situation, and the only one awarded to a member of the Manhattan District.<a href="#cite_note-Kramish-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atomic_Accidents-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003176–177-59">[59]</a> Bragg was posthumously awarded the <a href="/wiki/Navy_Meritorious_Civilian_Service_Award" title="Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Award">Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Award</a> on 21 June 1993.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford L. Warren</a>, the chief of the Manhattan District's Medical Section, removed the internal organs of the dead and sent them back to Oak Ridge for analysis. They were buried without them.<a href="#cite_note-Kramish-57">[57]</a> An investigation found that the accident was caused by the use of steel cylinders with nickel linings instead of seamless nickel cylinders because the army had pre-empted nickel production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003176–177-59">[59]</a> The Navy Hospital did not have procedures for the treatment of people exposed to uranium hexafluoride, so Warren's Medical Section developed them. Groves ordered a halt to training at the Philadelphia pilot plant, so Abelson and 15 of his staff moved to Oak Ridge to train personnel there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183-61">[61]</a> There were no fatal accidents at the production plant,<a href="#cite_note-Kramish-57">[57]</a> although it had a higher accident rate than other Manhattan Project production facilities due to the haste to get it into operation. When the crews attempted to start the first rack there was a loud noise and a cloud of vapor due to escaping steam. This would normally have resulted in a shutdown, but under the pressure to get the plant operational, the Fercleve plant manager had no choice but to press on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183-61">[61]</a> The plant produced just 10.5 pounds (4.8 kg) of 0.852% uranium-235 in October. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 it produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183-61">[61]</a> In normal operation, 1 pound (0.45 kg) of product was drawn from each circuit every 285 minutes. With four circuits per rack, each rack could produce 20 pounds (9.1 kg) per day.<a href="#cite_note-Top_Secret_Supplement-62">[62]</a> By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S-50 became the first stage, enriching from 0.71% to 0.89%. This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%. This was, in turn, fed into Y-12, which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962300–302-63">[63]</a> Total S-50 production was 56,504 pounds (25,630 kg).<a href="#cite_note-Top_Secret_Supplement-62">[62]</a> It was estimated that the S-50 plant had sped up production of enriched uranium used in the <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> bomb employed in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">atomic bombing of Hiroshima</a> by a week.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-64">[64]</a> "If I had appreciated the possibilities of thermal diffusion," Groves later wrote, "we would have gone ahead with it much sooner, taken a bit more time on the design of the plant and made it much bigger and better. Its effect on our production of U-235 in June and July 1945 would have been appreciable."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.30.528_(10444574903).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large dark-coloured rectangular building and a smaller building with three smokestacks. In the background is the river. The steam plant is a small building with two smokestacks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg/220px-HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg/330px-HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg/440px-HD.30.528_%2810444574903%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3777" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>S-50 area, looking towards the Clinch River. New steam plant and the oil storage tanks</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_years">Post-war years</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Post-war years">edit</a>]</div> Soon after the war ended in August 1945, Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Arthur_V._Peterson" title="Arthur V. Peterson">Arthur V. Peterson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-64">[64]</a> the Manhattan District officer with overall responsibility for the production of <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> material,<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> recommended that the S-50 plant be placed on stand-by. The Manhattan District ordered the plant shut down on 4 September 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-64">[64]</a> It was the only production-scale liquid thermal diffusion plant ever built, but its efficiency could not compete with that of a gaseous diffusion plant.<a href="#cite_note-NIOSH-66">[66]</a> The columns were drained and cleaned, and all employees were given two weeks' notice of impending <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">termination of employment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011179-42">[42]</a> All production had ceased by 9 September, and the last uranium hexafluoride feed was shipped to K-25 for processing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">Layoffs</a> began on 18 September. By this time, voluntary resignations had reduced the Fercleve payroll from its wartime peak of 1,600 workers to around 900. Only 241 remained at the end of September. Fercleve's contract was terminated on 31 October, and responsibility for the S-50 plant buildings was transferred to the K-25 office. Fercleve laid off the last employees on 16 February 1946.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011179-42">[42]</a> Starting May 1946, the S-50 plant buildings were utilised, not as a production facility, but by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a>' <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_for_the_Propulsion_of_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft">Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft</a> (NEPA) project. <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Aircraft" title="Fairchild Aircraft">Fairchild Aircraft</a> conducted a series of experiments there involving <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Workers also fabricated blocks of enriched uranium and <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIOSH-66">[66]</a> NEPA operated until May 1951, when it was superseded by the joint <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>-<a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion</a> project.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The S-50 plant was disassembled in the late 1940s. Equipment was taken to the K-25 powerhouse area, where it was stored before being salvaged or buried.<a href="#cite_note-NIOSH-66">[66]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196210–14-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196210–14_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196210–14_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 10–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986251–254-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986251–254_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 251–254. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986256–263-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986256–263_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 256–263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones198512-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones198512_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohrWheeler1939426–450-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBohrWheeler1939426–450_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBohrWheeler1939">Bohr & Wheeler 1939</a>, pp. 426–450. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199827–28-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelerFord199827–28_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWheelerFord1998">Wheeler & Ford 1998</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth194532-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmyth194532_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmyth1945">Smyth 1945</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986322–325-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986322–325_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 322–325. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196242-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196242_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–30-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–30_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrisch1979126-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrisch1979126_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrisch1979">Frisch 1979</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195119–22-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195119–22_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbelsonRosenHoover1951">Abelson, Rosen & Hoover 1951</a>, pp. 19–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapmanDootson1917248–253-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapmanDootson1917248–253_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChapmanDootson1917">Chapman & Dootson 1917</a>, pp. 248–253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapmanCowling1970268-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapmanCowling1970268_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChapmanCowling1970">Chapman & Cowling 1970</a>, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977">Brown & MacDonald 1977</a>, p. 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth1945161–162-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmyth1945161–162_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmyth1945">Smyth 1945</a>, pp. 161–162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClusiusDickel1938546-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClusiusDickel1938546_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClusiusDickel1938">Clusius & Dickel 1938</a>, p. 546. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011164–165_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, pp. 164–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986273–275-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986273–275_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 273–275. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelson1939418-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelson1939418_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbelson1939">Abelson 1939</a>, p. 418. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMillanAbelson19401185–1186-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMillanAbelson19401185–1186_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMillanAbelson1940">McMillan & Abelson 1940</a>, pp. 1185–1186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986348–351-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986348–351_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 348–351. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195129–31_23-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbelsonRosenHoover1951">Abelson, Rosen & Hoover 1951</a>, pp. 29–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977301–302_24-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977">Brown & MacDonald 1977</a>, pp. 301–302. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196266-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196266_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985173-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985173_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011168-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011168_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011169–170-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011169–170_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011169–170_28-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, pp. 169–170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves196223-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroves196223_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGroves1962">Groves 1962</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196275-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196275_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962169–170_32-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 169–170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003224–225_33-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhern2003">Ahern 2003</a>, pp. 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011170–171-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011170–171_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011170–171_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, pp. 170–171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962170–172_35-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 170–172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011172-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011172_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003226-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003226_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003226_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhern2003">Ahern 2003</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbelsonRosenHoover195133_38-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbelsonRosenHoover1951">Abelson, Rosen & Hoover 1951</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986551-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986551_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 551. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011173-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011173_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003231-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003231_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhern2003">Ahern 2003</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011179-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011179_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011179_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011179_42-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986552-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986552_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986552_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 552. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011174-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011174_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroves1962120_45-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGroves1962">Groves 1962</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmyth1945202-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmyth1945202_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmyth1945">Smyth 1945</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985176-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985176_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985176_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985177-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985177_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977303-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977303_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977303_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977">Brown & MacDonald 1977</a>, p. 303. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985178-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985178_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985178_50-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed2011175-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011175_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011175_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed2011175_51-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed2011">Reed 2011</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305_52-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977305_52-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977">Brown & MacDonald 1977</a>, p. 305. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304_53-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrownMacDonald1977304_53-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977">Brown & MacDonald 1977</a>, p. 304. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985179-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985179_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985179_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985179_54-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://k-25virtualmuseum.org/site-tour/powerhouse_map.html">"K-25 Virtual Museum – Site Tour"</a>. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 10 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=K-25+Virtual+Museum+%E2%80%93+Site+Tour&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fk-25virtualmuseum.org%2Fsite-tour%2Fpowerhouse_map.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985180_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramish-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramish_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramish_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramish_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramish_57-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramish_57-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramish1991" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Kramish" title="Arnold Kramish">Kramish, Arnold</a> (15 December 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1991/12/15/they-were-heroes-too/4d8b3356-b0c8-4f3c-be44-b3e8d7fcc90e/">"They Were Heroes Too"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Retrieved 9 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=They+Were+Heroes+Too&rft.date=1991-12-15&rft.aulast=Kramish&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fopinions%2F1991%2F12%2F15%2Fthey-were-heroes-too%2F4d8b3356-b0c8-4f3c-be44-b3e8d7fcc90e%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atomic_Accidents-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atomic_Accidents_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atomic_Accidents_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicheritage.org/history/atomic-accidents">"Atomic Accidents"</a>. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 9 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atomic+Accidents&rft.pub=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicheritage.org%2Fhistory%2Fatomic-accidents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhern2003176–177-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003176–177_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhern2003176–177_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhern2003">Ahern 2003</a>, pp. 176–177. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemical-engineering-academy.uark.edu/peter-n-bragg-jr/">"Peter N. Bragg, Jr"</a>. Arkansas Academy of Chemical Engineers. Retrieved 9 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Peter+N.+Bragg%2C+Jr.&rft.pub=Arkansas+Academy+of+Chemical+Engineers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchemical-engineering-academy.uark.edu%2Fpeter-n-bragg-jr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985180–183_61-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, pp. 180–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-Top_Secret_Supplement-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Top_Secret_Supplement_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Top_Secret_Supplement_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/includes/opennet/includes/MED_scans/Book%20VI%20-%20%20Liquid%20Thermal%20Diffusion%20(S-60)%20Project%20Top%20Secre.pdf">"Manhattan District History – Book VI Liquid Thermal Diffusion (S-50) Project – Secret Supplement"</a> (PDF). Department of Energy. Retrieved 10 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manhattan+District+History+%E2%80%93+Book+VI+Liquid+Thermal+Diffusion+%28S-50%29+Project+%E2%80%93+Secret+Supplement&rft.pub=Department+of+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fincludes%2Fopennet%2Fincludes%2FMED_scans%2FBook%2520VI%2520-%2520%2520Liquid%2520Thermal%2520Diffusion%2520%28S-60%29%2520Project%2520Top%2520Secre.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962300–302-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962300–302_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 300–302. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962624_64-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 624. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westportnow.com/index.php?/v2_5/comments/19843/">"Arthur V. "Pete" Peterson, Nuclear Pioneer, Dies at 95"</a>. Westport Now. Westport, Connecticut. 2 April 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Westport+Now&rft.atitle=Arthur+V.+%22Pete%22+Peterson%2C+Nuclear+Pioneer%2C+Dies+at+95&rft.date=2008-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westportnow.com%2Findex.php%3F%2Fv2_5%2Fcomments%2F19843%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIOSH-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIOSH_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIOSH_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIOSH_66-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ocas/pdfs/tbd/s50-r0.pdf">"Summary Site Profile for the S-50 Liquid Thermal Diffusion Project"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH). Retrieved 7 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summary+Site+Profile+for+the+S-50+Liquid+Thermal+Diffusion+Project&rft.pub=National+Institute+for+Occupational+Safety+and+Health+%28NIOSH%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Focas%2Fpdfs%2Ftbd%2Fs50-r0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecap.org/Covered_Facilities/Tennessee/S-50.htm">"Oak Ridge Thermal Diffusion Plant"</a>. Energy Employees Claimant Assistance Project. Retrieved 7 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oak+Ridge+Thermal+Diffusion+Plant&rft.pub=Energy+Employees+Claimant+Assistance+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eecap.org%2FCovered_Facilities%2FTennessee%2FS-50.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.megazone.org/ANP/">"The Decay of the Atomic Powered Aircraft Program"</a>. Megazone. Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 1993. Retrieved 7 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Megazone&rft.atitle=The+Decay+of+the+Atomic+Powered+Aircraft+Program&rft.date=1993&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.megazone.org%2FANP%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbelson1939" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Abelson, Philip</a> (1939). "Cleavage of the Uranium Nucleus". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 55 (4): 418. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...55..418A">1939PhRv...55..418A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.418">10.1103/PhysRev.55.418</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Cleavage+of+the+Uranium+Nucleus&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=418&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.55.418&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...55..418A&rft.aulast=Abelson&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonRosenHoover1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Abelson, Philip H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen" title="Nathan Rosen">Rosen, Nathan</a>; Hoover, John I., eds. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecap.org/PDF_Files/Tennessee/S-50/LiquidThermalDiffusion.pdf">Liquid Thermal Diffusion</a> (PDF). National Nuclear Energy series. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/631512">631512</a>. Retrieved 7 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liquid+Thermal+Diffusion&rft.place=Oak+Ridge%2C+Tennessee&rft.series=National+Nuclear+Energy+series&rft.pub=Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F631512&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eecap.org%2FPDF_Files%2FTennessee%2FS-50%2FLiquidThermalDiffusion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhern2003" class="citation journal cs1">Ahern, Joseph-James (2003). "'We Had the Hose Turned on Us!': Ross Gunn and the Naval Research Laboratory's Early Research into Nuclear Propulsion, 1939–1946". <a href="/wiki/Historical_Studies_in_the_Physical_and_Biological_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences">Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</a>. 33 (2): 217–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fhsps.2003.33.2.217">10.1525/hsps.2003.33.2.217</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/hsps.2003.33.2.217">10.1525/hsps.2003.33.2.217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies+in+the+Physical+and+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=%27We+Had+the+Hose+Turned+on+Us%21%27%3A+Ross+Gunn+and+the+Naval+Research+Laboratory%27s+Early+Research+into+Nuclear+Propulsion%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-236&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fhsps.2003.33.2.217&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fhsps.2003.33.2.217%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ahern&rft.aufirst=Joseph-James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohrWheeler1939" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Bohr, Niels</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler, John Archibald</a> (September 1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.426">"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 56 (5): 426–450. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...56..426B">1939PhRv...56..426B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.426">10.1103/PhysRev.56.426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Mechanism+of+Nuclear+Fission&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=426-450&rft.date=1939-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.56.426&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...56..426B&rft.aulast=Bohr&rft.aufirst=Niels&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+John+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.56.426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Cave_Brown" title="Anthony Cave Brown">Brown, A.C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._MacDonald" title="Charles B. MacDonald">MacDonald, C.B.</a>, eds. (1977). Secret History of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Dial Press/James Wade. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-440-57728-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-440-57728-4"><bdi>0-440-57728-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4433564013">4433564013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+History+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dial+Press%2FJames+Wade&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4433564013&rft.isbn=0-440-57728-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapmanDootson1917" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, S.; Dootson, F. W. (March 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/londonedinburg6331917lond#page/248/mode/2up/search/chapman">"A Note on Thermal Diffusion"</a>. Philosophical Magazine. 33 (6): 248–253.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+Note+on+Thermal+Diffusion&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=248-253&rft.date=1917-03&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Dootson%2C+F.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flondonedinburg6331917lond%23page%2F248%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2Fchapman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapmanCowling1970" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Sydney; Cowling, T. G. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicaltheo0000chap">The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases: an Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970mtnu.book.....C">1970mtnu.book.....C</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07577-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07577-0"><bdi>978-0-521-07577-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/615469776">615469776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mathematical+Theory+of+Non-uniform+Gases%3A+an+Account+of+the+Kinetic+Theory+of+Viscosity%2C+Thermal+Conduction+and+Diffusion+in+Gases&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F615469776&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970mtnu.book.....C&rft.isbn=978-0-521-07577-0&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft.au=Cowling%2C+T.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicaltheo0000chap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClusiusDickel1938" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Clusius" title="Klaus Clusius">Clusius, Klaus</a>; Dickel, Gerhard (August 1938). "Neues Verfahren zur Gasentmischung und Isotopentrennung". <a href="/wiki/Die_Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Naturwissenschaften">Die Naturwissenschaften</a> (in German). 26 (33): 546. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1938NW.....26..546C">1938NW.....26..546C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01675498">10.1007/BF01675498</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10633448">10633448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Neues+Verfahren+zur+Gasentmischung+und+Isotopentrennung&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=546&rft.date=1938-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10633448%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01675498&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1938NW.....26..546C&rft.aulast=Clusius&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft.au=Dickel%2C+Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrisch1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Frisch, Otto Robert</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatlittleiremem0000fris">What Little I Remember</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28010-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28010-5"><bdi>978-0-521-28010-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/911308407">911308407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Little+I+Remember&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F911308407&rft.isbn=978-0-521-28010-5&rft.aulast=Frisch&rft.aufirst=Otto+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatlittleiremem0000fris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroves1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Groves, Leslie</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nowitcanbetolds00grov">Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project</a>. New York: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-70738-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-70738-1"><bdi>0-306-70738-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/537684">537684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Now+It+Can+Be+Told%3A+The+Story+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F537684&rft.isbn=0-306-70738-1&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnowitcanbetolds00grov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf">The New World, 1939–1946</a> (PDF). University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>. Retrieved 26 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</a> (PDF). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillanAbelson1940" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">McMillan, Edwin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Abelson, Philip</a> (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.57.1185.2">"Radioactive Element 93"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 57 (12): 1185–1186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1940PhRv...57.1185M">1940PhRv...57.1185M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.57.1185.2">10.1103/PhysRev.57.1185.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Radioactive+Element+93&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1185-1186&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.57.1185.2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1940PhRv...57.1185M&rft.aulast=McMillan&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft.au=Abelson%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.57.1185.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed2011" class="citation journal cs1">Reed, B. Cameron (June 2011). "Liquid Thermal Diffusion during the Manhattan Project". <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_Perspective" title="Physics in Perspective">Physics in Perspective</a>. 13 (2): 161–188. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhP....13..161C">2011PhP....13..161C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00016-010-0039-0">10.1007/s00016-010-0039-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1422-6944">1422-6944</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195339137">195339137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+in+Perspective&rft.atitle=Liquid+Thermal+Diffusion+during+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-188&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00016-010-0039-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195339137%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1422-6944&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PhP....13..161C&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=B.+Cameron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb">The Making of the Atomic Bomb</a>. London: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7"><bdi>0-671-44133-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-671-44133-7&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmyth1945" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Smyth, Henry DeWolf</a> (1945). <a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/770285">770285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Energy+for+Military+Purposes%3A+The+Official+Report+on+the+Development+of+the+Atomic+Bomb+under+the+Auspices+of+the+United+States+Government%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F770285&rft.aulast=Smyth&rft.aufirst=Henry+DeWolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelerFord1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler, John Archibald</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_W._Ford" title="Kenneth W. Ford">Ford, Kenneth</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geonsblackholesq00whee">Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics</a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04642-7"><bdi>0-393-04642-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geons%2C+Black+Holes%2C+and+Quantum+Foam%3A+A+Life+in+Physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-393-04642-7&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+Archibald&rft.au=Ford%2C+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeonsblackholesq00whee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 (Manhattan Project)</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1944_ur/navy_ltd.htm">"The Navy and Thermal Diffusion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>. Retrieved 7 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Navy+and+Thermal+Diffusion&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fopennet%2Fmanhattan-project-history%2FEvents%2F1942-1944_ur%2Fnavy_ltd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://k-25virtualmuseum.org/site-tour/powerhouse_map.html">"K-25 Virtual Museum – Site Tour"</a>. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 10 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=K-25+Virtual+Museum+%E2%80%93+Site+Tour&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fk-25virtualmuseum.org%2Fsite-tour%2Fpowerhouse_map.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AS-50+%28Manhattan+Project%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:History of Science">History of Science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/21px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/42px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&oldid=1217012032">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&oldid=1217012032</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_in_Roane_County,_Tennessee" title="Category:Buildings and structures in Roane County, Tennessee">Buildings and structures in Roane County, Tennessee</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Category:History of the Manhattan Project">History of the Manhattan Project</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Isotope_separation_facilities_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Isotope separation facilities of the Manhattan Project">Isotope separation facilities of the Manhattan Project</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Category:Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_December_2016" title="Category:Use dmy dates from December 2016">Use dmy dates from December 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Featured_articles" title="Category:Featured articles">Featured articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 3 April 2024, at 08:24 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=S-50_(Manhattan_Project)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-znn46","wgBackendResponseTime":177,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.107","walltime":"1.363","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9984,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":134008,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12936,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":6,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":133274,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1164.049 1 -total"," 31.04% 361.377 112 Template:Sfn"," 12.60% 146.684 1 Template:Reflist"," 8.82% 102.669 9 Template:Cite_web"," 8.71% 101.399 1 Template:Manhattan_Project"," 8.49% 98.817 1 Template:Navbox"," 7.14% 83.096 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.85% 79.781 117 Template:Main_other"," 6.85% 79.681 1 Template:Coord"," 5.48% 63.734 10 Template:Cite_book"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.679","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9990993,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbelson1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbelsonRosenHoover1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhern2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBohrWheeler1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownMacDonald1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmanCowling1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmanDootson1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClusiusDickel1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrisch1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroves1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramish1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMillanAbelson1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReed2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmyth1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheelerFord1998\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Chem\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 37,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Manhattan Project\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 112,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-s7hrh","timestamp":"20241122142549","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"S-50 (Manhattan Project)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7387043","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7387043","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-01-10T05:38:57Z","dateModified":"2024-04-03T08:24:37Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/db\/Thermal_Diffusion_Process_Building_%28F01%29_at_S-50_completed.jpg","headline":"Manhattan Project uranium enrichment facility"}</script> </body> </html>